ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

TTA 005

Steven J. Thorpe

Department of Aeronautical & Automotive Engineering

Loughborough University
Leicestershire
LE113TU

© Copyright
This report may not be reproduced in whole or in part without the written
permission of the author
 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

NOTES FOR A FIRST YEAR COURSE

CONTENTS

1. Thermodynamics Fundamentals

2. Air Standard Cycles for IC Engines

3. Heat Transfer

4. Tutorial Sheets

5. Past Exam Papers

 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Section 1 : Thermodynamic Fundamentals

• Introduction and definitions

• General properties of gases

• Daltons law of partial pressures

• Specific heats

• First law of thermodynamics, non flow processes

• Work and reversibility

• Heat and reversibility

• Steady flow energy equation for open systems

• Stagnation properties and flow measurements

• Second law of thermodynamics

• Entropy

• List of symbols

• Main thermodynamic equations

• Engine performance definitions and equations

 THERMODYNAMICS

Introduction

The science of Thermodynamics is a formalisation of principles governing the relationships between

the properties of a system and its heat and work exchanges with its surroundings.

A knowledge of thermodynamics is essential for the analysis of 'heat engines' - machines which
convert chemical or nuclear energy into useful work. Examples of other applications of this science
are: Steam turbines, Boilers, Cooling Towers and Heat Exchangers.

Much of the subject is concerned with the behaviour of matter. On a microscopic scale matter is
composed of a large number of small particles and studies conducted at a microscopic level are
called 'Statistical Thermodynamics'. Engineers are usually concerned with 'classical' or 'engineering'
thermodynamics which is the study of the general behaviour of relatively large quantities of matter
(i.e. making observations on a macroscopic scale relative to the human senses, when matter is
perceived to be homogeneous and continuous). However, it is often useful to keep in mind the
microscopic structure of matter when trying to comprehend new phenomena.

1
Some Important Definitions

System Region in space containing a quantity of matter whose behaviour is to be

investigated. A system is fully defined by
a. Fluid Type
b. Its boundary
c. Mass of Fluid

Fluid A substance which always continues to deform when subjected to, shear
stresses, e.g. a gas (air), a vapour (steam), a liquid (water) or any,
combination of these.

Boundary Separates the system from the surroundings and can be either tangible or
imaginary. It is across the boundary that Work and Heat are . transferred.

Surroundings Outside the system (i.e. outside the boundary) but sufficiently close to be
affected by changes within the system.

Closed System No movement of matter into or out of the system (non-flow process)

Open System Matter crosses the boundary (flow process).

Property A quantity describing the system, e.g. a linear dimension, colour or

pressure. From the standpoint of thermodynamics many properties are
irrelevant and it can be a practical difficulty deciding which properties are
of interest. Further, the thermodynamic properties of many fluids are not
independent of each other.

2
State Condition of a system as defined by the relevant properties, e.g. the air in a
room could be described by its volume, pressure and temperature. More
complex formulations might involve concentrations of constituent gases.
Two independent thermodynamic properties are required to define the
state of the system.

Heat (Q) Is the transitory energy exchanged due to a difference in temperature

between a system and its surroundings. If the direction of heat transfer is
into the system, the quantity is said to be positive; whilst if heat is
transferred from the system to the surroundings it is said to be negative.
Note that heat is never contained in a system and is not a property.

Work (W) Is the transitory energy transfer due to a movement of a part of the
boundary under the action of a force. Work transfer from the system to
the surroundings is. defined as positive. Note that work is never
contained in a system and is not a property.

Internal Energy The energy contained within a system. Internal energy is a property.
(U) The internal energy will be affected by changes in temperature and any
chemical or nuclear reactions.

Equilibrium A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium when no changes of state are

taking place, i.e. no changes of matter, energy or chemical composition.

(A system is most easily described when it is in a state of equilibrium, since

all the fluid properties are steady and uniform)

Specific These are per unit mass. For example specific work output is the work
Quantities output per kg of fluid in the system.

Energy Molecules may absorb energy in more than the kinetic vibration form, i.e.
atoms may revolve about the centre of a molecule or they may vibrate with
respect to one another. The latter two forms of energy may not have any
effect on the measured temperature - although they may vary with it. We
describe the energy associated with the vibration, spin and translational
movement of the constituent particles as Random Energy. Other forms of
energy are, for example, Potential, Kinetic, Chemical and Nuclear.

Process. Transition of the system from one state to another. Whilst changing states
a real system cannot be at equilibrium. However, if the process is
sufficiently slow, the system may be assumed to pass through a series of
equilibrium states.

3
Cycle . A closed, system completes a cyclic process or cycle when it passes
through a series of states in such a way that its final state is equal in every
respect to its initial state.

4
 General Properties of Gases

Introduction

A gas is composed of a collection of particles which move randomly at high speed (typically
1000mIs at room temperature). The term particle is being used to describe the smallest part
of any gas which still retains the properties of the substance. Two points should be noted:

i) If the substance is a chemical compound, for example Propane which has chemical
formula C3H8, then the particle comprises several atoms chemically bonded together
and is called a molecule. Hence, each propane molecule would comprise 3 atoms of
Carbon and 8 of Hydrogen.

ii) When the gas is a chemical element - (Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen etc) it is most
likely to be encountered in diatomic form, i.e. each particle is a molecule which
contains two atoms. However, at high temperatures, such as those found in
combustion products, these gases can exist in monatomic form - each particle being
a single atom. In addition atoms of the Inert Gases ( Argon and Neon for example)
are reluctant to form chemical bonds with other atoms and so these are always found
in monatomic form.

Kinetic Theory

The Kinetic Theory of Gases is an attempt to theoretically model the behaviour of any gas by
analysing the motion of its particles. The analysis is limited to Perfect Gases which are
hypothetical substances in which:

a) Particles are perfectly rigid, hence all collisions are perfectly elastic (no loss
of momentum)

b) The total volume occupied by the particles is negligible when compared with the
total volume occupied by the gas - (resulting in a large mean free path)

c) There are no attractive or repulsive forces between the particles

By considering the change in momentum of particles as they bounce off the walls of a
container, simple mathematical manipulation yields

2 NkT
p
3 V
Where

P = absolute pressure
T = absolute temperature
V = container volume
N = number of particles in volume V
K = constant

5
 Boyle and Charles carried out constant temperature and constant pressure experiments
respectively, and deduced two laws which are consistent with the kinetic theory, i.e.

pV = constant (Boyle’s Law)

and

V/T = constant (Charles’ Law)

Characteristic equation of state (Perfect Gases)

The mass, m, of a given amount of gas must be proportional to the number

of molecules/atoms present. Hence the Kinetic Theory yields

pV = mRT

where

2
mR = kN
3

and R, the characteristic gas constant, has a different value for each gas

(e.g. for air R = 287 J/kg K)

The Kinetic Theory, Boyle's Law and Charles' Law all describe a Perfect Gas.
However this is a hypothetical entity since our assumptions about the behaviour of
molecules are not strictly true. At first sight
Real gases

i) The assumption that collisions between particles are perfectly elastic seems
reasonable since no loss in pressure is observed when a gas is kept in a closed
vessel for long periods of time (i.e. No loss of particle momentum).

ii) The assumption that particles are of negligible size seems reasonable since a
gas is readily compressed.

iii) The assumption that attractive forces between particles are negligible seems
reasonable since a gas readily expands to fill all the available space.

One set of substances which do closely obey the perfect gas law are the permanent
gases (i.e. O2, H2, N2 etc) but only at high temperatures and low pressures.

At low temperatures and high pressures the particles are much closer together,
thus assumptions ii) and iii) are less valid, and deviations from pv = RT can
be observed.

6
Relative Atomic/Molecular Mass ( A R and M R )

It is usual to express the mass of an atom of a particular substance relative to the

Unified Atomic Mass, u rather than in absolute terms. The atomic mass scale in
common use attributes a particular Isotope of Carbon (C-12) with a value AR = 12.
Hence the Unified Atomic Mass

Mass of C - 12 atom
u  1.66 x10  27 kg
12

Most elements have values of A R which can be considered with reasonable accuracy
to be integer values (e.g. H = 1, N = 14, 0 = 16). Relative molecular mass is also
expressed relative to u and so, for example, Oxygen (O2) has a value M R = 32 whilst
Propane (C3H8) has a value of 44.

Avogadro’s Law

Avogadro stated that Equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of particles
when at the same temperature and pressure.

3
Proof From Kinetic Theory we have N  k  pV / T 
2

Kilogram-mol

The term Mol (or Mole) is used as a measure of the amount of substance and
represents a fixed number, NA, of molecules or atoms. However, in order to be
meaningful it must be pre-fixed by a unit of mass which using SI units results in the
kilogram-mol (often written as kgmol or kmol). In this case NA, which is known as
Avogadro's Constant, has a value of 6.022 x 1026 and is specifically chosen so that 1
kgmol of carbon (relative atomic mass = 12) has a mass of 12kg. Clearly, the molar
mass M, of any substance must be numerically equal to its atomic mass or its
molecular mass - whichever is appropriate. It follows that 1 kgmol of a particular gas
always has the same mass, whilst its volume, vo varies with p and T.

i.e.
m  M .n

where
m = mass(kg)
M = molar ass (kg/kgmol)
n = number of mols (kgmol)

e.g. 1kgmol of C = 12kg

7
Universal Gas Constant

Considering 1kgmol of substance which has molar mass M and noting that generally
pVo = mRT we can write

pv o = MRT

or

pvo/T = MR

where

V
v o  molar volume 
n

Hence, for any particular gas pvo/T always has the same value since both molar mass,
M and R are constants. But Avogadro states that for given values of pressure and
temperature vo always has the same value, irrespective of which gas is being
considered. Consequently pvo/ T and hence MR is always constant and we write

MR = Ro

where Ro is the universal gas constant and has value 8314 J/kgmol K.

Note: The value of R for any gas can be calculated from a knowledge of its relative
atomic or molecular mass and the value of Ro.

Various forms of equations of state

It should now be clear that the equation of state can be listed in many forms, some of
the most common ones are:

pv = RT (v = specific volume, i.e. per unit mass)

pV = mRT
pvo = MRT (vo = molar volume, M = molar mass)
pvo = RoT
pV = nRoT (n = Total number of kgmols)

8
 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Dalton's Law states that the pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures, pi of the i constituents. (Note The partial pressure of any individual gas is the pressure
which it would exert when occupying the same volume as the mixture and at the same temperature).

