Introduction to δij and ²ijk

These notes constitute an accelerated introduction to some tricks that will enable you to do
vector manipulations in three dimensions efficiently (and, in my opinion, elegantly). They
will be based on two tensors; we will not bother to define tensors now, just note that they
will have more than one index(subscript) in contrast to a vector which has one, vi , where
i = 1, 2, 3 represent the three cartesian components. It is convenient to use numbers than
letters as in x, y, z.
We introduce first the so-called Kronecker delta function δij which is defined to be equal
to 1 if the two indices are the same and 0 otherwise. This tensor is symmetric under the
exchange of the two indices, i.e.,
δij = δji .
Consider the unit vectors êi along the three axes; they are orthogonal to each other and have
unit magnitude; Clearly, the nine relations can be compactly summarized by the equation

êi · êj = δij .

We will also employ (occasionally) the Einstein summation convention: repeated indices
are assumed to be summed over the three values they can take. For example,

~a · ~b = ai bi
P
The symbol 3i=1 is suppressed in the interest of compactness: suppress summation signs
and save a tree! We can also write ~a = ai êi .

Quiz : Quick, What is δii ? Do not forget that we are summing over i.

Exercise 1: Show that X

δij δik = δjk .
i

Next we recall that

ê1 × ê2 = ê3
ê2 × ê1 = − ê3
and its cyclic permutations and ê1 × ê1 = 0 and its two counterparts. These nine equations
can be summarized by introducing the so-called Levi-Civita1 or completely antisymmetric
tensor, ²ijk ; note that the subscripts can take on 27 values: 3 × 3 × 3. It is defined as follows:

²123 = ²231 = ²312 = 1

i.e, cyclic permutations of 123 yield the same value while

²132 = ²213 = ²321 = − 1

1
Tullio Levi-Civita (1873-1941) is best known for developing the calculus of tensors in a famous book with
Ricci; this was used by Einstein in his work on general relativity.

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and it vanishes if any two of the indices are the same; for example,

²112 = ²121 = ²211 = 0

and 21 values vanish. This defines all the 27 values. Note that the tensor is antisymmetric
under the exchange of any two indices. This statement along with ²123 = 1 defines the tensor.
Make sure you understand this ! For example

²112 = −²112

since it is antisymmetric under the interchange of the first two indices which obviously means
that ²112 = 0, etc., etc.
Now it is easy to check that
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X
êi × êj = ²ijk êk ≡ ²ijk êk .
k=1

Write this out in detail for i = 1, j = 2 and some other possibilities to verify that this agrees
with our previous equations.
Now let us verify some trivial facts in vector algebra and this will enable us to learn two
of the more useful tricks in employing these tensors.

0) We have X X
ai bj δij = ai bi = ~a · ~b .
i,j i

The ith component of ~a × ~b is given by

³ ´ X
~a × ~b = ²ijk aj bk . (1)
i
j,k

Please convince yourself of this. All the sums run from 1 to 3 and this will not be indicated
explicitly.

1) It follows that X
~a · (~b × ~c) = ²ijk ai bj ck .
i,j,k

Now X
~a · (~a × ~c) = ²ijk ai aj ck
i,j,k

and the right-hand-side vanishes for an “obvious” reason (not obvious the first time, per-
haps): It involves a sum on i and j (and k but that is not crucial now); while the term ai aj
is symmetric under the interchange of i and j, ²ijk is antisymmetric and this automatically
implies that the sum vanishes. Be absolutely sure you understand this important fact; the
sum over two indices of a product of a term symmetric in the two indices and another that
is antisymmetric in the same two indices vanishes. For each fixed k write out the sum over
the indices i and j explicitly. To belabor it note that whatever k may be you will get pairs
of terms of the form ²12k a1 a2 + ²21k a2 a1 which is zero and similarly all the other pairs of i

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and j vanish. This can be used effectively as we shall see soon.

Trick 2: This is a very useful lemma:

X
²ijk ²ilm = δjl δkm − δjm δkl ; (2)
i

The indices j, k, l, m are free and therefore the above equation corresponds to 3×3×3×3 = 81
relations ! These can be verified in a straightforward way; out of these 81, 45 correspond
to j = k or l = m or both; in this case by the antisymmetry of the Levi-Civita tensor the
left-hand-side vanishes; it is easy to check that the right-hand side vanishes because both
terms are the same; use the result of Exercise 1. You should also see this by picking specific
values: l = m = 1, j = 2, and k = 1, for example. In the other 36 cases j 6= k and l 6= m; now
the left-hand-side is antisymmetric under the interchange of j and k as is the right-hand-side
(it changes sign too!); a similar result holds for l and m; so you only have to choose each of
the pairs jk and lm to be 12, 23, and 31. These 9 cases can be verified individually.
Use this lemma to check the bac − cab rule:
X
[~a × (~b × ~c)]i = ²ijk aj (~b × ~c)k (3)
j,k

this should be obvious if you look upon ~b × ~c as another vector. Now rewrite (~b × ~c)k using
the ² symbol as ²klm bl cm . Using this we have
X
[~a × (~b × ~c)]i = ²ijk aj (~b × ~c)k
j,k
X X
= ²ijk aj ²klm bl cm
j,k l,m
X
= ²kij ²klm aj bl cm . (4)
j,k,l,m

where we have used the cyclic nature of the ² symbol. Now use the lemma verified earlier
using the summation convention:

²kij ²klm aj bl cm = (δil δjm − δim δjl )aj bl cm

= bi (aj cj ) − ci (aj bj )
= bi (~a · ~c) − ci (~a · ~b) (5)

which is just wished we wanted to demonstrate.

Indeed, if one proves the result for ~a × (~b × ~c) independently, as is usually done, then one
can use this result to verify our lemma ! Complete this argument.

Exercise: Show that

(~a × ~b) · (~c × d)

~ = (~a · ~c)(~b · d)
~ − (~a · d)(
~ ~b · ~c)

Try this before looking at the solution below:

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 Solution:
X³ ´ ³ ´
(~a × ~b) · (~c × d)
~ = ~a × ~b ~c × d~
i i
i
  
X X X
=  ²ijk aj bk   ²ilm cl dm  
i j,k l,m
X
= (δjl δkm − δjm δkl )aj bk cl dm
j,k,l,m
X X X X
= aj cj bk dk − aj dj bk ck
j k j k

= (~a · ~c)(~b · d)
~ − (~a · d)(
~ ~b · ~c) . (6)

The third line is obtained from the second line by setting j = l and k = m in the first term
etc. I hope you are getting convinced of the utility of this method. The only way to appreci-
ate this and become proficient at it is “Practice, Practice, Practice ” (as the gentleman said
to the young person who asked “How do I get to Carnegie Hall ?”) Just try and prove the
various vector analysis identities in Griffiths.