This law, which is based on experimental results, can be predicted using the kinetic theory as
follows

ni RoT
pi 
V
where

pi = partial pressure of gas i

and
ni = number of kgmols of gas i

Gas A Gas B Gas C Mixture

V,T V,T V,T V,T

pA + pB + pC = p
nA nB nC n

Accounting for each constituent we have

ni RoT
 pi   V
i i

Bur during mixing the total number of molecules (or atoms when dealing with a monatomic gas) and
hence the number of kgmols remains unchanged. Hence

n i  n when n = number of kgmols of mixture, giving

ni RoT
 pi   V
p
i i

Molar Fraction

From above we have

RoT RoT
pi  ni and p  n
V V

By comparison, the partial pressure of any constituent

ni ni
pi  p where is the molar fraction of constituent i
n n

9
 Volumetric Analysis
Avogaro's Law could be written as ‘ At a given temperature and pressure the volume occupied by a
gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules present - with the constant of proportionality
being the same for all gases.’ It follows that each constituent in a mixture of gases occupies a
fraction of the total volume which is equivalent to its molar fraction.

Specific Heats
The specific heat, c, of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to cause unit
temperature rise in unit mass. Hence, if q is the heat transfer per kg of fluid

dq
c J / kg K
dT

However, the amount of heat absorbed depends upon the nature of the process, and not just the
change in temperature. In practice we use values of c which relate to two particular processes
namely, those which take place at either constant volume or constant pressure. These give:

 dq 
cv    (= Specific heat at constant volume)
 dT v

and

 dq 
cp    (= Specific heat at constant pressure)
 dT  p

Relationships between Cp and Cv

It can easily be shown that cp and cv are related by the equations

c p  cv  R J / kg K 
where
R = Characteristic Gas Constant

or multiplying by the molar mass, M we get

c po  cv o  Ro ( J / kgmol K )

also, the ratio c p / cv occurs so often that it has its own symbol 

c p / cv  C po 
/ cvo  γ γ  1.0 

  1  R / cv

For air,  is about 1.4 at room temperature

10
Temperature Effects

Unfortunately the values of cp and cv for a particular gas vary slightly with temperature.
Usually their values can be accurately represented by a polynomial expansion in T which
allows straightforward mathematical manipulation of any equations in which they appear.
When considering processes in which temperature changes are modest it is usually possible
to assume that cp and cv are constant and have values corresponding to the average
temperature.

First Law of Thermodynamics

When analysing a closed system we draw an imaginary boundary around a fixed mass of
fluid. This boundary can be distorted but no fluid is allowed to cross it, either into or out of the
system. By considering the conservation of energy during any process from state 1 or state 2
we arrive at the First Law

q  w  u

or, considering infinitesimal values of q , w and u , dq  dw  du

where

q = specific heat transfer. (By convention this has a positive value

when heat is supplied to the system)

w = specific work, and is positive when the system does work on

the surroundings

u = specific internal energy. This can be considered to be thermal

energy and is associated with the \kinetic and Potential
Energies of the nuclear, atomic and sub-atomic particles.

For a cycle or cyclic process, Δu  0 and hence

q w  0

11
 Work and Reversibility

Reversible Process

We have met the non-flow energy equation, q-w = Δu = u2-u1 and noted that we can use
specific properties because the end states are in thermodynamic equilibrium.

For a particular class of processes which are reversible we imagine the system to pass
through a continuous series of equilibrium states. In this case we consider any infinitesimal
part of the process and can write

dq - dw = du

(Once again we can use specific values if desired since the system properties are always
uniform)

Work During a Reversible Process

The analysis of a reversible process can be carried out by considering it as a series of

infinitesimal processes - the overall changes which occur between the end states being
calculated by integration. In particular, the work done by a closed system can be expressed
in terms of the fluid pressure and volume as follows

Consider a small expansion from one equilibrium state to another which occurs because of
an infinitesimally small change in the externally applied force. i.e F is slightly smaller than
pA. The piston moves a short distance, dx

12
The work done by the system is dW = pAdx = pdV where dV is the resulting small change
in volume. If the process continues in this way through a series of equilibrium states, it can
be represented as a continuous line on a p-V diagram.

The total work done

2 2
W  1 dW  1 pdV
(This is equal to the total area under the p-V curve between states 1 and 2).

A reversible process is so called because the system may be returned to its original state by
simply reversing the work transfer, i.e. in this case

1
W  2 pdV
However, in order to achieve this the force differences (pA compared with F) must be
infinitesimally small in order that the movement of the piston is infinitesimally slow. This.
ensures that no pressure gradients or eddies are set up within the system and so its
properties can be considered uniform.

i.e. A reversible process is a hypothetical ideal.

In any real process

W   pdV
the work done by a system, for example, is always less than the area under the p-V curve.

As suggested above, a reversible process is an ideal one which delivers the maximum
possible work

Wrev   pdV

It follows that the work done during a real compression is always greater than the minimum
value, Wrev , required if the process is reversible.

13
 Heat and Reversibility

Heat Reservoir

That part of the surroundings which exchanges heat energy with the system is called a heat
reservoir and is either a source or sink of heat. A reservoir is usually so large that any heat
transfer does not change its temperature.

If heat transfer takes place due to a large temperature difference between the system and
surroundings there will be a temperature gradient within the system fluid. This non-
equilibrium condition occurs because the rate of heat flow is so high as to cause the fluid
near the boundary to be hotter than that in more remote regions. However, if an infinitesimal
temperature difference can be maintained between the system and surroundings reversible
heat transfer takes place and the direction of heat flow can be reversed by an infinitesimally
small change in source temperature.

Heat Transfer for a Closed System

Referring to the definition of the specific heats cp and cv, (above) it can be seen that the heat
transfer during constant pressure and constant volume processes are, respectively

q   c pdT and q   cv dT

For all other types of process involving a closed system q is calculated by finding the values
of w and Δu (see below) and then applying the first law.

Calculation of Δu (no chemical or nuclear reactions)

Consider the heating of a gas at constant volume

1st Law gives

dq  dw  du

but dw  0 dq  cv dT   du

2
hence  u12   cv dT
1

It can be shown that u is a function of temperature only, and so this relationship holds good
for all processes - not just those for which the volume remains constant

14
Enthalpy

Consider a closed system which exchanges heat with the surroundings and also does work
such that the pressure remains constant

1st Law gives dq  du  pdv

hence dq  du  d  pv 

since p  constant

hence  
dq  c pdT  d u  pv 

The group of properties (u + pv) occurs so often in thermodynamics. that it is given its own
name - Enthalpy, with symbol h . Generally, if any fluid undergoes a process from state 1 to
state 2, the change in enthalpy is always given by

2
h2  h1   c pdT
1

Since h is a combination of properties, it is itself a property.

Although introduced here for convenience, h is encountered most often when considering an
open system - see below.

Note that the internal energy and enthalpy defined above ignore chemical and nuclear
reactions. When combustion occurs for example, additional terms to account for the change
in chemical energy have to be included

Reversible Adiabatic Process

A process which occurs often in Engineering in general and Internal Combustion (Piston and
Gas Turbine) Engines in-particular is. the adiabatic process, i.e. one in which no heat
transfer occurs between the working fluid and the surroundings. Since q = 0, any work done
by the system is at the expense of internal energy (closed systems) or the sum of enthalpy
kinetic energy (open systems). An adiabatic process which can also be considered to be
reversible is often termed Isentropic (constant entropy) and is described by the equation

pV γ  constant
For a perfect gas, we can obtain (using the equation of state)

γ
γ
 p2   V1   T  γ 1
       2 
 p1   V2   T1 
γ 1
 T2   V1 
    
 T1   V2 
15
 also

2 2 dV
w 1 pdV  constant 1 Vγ
2
V 1- γ  p2V2γ  V21  γ  p1V1γV11  γ
 constant   
 1  γ  1γ
p V  p2V2 p1V1  p2V2
w 1 1 or w 
γ 1 γ 1

Alternatively for a perfect gas

w  u1  u2

 Cv T1  T2 

R T1  T2  mR T1  T2 
w  or w
γ 1 γ 1

Isentropic Efficiency

For compression process w > wrev

w rev T   T1
ηisen   2
w actual T2  T1

T2'  T1 x p2 / p1 
 1  / 
where T2’ is the value based on an Isentropic process, given by

For expansion process w < wrev

w actual T2  T1
ηisen  
w rev T2  T1

Note: The temperature at the end of an irreversible process will always be higher than that
for a reversible process over the same pressure ratio

16
Polytropic Process

The compression/expansion process may not be adiabatic. However, providing it can be

assumed to be reversible, it can be approximated by a polytropic process defined by

pV n  constant

where n is the polytropic index

Hence an adiabatic process is a special case with n  

We can therefore write

n
 p2   T2  n 1
    
 p1   T1 

p1V1  p2V2 R T1  T2 

w 
n 1 n 1

p1V1  p2V2 mR T1  T2 

or w 
n 1 n 1

Special Cases

n=0 constant pressure process n=  adiabatic process

n=1 constant temperature process n=  constant volume process

Note: that for n=1 (isothermal process) cannot find work from equation above but use

V  V  V 
w  p1V1In 2   p2V2 In 2  or RT In 2  perfect gas 
 V1   V1   V1 

17
Flow Process (Open Systems)

So far we have only discussed processes in which no fluid crosses the system boundary.
When we developed the First Law with reference to a closed system we noted that although
the total energy of the system E = K.E + P.E + U, the kinetic and potential energies of the
bulk fluid were of little interest since they remained constant.

We now consider open systems, in which the kinetic and potential energies can vary
between the system inlet and exit, and will again use the First Law in order to derive an
appropriate energy equation

Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)

Flow processes may be steady or non-steady. We confine our attention to steady processes
in which the mass flow rate and all fluid properties (e.g. p, T, u, v, c etc) are constant, with
time, at any point in the system.

In order to analyse an open system we construct an imaginary closed system which is

assumed to undergo a process during which it deforms from state a) to state b) in time dt.
The amount of heat input is dQ and shaft work done by the system = dW. Clearly, a steady
flow process is made up of a whole series of such non-flow processes and it should be noted
that the energy stored within the shaded area, E’ is always constant.

18
First Law

For any system Q  W  E (1)

a) System Energy, E

At time, t, taking energy in mass dm=E1

Total system energy = E’ + E1

But
C12
E1  dm.u1  dm.  dm.g .z1
2

At time (t + dt)

Total system energy = E'  E 2

where
C22
E 2  dm .u2  dm.  dm .g .z2
2

b) Work

Shaft work done by system = +dw

Meanwhile the system does Flow Work in order to displace its boundary at position
2, i.e.

dW2   p2 A2 dx

  p2V2

  p2v 2 dm
Similarly the surroundings do work on the system equal to p1v1dm or, adhering to our
sign convention, the system does work given by

dW1  p1v 1dm

19
 c) Heat Transfer

Heat transferred from surroundings to system =dQ

Energy Equation: Substituting for Q, W and ΔE in equation (1)

dQ  dW  dW1  dW2   E'  E 2   E'  E1 

i.e.
dQ  dW  dm p1v 1  p2v 2 

 C2   C2 
 dm  u2  2  gz2   dm  u1  1  gz1 
 2   2 

Letting q and w be specific heat flow and specific work, i.e.

q  dQ and w  dW and rearranging gives
dm dm

 C 2  C12 
q  w  u2  p2 v 2   u1  p1v 1    2   g z2  z1 
 2 

Noting that (u + pv)is specific enthalpy, h, we can write the steady flow energy
equation (SFEE) as

 C 2  C12 
q  w  h2  h1    2   g z2  z1 
 2 
or
 C 2  C12 
q  w  c p T2  T1    2   g z2  z1 
 2 
in terms of rate quantities, we may write

  C 2  C12  
 c p T2  T1    2
Q  W  m   g z2  z1 
 2 
   

Equation for Continuity of Mass

20
 For any steady flow process, such as a fluid passing through the pipe above, the properties
at any point do not vary with time and the mass flowing into the system must be. equal to the
mass flowing out, i.e.

1  m
m 2 or ρ1V1  ρ2V2
giving
1 A1C1   2 A2C2

 and V are the mass and volumetric flow rates.

where m

Stagnation Properties
Adiabatic flow in a streamtube

Consider the adiabatic flow along a streamtube between stations 1 and 2. In order to obtain the
relevant energy equation for this system we note

a) Flow is adiabatic - hence Q = 0

b) There is no movement of a system boundary – i.e. W = 0
c) Potential Energy of the bulk fluid is constant (z1 = z2)

The steady flow energy equation simplifies to

 C 2  C12 
c p T2  T1    2   0
 2 
Hence
C22 C12
T2   T1 
2C p 2C p
or, more generally,
C2
T  constant (2)
2C p

21
 Second Law of Thermodynamics

One form of the Second Law states

No engine operating in a cycle can convert all the heat energy it absorbs into useful work

Consequently, every engine must reject some heat energy at some point in its thermodynamic cycle.
It follows that, even if there are no mechanical or pumping losses, no engine could be 100%
efficient. This can be demonstrated by considering the Carnot cycle which gives the best possible
efficiency for an engine whose working cycle operates between fixed maximum and minimum
temperatures.

Carnot Cycle

It is possible to link a series of processes together in order to form a thermodynamic cycle. If

such a cycle is to be reversible, or ideal, each individual process must be reversible. The
original conception of a reversible cycle was devised by Sadi Carnot in 1824 with reference
to a closed system operating with a series of non-flowing processes (e.g. a piston in a
cylinder).

Heat is transferred between the engines and two reservoirs maintained at temperatures TH
and TC. The cycle comprises four processes

1-2 Isothermal compression at a temperature of TC

2-3 Adiabatic compression
3-4 Isothermal expansion at a temperature of TH
4-1 Adiabatic expansion

Considering unit mass and using the convention that both q1 and q2 have positive values, the
Carnot efficiency is given by

w q1  q2
ηc   (1)
q1 q1

22
to find q1 and q2

v 
q1  w 34  RTH 1n 4  (2)
 v3 
Similarly

v 
q2  w 12  RTC 1n 1  (3)
 v2 

Combining (1),(2) and (3) gives

v  v 
RTH 1n 4   RTC 1n 1 
ηc   v3   v2 
v 
RTH 1n 4 
 v3 

But generally, for an adiabatic process

γ 1
Tb  v a 
 
Ta  v b 

Hence, for processes 2-3 and 4-1

γ 1 γ 1
TC  v 3  v 
    4 
TH  v 2   v1 

giving

v3 v4 v v
 or 1  4
v 2 v1 v2 v3

hence

TH  TC T
ηc  1 C
TH TH

Thus, the efficiency of the Carnot cycle depends only upon the temperatures of the hot and
cold reservoirs, TH and TC. 100% efficiency can only be achieved if TH is infinitely greater
than TC (impossible) or if TC = 0 (also impossible)

23
Clausius Inequality

Whenever a system undergoes a cycle,  dQ / T  is zero if the cycle is reversible or

negative if irreversible.

i.e.  dQ / T   0 if reversible

 dQ / T   0 if irreversible

Entropy
We now introduce the property called Entropy and note that we are usually interested in the
amount by which it changes during a particular process, rather than its absolute values. By
way of introduction it is useful to draw comparisons with the work equation for a closed
system undergoing a reversible process:

dw  pdv

Work is produced as a result of a pressure gradient across the system boundary causing a
change in volume. In a similar way heat transfer occurs as a result of a temperature gradient
across the system boundary and causes a change in entropy. For a reversible process:

dq  T ds

hence

2 2 dq
q 1 T ds or Δs  1 T

Significance of Entropy

An entropy term is often to be found in thermodynamic relationships but there are two
instances where it has particular significance.

a) Entropy Principle

The First Law merely states that energy is conserved if it is transformed; it does not
state whether the transformation is possible or not. Generally, there are preferred
directions of energy flow and the entropy principle can be used to predict whether a
particular process (which is known to satisfy the First Law) is actually possible. It
states that

For any process the entropy of the Universe remains constant or increases

Here the term universe is used to describe the system plus that part of the
surroundings affected by changes within the system. (Note: if the process is
reversible, the entropy of the universe is constant – otherwise it increases.

24
 b) Calculation of Heat Transfer

We have seen that for a closed system undergoing a reversible process the area
under the p-V line is equal to the work done. In a similar way, the area under the
corresponding T-s line would yield the heat transfer. By way of example, we re-
calculate the efficiency for the Carnot cycle which can be represented on a
Temperature – Entropy diagram as follows

q1  q2
c 
q1


but q  T ds  T s
(for constant temperature process)

TH s  TC s T
hence, c  1 C
TH s TH

Calculation of Entropy Changes

Generally, dq  du  dw

but for reversible process dq  Tds and dw  pdv

hence Tds  du  pdv , or

du p
ds   dv
T T

Integrating gives

2 du 2 p
s2  s1  1 T
 1
T
dv

p
In order to proceed further we need to know the variation of u with T and with v. For a
T
perfect gas , for example, this is straightforward.

p R
 and du  cv dT
T v

giving

2 cv .dT 2 dv
s2  s1  1 T
 R 1
v

25
In order to perform this integral we need to know the variation of cv with T, with the most
simple case being cv = constant. Also, although the theory was developed by considering a
reversible process, the above equation is valid for all processes involving a perfect gas
(Entropy is a property and so Δs depends only upon the end states and is dependent of the
path between them).

Taking a perfect gas and assuming cv is constant then

T  V 
s2  s1  cv .n 2   R .n 2  [Entropy in terms of T and V]
 T1   V1 

Alternative forms can be derived.

The change in entropy in terms of T and p can be found by substituting

 V2   p1   T2 
    . 
 V1   p2   T1 


T  p T 
s2  s1  cv .n 2   R n 1 . 2 
 T1   p2 T1 

T  T  p 
 cv .n 2   R n 2   R n 2 
 T1   T1   p1 

Since c p  cv  R then

T  p 
s2  s1  c p n 2   R n 2 
 T2   p1 

In terms of p and V, substitute for

 T2 
  to obtain
 T1 

p  V 
s2  s1  cv n 2   c p n 2 
 p1   V1 

From the above, we can write the change in entropy for various processes.

26
 Isentropic s2  s1

s2  s1 p  V 
but  n 2   γn 2   0
cv  p1   V1 

γ
p   V2 
  2 .   1
 p1   V1 

 p2V2γ  p1V1γ  constant

Reversible constant pressure

p1  p2

T 
 s2  s1  c p n 2 
 T1 
Reversible constant volume

V1  V2

T 
s2  s1  cv n 2 
 T1 
Reversible isothermal

T1  T2

V 
s2  s1  R n 2 
 V1 

p 
  R n 2 
 p1 

Datum Value for Entropy Data

Entropy is usually taken to be zero at some datum condition, say 0. However this does not
usually matter since we are only interested in changes between state points 1 and 2 since

s2  s1  s2  s0   s1  s0 

 s2  s0  s1  s0

 s2  s1

27
 List of Symbols

C velocity m/s
c p , c po Specific heat at constant pressure kJ(kg, K). kJ(kgmol K)
cv , cv o Specific heat at constant volume kJ(kg, K). kJ(kgmol K)
E Energy kJ
G Gravitational acceleration m/s2 (normally 9.81 m/s2)
h,H Enthalpy, kJ/kg,kJ
m Mass kg
M Molar mass kg/kgmol
n No. of moles kgmol or polytropic index
p Pressure kN/m2 or bar or Pa
q,Q Heat transfer kJ/kg, kJ
R Characteristic or Specific Gas Constant kJ(kgK)
Ro Universal Gas Constant kJ(kgmol k)=8.3143
s,S entropy kJ(kgK), kJ/K
T Temperature K
u,U Internal Energy kJ/kg, kJ
w, W Work transfer kJ/kg, kJ
z Height above datum m
 Ratio of specific heats
 Density kg/m3

Note: 1 bar = 105Pa = 100kN/m2

28
 MAIN THERMODYNAMIC EQUATIONS
(NOTE that there are alternative forms for many of these equations)
Definition of the
mol
m  n.M M = 2 for H2, 12 for C etc
Perfect gas pV  mRT Idealisation for gases
equation
Gas constants R  Ro / M Ro = 8314.3J/kgmol K

Dalton’s Law pi  
ni . p
nt 
ni nt  = molar fraction

Definition of cv cv  dq / dT v Specific heat at constant
volume
Definition of cp c p  dq / dT p Specific heat at constant
pressure
Relationship c p  cv  R mass units 
between Derived from 1st Law
c p , cv kR c p  cvo  Ro molar units 
o
Definition of    c p / cv  c po / cv o  = Specific Heats Ratio
st
1 Law for non- True for any non-flow
Q1 2  W1 2  U 2  U 1
flow (closed) process
Definition of 2 Work due to deformation of
non-flow W1 2  1 pdV
boundary
reversible work
Q for constant P Q1 2  mc p T2  T1  Only true for these 2
Q for constant V Q1 2  mcv T2  T1  processes
2
Change in U for U 2  U1  m 1 cv dT General expression. Only if
 mcv T2  T1 
a perfect gas cv is constant

Definition of h  u  pv Always true

enthalpy
2
Change in H for H2  H1  m  C p .dT General expression. Only if
1
a perfect gas
 mc p T2  T1  cp is constant

Isentropic Isentropic = reversible

process
pV γ  constant adiabatic
Q0
s  constant
These follow from
For perfect
gases only
p2 / p1   v1 / v 2  γ pV   C and perfect gas
equation
T2 / T1   v1 / v 2 γ 1
T2 / T1   p2 / p1 γ 1γ
W1  2  p2 v 2  p1v1  / 1  γ 

29
Polytropic Difference between n and
process i.e. pV n  cons tan t  due to heat transfer
general non-flow n   for adiabatic
reversible
processes n  1 for isothermal
n  0 for constant p
n   for constant V
In general Q  0
s  0
Equation as above with n instead of 
For isothermal Q1- 2  W1 2
‘constant’
for isothermal
process
W1  2  constant .n v 2 / v1  = p1v 1 or p2 v 2 or mRT

1st Law flow   

Q1  2  W1  2  m h2  h1   C22  C12 / 2   g z2  z1   Can be written in terms of
mass or mass flow rate
(open system)
Definition of
Stagnation
Ts  T  C 2 / 2 c p   When C=o, Ts = T
‘Stagnation’ is also called
temperature Ts total.

Definition of
ps  p.Ts / T  /
 1 
Stagnation T = static temperature
pressure Ps
Isentropic  
 isen ,c  T2'  T1 / T2  T1  Compressor
T2'  T1 x p2 / p1   1 
Efficiency for  
compressor
Isentropic 
 isen ,t  T2  T1  / T2'  T1  Turbine
T2'  T1 x p2 / p1   1 
Efficiency for  
turbine where T2' is the outlet temperature for an isentropic process
Thermal
th  Wnet / Q supplied Wnet   W
Efficiency
Carnot Engine th ,c  TH  Tc  / TH TH = Hot Res ‘Temp’
( Reversible
engine or  1  Tc / TH TC = Cold Res ‘Temp’
operating in a
cycle)
Reversible heat C .P .H .P .   TH / TH  Tc  ‘Reversed Carnot Engine’
pump
Entropy, s q   Tds Reversible process only
Change in s2  s1  q / T Only if T is constant
entropy
s2  s1   du / T   p / Tdv General equation
 cv .n.T2 / T1   R .nV2 / V1  Perfect gas with cpconst’
or  c p .n.T2 / T1   R .np2 / p1 
Change in entropy for any
process. As written, gives


or  cv .n.p2 / p1   c p .n q   Tds 2 / V1  specific entropy with units
same as cp, cv, R.

Clausius  dQ / T   0 if reversible For a thermodynamic cycle

Inequality  if irreversible

30
Section 2: Air Standard Cycles for IC Engines

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Reciprocating Engines

 Otto Cycle

 Diesel Cycle

 Dual or mixed cycle

 Comparison with real cycles

 Criteria of engine performance

 Stirling cycle

2.3 Gas Turbine Engines

 Joule or Brayton cycle

 Ericson cycle

 Engine Performance

31
 AIR STANDARD CYCLES FOR IC ENGINES

2.1 Introduction

A system is said to undergo a thermodynamic cycle when it passes through a series of

states such that its final state is equal in all respects to its initial state. In other words, the
properties at the end of the cycle are identical to the properties at the start of the cycle.
Clearly, an infinite range of theoretical cycles could be defined but in practice the choice of
the working fluid and the physical arrangement of the power plant ( or heat engine) restrict
the number of practical cycles.

In internal combustion (IC) engines, the working fluid is gaseous and the heat addition is by
combustion of fuel within the system rather than heat transfer across the boundary. The
composition and properties of the working fluid are not constant which make the analysis
move difficult. However, since the charge is mainly nitrogen, a useful first approximation for
the performance of an IC engine can be made by assuming air as the working fluid. These
simplified cycles are named air standard cycles and their efficiencies are called air standard
efficiencies.

To further simplify the analysis, air standard cycles make additional assumptions

a) The working fluid (air) is a perfect gas

b) The specific heats (and hence  ) αρε ψονσταντ
c) All processes are reversible
d) Addition and removal of heat is by heat transfer to the surroundings

Air standard cycles have the advantage of simplicity and so allow the effects of controlling
parameters to be investigated. However, because of the many simplifying assumptions
made, the efficiencies are higher than those found in practice as will be shown later.

The choice of powerplant is usually determined by considering the operating cost (function of
overall efficiency) and capital cost (function of size and complexity). Efficiency can be
improved by additional complexity but this means additional capital cost and in practice a
compromise has to be reached.

The efficiency of a powerplant is always less than 100% due to 2 reasons

T
Q in
a) Thermodynamic
TH
The second law states that all power cycles
must reject some of the heat supplied.
The highest possible efficiency is given by
the CARNOT cycle in which heat is
received and rejected ar constant temperatures
TH and TL. The Carnot cycle is Qout
shown on the T -S diagram TL

S
S1 S2

32
 Defining thermal efficiency th  as

Net Work Output

th 
Total Heat Energy Supplied
we can write

Wout Qin  Qout

th  
Qin Qin

( Qout is negative according to Thermodynamic convention)

For reversible heat transfer at constant temperature we can write

Qin  TH s2  s1 
Qout  TL s2  s1 

Hence the thermal efficiency for the Carnot cycle, c , can be written as

TH s2  s1   TL s2  s1 
c 
TH s2  s1 

TH  TL
c 
TH

b) Practical
All real processes are irreversible. Air standard cycles are sometimes called Ideal
Cycles since these losses are assumed to be zero. An indication of how sensitive a
particular cycle is to such irreversible is given by the Work Ratio, rw , where

Net Work Produced

rw 
Total Positive Work

Wout  Win

Wout

Win is - ve 
Irreversibilities tend to decrease Wout and increase the magnitude of Win . In order
to be insensitive to these losses, we need a value of rw as close to unity as possible.
i.e. Wout  Win

The air standard cycles for reciprocating engines and gas turbines are now
considered in sections 2 and 3.

33
 2.2 Reciprocating Engines
Two main classifications as follows:

a) Spark Ignition (SI) [‘petrol’]

b) Compression Ignition (CI) [‘diesel’]

Comparison of the main features

SI Engine CI Engine

Fuel Type Petrol, Gasoline, Natural Gas Diesel Oil

Compression
Ignition Electrical Discharge
Temperature

Compression Ratio Typically 9.0:1 Typically 18.0:1

Carburettor or Low Pressure High Pressure Fuel

Fuel System
F. Injection Injection

Mixture in Cylinder Homogenous Stratified

Quality Governed (AFR

Load Control Quantity Governed (‘Throttle’)
Control)
High Specific Power
Advantages High Thermal Efficiency
Relatively Low Cost

Note that both SI and CI engines can be

1. Turbocharged
2. 4 stroke or 2 stroke
3. Water or air cooled

34
 The 4- stroke operating cycle

The 2- stroke operating cycle

The reciprocating engine employs a cycle consisting of a succession of non-flow processes.
Consequently, analysis is done by simple application of the non-flow energy equation to
each process in turn.

The reciprocating engine has two main advantages.

i) Each process is fairly slow and more reversible than those in gas turbines.

ii) It can be run with stoichiometric mixtures (giving very high temperatures – typically
2,300°C) since the cylinders are not constantly exposed to hot gases.

One major disadvantage is that piston engines tend to be bulky for a given air mass flow rate
– and hence heavy for a given power output. This makes them unsuitable for larger aircraft
where typical propeller shaft power can be of the order of 9,000 kW.

Three important Air Standard Cycles form the basis for all reciprocating engines- namely, the
Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles. These are considered below.
35
2.2.1 Otto Cycle

This is the theoretical heat cycle upon which calculations for a spark ignition (SI) engine are
based and has a similar form for both 2 and 4 stroke cycles.

p T

3 3

4 2

2 4

a 1 1

V S

Cl ' ce swept volume

vol

Process Heat Flow Work Done

*a-1 Induction P1 v 1  v a   

1-2 Adiabatic Compression  Cv T2  T1   

2-3 Constant Vol Heat Addition Cv T3  T2   

3-4 Adiabatic Expansion  Cv T4  T3   

4-1 Const Vol Heat Rejection Cv T1  T4   

*1-a Exhaust P1 v a  v 1   
*Note: A 2-stroke cycle is defined by points 1-4 whilst a 4-stroke cycle also includes an
additional loop a-1 and 1-a. However these induction and exhaust strokes are assumed to
involve no net work or heat transfers.
36
 Net Work Output
Thermal Efficiency TH 
Total Heat Supplied

 Cv T2  T1   Cv T4  T3 

Cv T3  T2 


T3  T2   T4  T1 
T3  T2 

T1  T4 T1  1 
Hence TH  1    (1)
T2 T3 T2  1 

defining compression ratio

v1  v 4 
   rv
v2  v3 

T2 T3 T4 T3
we have   rv 1 and 
T1 T4 T1 T2

Substituting into (1)

 1
T 1
TH 1 1 1   (2)
T2  rv 

This is the air standard efficiency of the Otto Cycle and it will be noted that it has the
same form as the Carnot efficiency. However, there are two points to note

a) The TH is less than that for a Carnot Cycle operating between the same
temperature limits since T2 is not the maximum temperature.

b) The efficiency can be expressed in terms of compression ratio rv only and this
relationship is described by the graph below. (However, specific work output
increases with the upper temperature T3

37
 It should be noted that although the efficiency of the Otto Cycle appears to
continuously increase with compression ratio the efficiency of a real SI engine is
limited by knock. Even when using high octane fuels, compression ratios used in
practice do not normally exceed 10:1. Even when knick is not a limiting factor, the
combined detrimental effects of heat transfer, dissociation and variable specific heats
result in reducing thermal efficiency at compression ratio greater than about 14:1

2.2.2 Diesel Cycle

This theoretical cycle forms the basis for calculations on Compression Ignition (CI) engines.
It is similar to the Otto Cycle except that heat is supplied at constant pressure and not at
constant volume. However, it should be noted that the modern CI engines are more
accurately represented by the Dual Cycle. In CI engines, fuel is injected into the cylinder
towards the top of the compression stroke, hence pre-ignition cannot occur and so increased
compression ratios can be used. In any case, compression ignition of common fuel oils is
not usually possible for values of rv less than about 12:1

Process Heat Flow Work Done

1-2 Adiabatic Compression  Cv T2  T1   

2-3 Constant Pres Heat Addition C p T3  T2    R T3  T2   

3-4 Adiabatic Expansion  Cv T4  T3   

4-1 Const Vol Heat Rejection Cv T1  T4   

38
 Net Work Output
Thermal Efficiency TH 
Total Heat input

C p T3  T2   Cv T4  T1 
Hence TH  (3)
C p T3  T2 

We can express all other temperatures in terms of say T2 as follows

v1
For T1 Noting that compression ratio rv  then
v2

 1  1
T1  v 2  1
   
T2  v 1   rv 

For T3 Point 3 is the heat supply cut-off point and we define the cut-off ratio
rc  v 3 v 2
Hence
T3 v 3
  rc
T2 v 2

For T4
 1  1  1
T4  v 3  v v  r 
   3 x 2  c
T3  v 4  v 2 v 4   rv 
but

 1
T4 T4 T3 T4  rc  rc
 x   xrc 
T2 T3 T2 T2  rv  rv 1

Substituting T1 , T3 and T4 into equation (3) and simplifying gives

1  rc  1 
TH  1   1   (4)
rv   rc  1 

It can be seen that the efficiency of the diesel cycle depends upon the cut-off ratio, rc
(i.e. the quantity of heat added) as well as upon rv and 

Since the term in [ ] is always greater than the unity the Diesel Cycle always has a
lower efficiency than an Otto Cycle for a given compression ratio. In theory, Their
efficiencies are equal when the cut-off ratio rc equals unity, but this example is trivial
since it represents zero heat input!

However, as mentioned above, practical CI engines run at much higher compression

ratios (12:1 < rv < 20:1) than SI engines and so, in general have higher efficiencies.

39
2.2.3 Dual or Mixed Cycle

The behaviour of many modern reciprocating engines is best represented by a combination

of the Otto and Diesel Cycles, called the dual or mixed cycle. In this case part of the het is
added at constant volume and the remainder at constant pressure.

Process Heat Flow Work Done

1-2 Adiabatic Compression  Cv T2  T1   

2-3 Constant Vol Heat Addition Cv T3  T2   

3-4 Constant Pres Heat Addition C p T4  T3    R T4  T3   

4-5 Adiabatic Expansion  Cv T5  T4   

5-1 Constant Vol Heat Rejection Cv T1  T5   

40
Net Work Output  Cv T3  T2   C p T4  T3   CV T5  T1 

Heat Added  Cv T3  T2   C p T4  T3 

Cv T5  T1 
Thermal Efficiency TH  1 
Cv T3  T2   CP T4  T3 

1
T5  T1  (5)
T3  T2    T4  T3 
v1 v4
Again rv  Compression ratio , rc  Cut - off ratio 
v2 v3

and defining rp  p3 p2 . Also, expressing all temperatures in terms of say T2

For T1
 1
T1  1 
 
T2  rv 

For T3
T3 p3
  rp
T2 p2

For T4
T4 T4 T3
 x  rc x rp
T2 T3 T2

For T5 Firstly,

γ 1 γ 1 γ 1
T5  v 4  v  v v v 
   4  4 x 3 x 2
T4  v 5   v1   v 3 v 2 v1 

γ 1 γ 1
 1 r 
 rc x 1 x   c
 rv   rv 
Hence

T5 T5 T4 rc  rp
 x   1
T2 T4 T2 rv

Substituting into equation (5) gives

 1 rp  rc  1 
TH  1    1 
 rv   
rp  1  rp rc  1 

41
 It will be noted that when rp  1 this reduces to the same expression as for the Diesel
Cycle. The graph below compares the T-S diagram for an Otto, Diesel and Dual
Cycle which all have the same heat input and compression ratio v 1 v 2 

Since all processes are reversible, the heat input is equal to the area under the T-S
curve (i.e. under process 2-3 for Otto and Diesel Cycles and 2-3-4 for Dual Cycle).
Similarly the heat rejected is given by the area under curves 4-1 (Otto and Diesel) or
5-1 (Dual). It can be seen that for the same compression ratio, the cycle efficiencies
decrease in the order Otto, Dual, Diesel – because the Otto Cycle rejects the least
amount of heat and the Diesel Cycle the most.

2.2.4 Comparison of real cycles with the air standard cycle

A P-V diagram comparing a real and air standard cycle is shown below

42
 It is clear that there is a substantial difference between the cycles, the main reasons being
as follows

a) Working fluid not air

b) Specific heats not constant
c) Compression and expansion processes not isentropic
d) Dissociation
e) Combustion not at constant volume/pressure or at TDC
f) Valves do not open and close at TDC/BDC

The area of the P-V diagram is proportional to the work done and a real cycle will only
typically have just over half the area compared to the ideal cycle. Also, the peak cycle
pressure and temperature predicted for the ideal cycle will be much higher than for the real
cycle (mainly due to variable Cv , and dissociation). The compression and expansion
processes are not adiabatic but can be approximated well with a polytropic process,
PV n  constant , where n is typically 1.32 for the compression and 1.28 for the
expansion.

Improvements to the air standard cycle predictions can be achieved by using dissociation
charts which cater for variations in specific heat ( with both temperature and composition)
and dissociation. However, whilst dissociation charts produce improved predictions
compared to the air standard cycles, they still do not cater for finite combustion rates, valve
timing etc and air standard cycles and dissociation charts have been replaced by complete
engine simulation models.

2.2.5 Criteria of Engine Performance

Thermal efficiency is a useful measure of engine running costs, but size, complexity and
capital costs are also important. For example, size (i.e. weight) is particularly important for
transport and so an important criterion becomes the power output from a given size of
engine. This is quantified using Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)

2.2.6 Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)

Work ratio is very useful in indicating cycle susceptibility to Irreversibilities but is usually used
in cycles involving steady flow processes (e.g. gas turbines). In reciprocating engines it is
not always easy to isolate the (+)ve work and so the similar parameter MEP is used.

Brake Mean Effective Pressure, MEP or pm , is the pressure which, when acting on the
piston over one stroke, can produce the net measured work of the cycle.

Area of rectangle equals

areas within p-v loop
i.e. pm v 2  v 1    pdv  W

43
 2.3. Gas Turbine Engines
We now discuss two Air Standard Cycles used for predicting the performance of gas
turbines. The Joule or Brayton Cycle describes the processes involved in the operation of
most engines whilst the Ericsson Cycle is included as a method of achieving the Carnot
Efficiency.

Both cycles are analysed by applying the Steady Flow Energy Equation to each process and,
as usual, velocity terms are assumed to be negligible.

2.3.1 Joule (or Brayton) Cycle

(Flow) Process Heat Flow Work Done

1-2 Isentropic Compression  C p T2  T1   

2-3 Const Press Heat Addition C p T3  T2   
3-4 Isentropic Expansion  C p T4  T3   
4-1 Const Pres Heat Rejection C p T1  T4   

44
 Net Work Output
Thermal Efficiency, TH 
Total Heat Input


T3  T2   T4  T1   1  T1 T4 T1  1
T3  T2  T2 T3 T2  1

Expressing pressure ratio

p2 p3
  rp gives
p1 p4
 1
T2 T3 T4 T3
  rp  and 
T1 T4 T1 T2

Hence

 1

T1 1 
TH  1  1 
T2 r 
 p

Note Since rp equals rv , the efficiencies of the Otto and Brayton cycles are the
 
same. However, it is much more convenient to define pressure ratio rp for
a gas turbine than the compression ratio rv  .

2.3.2 Ericsson Cycle

Theoretically the efficiency of a gas turbine can be improved to equal the Carnot Efficiency
by employing constant temperature work phases (as in the Stirling Cycle) and raising the gas
temperature between the compressor and turbine at constant pressure.

An isothermal compression is achieved by using an infinite number of stages and

intercooling - i.e. this represents heat rejected. Similarly, an isothermal expansion would
have an infinite number of stages with reheat (heat input). It is shown below that the heat
required between the compressor and turbine (2-3) can be completely furnished by the heat
rejected (4-1) using a perfect heat exchanger.

45
Process (all reversible) Q W

v  v 
1-2 Isothermal Compression  RT1Ln  '1     RT1Ln  '1   
 v2   v2 
2-3 Const Press Heat Exchange C p T3  T2'   

 v'   v' 
3-4 Isothermal Expansion RT3 Ln  4    RT3 Ln  4   
 v3   v3 
4-1 Const Pres Heat Exchange  C p T4'  T1   

Note Since T3  T4' and T1  T2' , Q2' 3  Q'4 1

Hence

w 12'  w 34'
TH 
Q34'

v  v 
RT3 Ln  4'   RT1Ln  1 
  v3   v 2' 
v 
RT3 Ln  4' 
 v3 

Since p2'  p3 and p4'  p1 and p1v 1  p2' v 2'

46
Then

p2' p v v
 3 and 1  4'
p1 p 4' v 2' v 3

Giving

T1
TH  1  equals Carnot efficiency 
T3

47
 THERMODYNAMIC MODULE TTA005
LABORATORY COURSEWORK

FULL THROTTLE PISTON ENGINE PERFORMANCE TEST

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this laboratory are that students will:

I. Gain familiarity with some of the measurement and experimental techniques used in piston
engine testing.

II. Learn how various fundamental laws and principles introduced during Thermodynamics
lectures can be used in practice.

III. Gain a better understanding about the practical engineering issues, which influence engine
performance.

BACKGROUND

The phases between the initial design concept and the manufactured piston engine involves a
combination of a wide range of human skills and computing power to ensure that the product will
prove of practical interest. Further work is carried out to investigate the behaviour of the engine at
various applied loads; this is known as Engine Performance Testing.

EQUIPMENT

The equipment comprises of a standard 1.4 litre automotive engine, which is mounted on a test bed
and connected to a water-cooled dynamometer. Precise details of the engine are given on the
attached sheet.

INSTRUMENTATION

Instrumentation is available to enable the accurate measurement of Engine Speed, Fuel Flow Rate,
Air/Fuel Ratio and Engine Torque. Further instructions on how to use the various pieces of
equipment will be given at the start of the laboratory session.

PROCEDURE

I. Normally you will be required to take a reading of the ambient pressure and temperature.
However for the purpose of this experiment, the valves for these two parameters are set.
See attached sheet.

II. Start the engine and allow it to warm up. Adjust the throttle to a setting, which is on or close
to fully open. Increase the dynamometer load to the maximum value, which can be achieved
without causing the engine to run in an unstable way.

III. Record the values of Engine Speed (engine speed values already entered in results table but
if any different then correct accordingly), Time taken to consume the prescribed amount of
fuel, Air/Fuel Ratio, and Dynamometer Torque on the attached experimental results table.
IV. Reduce the dynamometer load so that the engine speed increases by 200rpm (this will be
the rate of increase until the engine speed reaches 3000rpm, after this point the engine
speed will be increased by 100rpm). Take a new set of readings.
V. Repeat (IV) until the dynamometer is having no braking effect or until the engine has
reached the maximum speed of about 4700rpm as set by the Laboratory Supervisor.

48
ANALYSIS

I. Consider each set of readings and calculate Brake Power, Volumetric Efficiency, Thermal
Efficiency, Brake Specific Fuel Consumption and Brake Mean Effective Pressure (see
attached Formulae Sheet).

II. Produce graphs which show how each of these parameters varies with engine speed.

REPORT

Write a report, which clearly describes your work. You should include this handout in an Appendix
and refer to it as necessary. Give a concise description of the equipment and instrumentation and
describe any matters which were relevant to the general conduct of the experiment and which have.
already not been covered. Also a Schematic drawing of the experimental layout will be required.

Finally, produce a discussion, which clearly describes WHY each of the experimental data follows
the trends shown on your graphs.

PITFALLS

The main area you are likely to make a mistake, which will carry through your caldulations, will be
the use of correct units. Pay particular attention to this.

REPORT LAYOUT

Refer to the departmental notes on report writing, this you should have if not, you can obtained a
copy from the department office, or on the learn server. To access it on the learn server, log on, and
go to the department, select the course you are studying, select general model this is under the
code TTZOO, and finally select notes on report writing. On a whole a good write up should take the
form of:

 Title page
 Contents page
 List of symbols/abbreviations
 Introduction
 Aims
 Objectives
 Description and experimental procedure
 Equipment used
 Theory
 Evaluation/discussion of results
 Conclusion
 Appendices

The above layout is only for thought and you should refer to the departmental publication on
report writing.

49
 ENGINE DETAILS

ENGINE - ROVER

TYPE - K SERIES PORT INJECTION

TYPICAL VEHICLE APPLICATION - ROVER 1.4

NUMBER OF CYLINDERS - 4

CAPACITY - 1.397 LITRES

BORE - 75.0mm

STROKE - 79.0mm

COMPRESSION RATIO - 9.5

MAX POWER OUTPUT - 70kW at 6250 rev/min

MAX TORQUE - 123Nm at 4000 rev/min

FUEL DATA

Density of fuel (petrol)  fuel  741 kg / m 3

Lower Calorific Value of Fuel LCVfuel  42000 kJ / kg

AMBIENT CONDITIONS

Pa  1 bar

Ta  288 K

50
 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Engine Speed Fuel Flow Rate Air/Fuel Dynamometer

No.
(RPM) Time for 50ml (secs) (By Mass) Torque (Nm)
I 1800
2 2000
3 2200
4 2400
5 2600
6 2800
7 3000
8 3100
9 3200
10 3300
11 3400
12 3500
13 3600
14 3700
15 3800
16 3900
17 4000
18 4100
19 4200
20 4300
21 4400
22 4500
23 4600
24 4700

51
 FORMULAE SHEET

Brake Power, bp (kW)

bp  Nx 2 x / 60 xT  / 10 3

Volumetric Efficiency vol % 

vol 
A / Fx V / t x fuel 
AxLxnc x N / 120 x air 

Where

 air  Density of air kg/m 3  

Pa
Ta R

Pa  Ambient pressure N/m 2 

Ta  Ambient Temperature K 

R  Characteristic Gas Constant J/kgK 

Thermal Efficiency TH % 

bp
TH 
V / t x fuel xLCVfuel

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption, b.s.f.c. kg/kWhr 

V/t x fuel

b.s.f.c.  x 3600
bp

Brake Mean Effective Pressure, b.m.e.p.bar 

bpx10 3
b.m.e.p. 
N / 120 x AxLxnc x10 5

52
 NOMENCLATURE, SYMBOLS AND UNITS

A = Piston Cross-section Area (m2)

A/F = Air / Fuel Ratio by Mass

bp = Brake Power (kW)

b.s .f .c . = Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (kg/kWhr)

b.m.e.p. = Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bar)

L = Stroke (m)

LCVfuel = Lower Calorific Value of Fuel (kJ/kg)

nc = Number of Cylinders

N = Engine Speed (rev/min)

t = Time to Consume V (s)

T = Dynamometer Load (Nm)

V = Volume of Consumed Fuel (m3)

vol = Volumetric Efficiency (%)

TH = Thermal Efficiency (%)

 fuel = Density of Fuel (kg/m3)

53
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE

1. ENGINE PARAMETERS

For any one cylinder, the following dimensions are of particular interest:

D Bore (diameter
L Stroke
 Crank angle

 Connecting rod length

Vc Clearance volume

Vd Displacement volume

Top dead centre (TDC) of an engine refers to the crankshaft being in a position such that
  0 o . The volume in this position is minimum and is often called the clearance volume
Vc  VTDC  .
Bottom dead centre (BDC) refers to the crankshaft being at   180 o . The volume is
maximum at BDC. The difference between the maximum and minimum volume is the
displacement or swept volume Vd or Vs  :


Vs  Vd  VBDC  VTDC  D2L
4

The compression ratio rc  is defined as the ratio of the maximum to minimum volume:

VBDC Vc  Vs V
rc   1 s
Vc Vc Vc

Modern spark ignition (SI) engines have compression ratios of 8 to 11, while compression
ignition (CI) engines have compression ratios in the range of 12 to 24.

2. WORK

Work W  output by a reciprocating Internal Combustion (IC) engine is generated by the

gases in the combustion chamber of the cylinder. It is the result of the gas pressure force on
the moving piston inside the cylinder:

W   PApdx   PdV

54
where

P: gas pressure
Ap : piston face area
x: displaced distance
V: displaced volume

For unit mass of gas m within the cylinder. The specific work is:

W   Pdv kJ / kg

where

v: specific volume

2.1 Indicated work Wi 

Specific work W is equal to the

area under the process lines on
the P  v diagram, and is called
indicated work Wi 

2.2 Brake work Wb 

Work delivered by the crankshaft is less than indicated work due to mechanical
friction. Actual work available at the crankshaft is called brake work Wb 

W b  W i  Wf kJ / kg

where

Wf :specific work lost due to friction

The ratio of brake work at the crankshaft to indicate work in the combustion chamber
defines the mechanical efficiency of an engine:

 m  Wb / Wi x 100%

Mechanical efficiency will be in the order of 75% to 95% at high speed engines
operating at wide-open throttle.

55
3. MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (mep)

An average mean effective pressure (mep) is defined by

mep  W / v d

where

W: specific work of one cycle

v d :specific displacement volume

Mean effective pressure is a good parameter to compare engines for design or output
because it is independent of engine size and/or speed.

If brake work is used, brake mean effective pressure is obtained.

bmep  Wb / v d

Indicated work gives indicated mean effective pressure:

imep  Wi / v d

4. TORQUE AND POWER

Torque (T) is a good indicator of an engines ability to do work. It is defined as force acting at
a moment distance and has units N.m. It is related to bmep by:

T  bmep.Vd / 4 4-stroke engines

bmep is used because torque is measured off the output shaft

Power is defined as the rate of work of the engine. If N is the engine speed in rpm

 2N 
bp  T .  W
 60 

The ratio of the brakes to indicated [power define the mechanical efficiency  m

56
 Brake power (bp) and Torque (T)

are normally measured with a

dynamometer or brake.

5. AIR-FUEL and FUEL-AIR RATIO

Energy input to an engine Q comes from the combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel. Air is used to
supply the oxygen needed for this chemical reaction. Air-fuel ratio (A/F) and Fuel-air ratio
(F/A) are parameters used to describe the mixture ratio:

A / F  m a / mf  m
a /m
f
F / A  mf / m a  m
f /m
a

where

m a / mf mass of air and fuel, respectively

a /m
m f mass flow rate of air and fuel, respectively

The ideal or stoichiometric A/F for many petrol engine fuels is about 15:1

Evidence ratio Φ is defined as the actual ratio of fuel-air to ideal or stoichiometric fuel-air.

o  F/Aact / F / Astoich
  A / F stoich /  A / F act

For stoichiometric mixture Φ = 1

6. SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

Specific fuel consumption is defined by the rate of fuel consumed per unit output power.

Brake power gives brakes specific fuel consumption:

bsfc  m
 f / bp g / kw .hr

Indicated power gives indicated specific fuel consumption

57
 isfc  m
 f / ip g / kw .hr

It also follows that

 m  isfc / bsfc  mechanical efficiency

7. ENGINE EFFICIENCIES

7.1 Thermal Efficiency th

A thermal efficiency is defined as the power output divided by the thermal energy input and
can have either indicated or brake thermal efficiency defined by:

th )i  ip / mf .LCV x100%

th )i  bp / mf .LCV x100%

where

f
m mass flow rate of fuel (kg/s)
LCV lower calorific value of the fuel (kJ/kg)

It follows that  m  th )b / th )i

 35% SI engine
Typical th )b is th )b
 45% CI engine

7.2 Volumetric Efficiency

This is defined as the actual volume flow rate into the engine divided by the rate at
which volume is displaced by the piston.

vol  n.m
 a /  aVs .Nx100%

58
where

a :
m mass flow rate of air into the engine (Kg/s)
a : air density evaluated at atmospheric conditions kg/m 3 
n: number of revolutions per cycle.n  2 for four stroke engines 
Vs : total swept volume m 3 
N: engine speed rev/s 

Standard values of surrounding air pressure Po  and temperature To  can be used
to find density.

Po  1.01 pa
To  298 K
 a  Po / RTo Kg / m 3

at standard conditions,  a  1.181 Kg / m 3

Typical values of volumetric efficiency for an engine at wide-open throttle (WOT) are:

vol  75%  90%

59
Section 3: Heat Transfer

1. Introduction

2. Fourier’s law of conduction

3. Newton’s law of cooling

4. Conduction through a composite wall

5. Heat flow through a cylinder:

radial heat transfer

60
 SYMBOLS

A Area

Cp Specific heat at constant pressure

Cv Specific heat at constant volume

D Diameter

h Surface heat transfer coefficient

hi Inside surface heat transfer coefficient

ho Outside surface heat transfer coefficient

k Thermal conductivity

k Mean thermal conductivity

K Temperature

 Length
Characteristic length scale
Thickness of a wall

Q Heat transfer rate

r Radius

R Thermal resistance

RT Total thermal resistance

T Temperature

Tm Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD)

Fluid velocity
U
Overall heat transfer coefficient
 Dynamic viscosity
hL
Nu Nusselt Number Nu 
k
 .C p
Pr Prandtl Number Pr 
k
 U  L
Re Reynolds Number Re 

61
 HEAT TRANSFER

1. Introduction
1.1 What is it?

Heat is energy in transition under the motive force of a temperature difference. Heat transfer
(H.T.) deals with the study of the rate at which such energy is transferred.

1.2 What is it for?

For two types of engineering problems

 Design of boilers and heat exchangers:
Promotion or maximising of the rate of heat transfer with the minimum possible
surface areas and temperature difference.

 Design of thermal insulation structure

Prevention or minimising of the heat transfer rate e.g. lagging of jet pipes, wall of
domestic building, cooling of combustor wall etc.

1.3 What is the mechanism of H.T.?

There are three modes of heat transfer

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

Conduction

i) Heat is transferred on a molecular scale with no movement of macroscopic

portions of matter relative to one another.

ii) Vibrational energy from more energetic molecules to those with lower energy.

iii) It is the predominant method of HT in solids.

iv) Good electrical conductors are usually good thermal conductors (High K)

v) Higher density, higher elasticity → higher K

Convection

i) H.T. is caused by the motion of a fluid.

ii) This motion of a fluid is resulted from density difference (natural buoyancy
forces  natural convection or free convection).
e.g. heat transferred from a hot-plate to the atmosphere.

iii) Also the fluid movement can be caused by external forces (e.g. by a pump)
 forced convection. e.g. domestic fan-heater for room heating.

62
 Radiation

i) All matter continuously emits electro-magnetic (EM) radiation (i.e. transfer of

thermo energy) unless its temp is absolute zero.
Radiation is the H.T. by EM waves.

ii) The higher the temp, the greater is the energy radiated.

iii) This mode of H.T. does not require medium for its propagation i.e. no physical
material is required (vacuum medium is all right)

2. Fourier’s Law of Conduction

We are only interested in ‘one dimensional steady-state heat flow’. Temperature varies in
one direction only and does not change with time.

Fourier’s Law is an empirical law based on observation

dT
Q   k . A. (1.1)
dx

where Q = rate of heat flow in x direction (W)

A = cross-sectional area normal (right angle) to the direction of heat flow
m 
2

dT
= temperature gradient (K/m)
dx

k = coefficient of thermal conductivity (W/m.K.)

It is the heat flow per unit area per unit time when the temp.
decreased by one degree in unit distance.

63
The following table shows the thermal conductivities of some materials at temperature 300K

Substance Thermal conductivity k(W/mK)

Pure copper 386

Aluminium 229

Steel 55

Concrete 0.9 -1.4

Building brick 0.35 -0.7

Wood 0.15 – 0.2

Asbestos 0.163

Rubber 0.15

Cork board 0.043

Air 0.0262

For Const k

From Fig 1.2 and equation (1.1)

dT
Q   k . A.
dx

 Qdx   kA.dT
x2 T2 T  T1 
 x Q dx   T k . AdT  Q   k . A 2
1 1  x 2  x1 

64
For variable k

Let us assume k  aT  b (a and b are consts)

k varies linearly with T

dT
 Q   aT  b . A.
dx

Integrating between 1 and 2

Q  x 2  x1    A .T22  T12   bT2  T1 

1 
2 
Hence

 a T2  T1   T  T1 
Q   A.  b. 2
 2   x 2  x1 

Mean conductivity

 a T  T1  
k  2  b
 2 

T  T1 
 Q   k . A 2
 x 2  x1 
Notes:

 Good thermal conductors: high thermal conductivity k

such as pure metals (homogenous solids, high density, high elasticity)

 Good thermal insulators: low thermal conductivity k

such as asbestos, cork board etc ( porous, cellular, fibrous, non-homogenous
materials)

 A good thermal conductor is a bad thermal insulator and vice versa.

65
 Worked Example 1

The inner surface of a plain brick wall is at 40oC and the outer surface is at 20oC. Calculate
the rate of HT per m2 of the surface area. The brick is 250mm thick. The K for the brick is
0.52 w/m.k.

Solution:

Refer to Figure 1.3 and from Fourier’s Law

T  T1  for const. k
 Q   k . A 2
 x 2  x1 
Q 20  40 
   0.52 x 3
 41.6 ( W / m 2 )
A 250 x10

Figure 1.3

66
 3. Newton’s Law of Cooling
Heat Transfer through Boundary Layers

Heat transfer: Fluids → solid surface

Solid surface → fluids
Described by Newton’s Law of Cooling

The law states:

Q   hA . A.T1  TA  (3.1)

Where T1 the wall surface temperature

TA the temperature of the bulk fluid A
hA surface heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient (W/m2K)

hA: depends on the wall surface characteristics and the fluid properties
(such as:  ,  , k , c1 etc) and the velocity of the moving fluid.
It is normally determined by experiments.

Similarly

Q   hB . A.TB  T2  (3.2)

 Fourier’s Law for the wall heat transfer

T  T1
Q   k . A 2 (3.3)
L

Heat flow rate is constant through each boundary layer and the wall due to steady-
state heat flow assumption.

67
From the equations (3.1), (3.2), (3.3)

Rearranging them,

Q
TA  T1  (3.4)
hA . A

Q
T1  T2  .L (3.5)
k .A

Q
T2  TB  (3.6)
hB . A

To sum up the above equations

Q Q L Q
TA  T1   T1  T2   T2  TB    
hA . A kA hB . A
(3.7)

 Q 
TA  TB .A
 1 L 1 
   
 hA k hB 

4. Conduction through a composite wall.

4.1 Composite wall not including surface heat transfer

68
Heat flow rate is constant through each layer wall
Q 1  Q 2  Q 3  Q

For layer 1:

T  TA 
Q  k1 . A. B
1

 TA  TB  Q . 1
k1 A

Also


TB  TC  Q 2
k2 .A

TC  TD  Q 3
k 3 .A

Summing up the above equations, giving

Q   1  2  3 
TA  TD  .   
A  k1 k 2 k 3 
A
 Q  .TA  TD 
 1  2  3 
   
 k1 k 2 k 3 

Definition:

Q  U . A.T
U: overall heat transfer coefficient W / m 2 .K 

For a composite wall

1
U
1  2  3
 
k1 k 2 k 3
1 n

  i (n number of composite walls)
U i 1 k i

69
Electrical analogy  Thermal resistance

From Ohm’s Law:

Potential Voltage V
Electrical current l  
Electrical Resistance R

Similarly
Temperature Difference T
Heat flow Q 
Thermal Resistance

For the same composite wall problem, an alternative method can be used.

Layer 1:

T  TA  TB  TA 
Q 1  k1 A B 
1 1
k1 . A
TA  TB

 1 
 
 k1 . A 

Similarly

T  TC  T  TD
Q 2  B ; Q3  C
 2   3 
   
 k2 .A   k 3 .A 

In these equations, each denominator can be regarded as a thermal resistance for

each layer. i.e.

        
R1   1  and R2  2  and R3   3 
 k1 . A   k2 .A   k 3 .A 

For overall thermal resistance (in series)

Total resistance RT  R1  R2  R3
1  
 RT   2  3
k1 . A k 2 . A k 3 . A
 total temperature difference(potential) T  TA  TD

By using Electrical Analogy

T  TD A.TA  TD 
Q  A 
RT   
1
 2  3
k1 k 2 k 3

For overall heat transfer coefficient U

70
  Q  U . A.T
1 1  2  3
   
U k1 k 2 k 3

4.2 Composite wall including surface heat transfer coefficients

From Newton’s Law:

T  TA
Q  h1 . A.T1  TA   1
 1 
 
 h1 . A 
 1 
R1f   .................... ...thermal resistance of the fluid film 1
 h1 . A 

Similarly

T  T2
Q  D
 1 
 
 h2 . A 
 1 
R2 f   .......... .......... ...thermal resistance of the fluid film 2
 h2 . A 

71
 1    1
Total Resistance   1  2  3 
h1 A k1 A k 2 A k 3 A h2 A
T A.T1  T2 
 Q  
total .R  1 1  2  3 1 
     
 h1 k 1 k 2 k 3 h2 
1
 Overall heat transfer coefficient U 
ARt
1 1 3
 1
ARt    1 
U h1 i 1 k1 h1

Worked example:

A furnace wall consists of 125mm thick refractory brick and 125mm thick insulating
firebrick separated by an air gap. The outside wall is covered with a 12mm thick
plaster. The inner surface of the wall is at 1100oC and room temperature is 25oC.
Calculate Q (heat loss) per m2 of the wall surface.

Solution:

Resistance of the refractory brick

l 125
   0.0781K / W 
k . A 1.6 x10 3 x1

Note : Area A  1m 2
Resistance of the insulating firebrick

l 125 x10 3
   0.417 K / W 
k .A 0 .3

72
Resistance of the plaster

l 12 x10 3
   0.0857 K / W 
k .A 0.14

For fluid film between outside wall and air:

Resistance of air film on the outside wall

l 1
   0.0588 / K / W 
h. A 17

Hence, total resistance

 RT  0.0781  0.417  0.0857  0.0588  0.16 (air gap)  0.8 K/W 

 Heat flow rate

T TA  TB 1100  25
Q     1344 w 
Rt Rt 0 .8
 1.344 kW .....................rate of heat loss per m 2

For interface temperature T1 ,T2 ,T3 and outside wall temperature T4

Layer 1: Refractory brick

1100  T1
Q   1344  T1  995 O C
0.0781

Similarly

T  T2
Q  1  1344  T2  780 O C
0.16
T  T3
Q  2  1344  T3  220 O C
0.417

For air film

T  25
Q  4  1344
1 / 17
T4  1048 O C

73
 5. Heat Flow Through a Cylinder – Radial Heat Transfer
5.1 Heat transfer through a single cylinder

Assumptions:
one- dimensional flow
temperature varies radially only

The length of the cylinder is 

Fourier’s Law

dT
Q   k . A (r – any radius)
dr

The area normal to the heat flow

A  2r ( 2 .r = circumference)
dT
 Q  2 .r ..k .
dr

For r : r1  ro
For T : Ti  To
Q : const . ( steady  stateflow )

Integrating both sides

74
 ro 1 To
 Q .r dr   k .2.T dT
i r i

 2 ..k .To  Ti 
 Q 
r 
loge  o 
 ri 

or

 2 ..k .To  Ti 
 Q 
r 
 n  o 
 ri 

It can be seen that the heat transfer rate depends on ratio of the radii ro / ri instead of the
difference ( ro / ri ) .

Also for thermal resistance of the cylinder

 To  Ti 
Q 
 Inro / ri  
 2 ..k 
Inro / ri 
 Thermal resistance R 
2 ..k

5.2 Composite tube (including surface heat transfer)

75
 Q   h. A.Tf  Tw 

h: surface heat transfer coefficient

Tf : fluid temperature
Tw : wall temperature

It should be noted that h is a function of many parameters(wall roughness,  .T .  .k

and fluid.

For inner cylinder film

Q
Twi  Tfi  
2.r1 .hi
1
 Ri  film resistance 
2.r1 hi

For outer cylinder film

Q
Tfo  Two  
2.r4 .ho
1
 Ro  film resistance 
2.r4 ho

For a composite wall

 2 ..k1 T2  Twi  Twi  T2 

Q  
l n r2 / r1  l n r2 / r1 
2.k1
 2 ..k 2 T3  T2  T3  T2 
Q  
l n r3 / r2  l n r3 / r2 
2.k 2
 2 ..k 3 Two  T3  Two  T3 
Q  
l n r4 / r3  l n r4 / r3 
2.k 3

 to sum up the above equations

 1 l r / r  l r / r  l r / r  1 
T  Tfi  Tfo  Q   n 2 1  n 3 2  n 4 3  
 2  r1 .hi 2  .k 1 2  .k 2 2  .k 3 2   .r h
4 o 

T
From Fournier’s Law and electrical analogy Q   total resistance
Rt

76
  1  r / r   r / r   r / r  1 
Total Rt    n 2 1  n 3 2  n 4 3  
 2 πr1 .hi 2 π.k1 2 π.k 2 2 π.k 3 2 π.r4 ho 

In general

n  r
1  1 n no / rni  1 
Rt    
2 π  ri .hi n 1 kn
 
ro .ho 

: length of cylinder of tube

hi : inside film coefficient
ho : outside film coefficient

For a different form

Q  U x . Ax ΔT
U x  overall heat transfer coefficient
AX  2 πr x  rx is any chosen radius 
ΔT
 Q 
Rt
1
  U X . AX
Rt
1 2 π.rx  1  r / r  1 
     n no ni  
UX 2 π  hi ri n kn ho ro 
 1  r / r  1 
   n no ni  
 hi ri n kn ho ro 

77
 Worked example:

Material A is a five times better insulating material than material B i.e. k B  5 k A

i.e. A is a better insulator, but a poorer conductor)

For Case 1: Material A is inside of material B

 n ro / r1   n 0.05 / 0.025 

RA  
2 π.k A 2 π.k A
 n ro / r1   n 0.075 / 0.05 
RB  
2 π.k B 2 π.5.k A 
1   n 0.075 / 0.05  
 Rt  R A  RB 
2 π.k A  n 0.05 / 0.025   5 
0.774
  total resistance for the Case 1
2 π.k A

For Case 2: Material B is inside of material A

For thermal resistance

 n 0.05 / 0.025   n 0.05 / 0.025 

RB  
2 π.k B 2 π.5 k A 
 n 0.075 / 0.05   n 0.075 / 0.05 
RA  
2 π.k A 2 π.k A 
0.544
 Rt'  RB  R A   total resistance for case 2
2 π.k A
T
 Q   for the same T in case 1 and 2
Rt

Heat loss for case 1 Rt' Thermal resistance for case 2 0.544
     70%
Heat loss for case 2 Rt Thermal resistance for case 1 0.774
 Case 1 is 30% better insulation than case 2.
78
 4. Radiation

Radiation is a form of electromagnetic energy transmission which requires no transfer

medium.

The amount of energy transferred depends on the absolute temperature of the body
and the radiant properties of the surface.

Dark bodies found to emit or absorb a considerable high amount of radiant heat
energy as compared with light bodies.

4.1 Black Body

Is a body which emit or absorb the maximum level of the radiant energy. The energy transfer
due to radiation from the surface of a black body can be calculated from

Q  AT 4
where

:  
Is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 x10  8 W / m 2 K 4 
T: The body absolute temperature (K)
A: The body surface area ( m 2 )
Q : The rate of heat transfer (W)

Net heat transfer between two black bodies:

The rate of heat transfer from

surface 1: Q  AT14

The rate of heat transfer from

surface 2: Q  AT24

The net heat transfer:

Q  Q 1  Q 2  AT14  T24 

In practice, a combination of heat transfer by radiation and convection is typical.

79
 Worked example 4.1

In a storage radiator the surface of the core has an area of 0.5 m2 and temperature of
200°C. If the outer cover has the same surface area and a temperature of 60°C, calculate
the rate of heat transfer taking place. Assume the surfaces to act as black bodies and the
convective heat transfer coefficient between the surface of the core and the air to be 10
W/m2K Take the ambient temperature to be 20°C.

Solution:

The rate of heat transfer is the sum

of the heat transfer by radiation
and convection from the core to the
outer cover.

i.e. Q  Q R  Q C

heat transfer by radiation

Q R  AT14  T24 

 5.67 X 10 8 X 0.5 200  273   60  273 
4 4

 1070.4W

heat transfer by convection

Q C  hc AT1  Ta 
 10 X 0.5 200  20   900W

therefore the rate of heat transfer

Q  1070.4  900  1970.4W

80
4.2 Grey Body Radiators

These are real bodies which absorb or emit radiant energy at a lower level than a black
body. The radiant energy emitted by a real surface is less than that of the black body and is
given by:

Q  T 4 . A

where

 : is a radiative property of the surface called ‘emissivity’

The net rate of radiation heat exchange between two grey bodies at temperatures T1 and T2
respectively is given by:

 1
Q  σA T14  T24 /  
1 
 1 
 ε1 ε2 
For ε1  1 ; ε2  ε
 
Q  εσA T 4  T 4 ; ε  1
1 2

81
 Worked Example 4.2

An un-insulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are 25oC. The
outside diameter of the pipe if 70mm and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200oC
and 0.8 respectively. If the coefficient associated with free convection heat transfer from the
surface to the air is 15 W/m2K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of
pipe?

Solution:

Heat loss from the pipe is by

convection to the room air
and by radiation exchange
with the walls.

Q  Q C  Q R
Q  hAT  T
C 1 2  Convection

Assume  2  1
 
Q R  εσA T14  T34 Radiation  1    0.8
with A  πDL

 Q  hπDL T1  T2   εσ πDL  T14  T34 
The heat loss per unit length of pipe is then

Q
L

 15 πx 0.07 200  25   0.8 x 5.67 x10 8 πx 0.07  473 4  298 4 
 577  421  998 W / m

Comments:

Note that temperature may be expressed in two ways (i.e. in oC or K units) when
evaluating the temperature difference for a convection (or conduction) heat transfer.
However, temperature must be expressed in Kelvins (K) when evaluating a radiation
heat transfer.

82
Section 5: Tutorial Sheets

83
 1. Perfect Gases

1/1 Calculate the mass of:

i) A molecule of Nitrogen, N2
ii) An atom of Oxygen
iii) A molecule of Octane C8 H18 

(Ans: 46.48x10-27 , 26.56x10-27 , 189.24x10-27 kg)

1/2 Calculate the Molar Mass and the Characteristic Gas Constant for:

i) Molecular Hydrogen
ii) Molecular Oxygen
iii) Argon (Inert Gas of relative atomic mass = 40)
iv) Air (Assume to be 21% O2 and 79% N2 by volume)

(Ans: 2.0, 32.0, 40.0 and 28.84 kg/kgmol; 4157.0, 259.8, 207.9 and 288.3 J/kgK)

1/3 Using the data given in question 2, calculate the composition of air by mass.

(Ans: 23.3% O2, 76.7% N2)

1/4 A tank containing a quantity of air is fitted with a "U" tube type manometer and a
thermometer, which show readings of 0.5 MPa and 27°C, respectively. If a barometer
situated close by reads 742 mmHg, calculate the absolute pressure and density of
the air in the tank.

(Data: Density of Mercury = 13,600kg/m3

g = 9.81 m/s2
R = 287 J/kgK)

(Ans: 598kPa, 6.945 kg/m3)

1/5 a) Consider 1kgmol of O2 at pressure and temperature 1.0 Bar and 0oC, and
calculate

i) the overall volume

ii) the specific (by mass) volume

b) Would these results have been any different if we had considered a different
gas – say H2?

(Ans: a) 22.7m3, 0.709m3/kg

b) 22.7m3, 11.350m3/kg )

84
 2. Dalton’s Law

2/1 Two metal tanks, each of volume 2:5 m3; contain 4,kg of Oxygen and 5 kg of
Nitrogen, respectively. All the contents of one tank are pumped into the other
and then sufficient time is allowed for the temperature to reduce back to the
ambient value of 300 K. Consider the gas mixture and calculate:

i) the absolute pressure

ii) the molar fractions of the two constituents

(Ans: 3.029 Bar, 0.412, 0.588)

2/2 Combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel in Oxygen gives the following reaction:

Fuel + Oxygen →7CO2 + 8H2O + 17.6 O2

i) Calculate the volumetric analysis of the products

(Ans: 21.5%, 24.5%, 54.0%)

ii) Calculate the ultimate analysis (by mass) of the products

(Ans: 30.3%, 14.2%, 55.5%)

iii) What is the density of the products if the combustion chamber

pressure and temperature are 30 bar and 1600 K, respectively?

(Ans: 7.02 kg/m3)

2/3 Consider air saturated with water vapour (which at low pressures can be
considered to be a perfect gas). Given that the pressure and temperature of the
air/water mixture is 1.0 Bar and 15°C, calculate the percentage by mass of water
given that:

Molar mass of dry air = 28.84 kg/kgmol K

Partial Pressure of water vapour at 15°C = 1780 Pa

(Ans: 1.10%)

85
 3. Specific Heats

3/1 At 300 K the value of  for air is 1.40 whilst at 1070 K this reduces to 1.33. Calculate
the corresponding values of Cv o and C po in terms of J/kgmol K.

(Ans: 300 K: 20785 and 29099 J/kgmol K

1070 K: 25194 and 33508 J/kgmol K)

3/2 Given that the molar mass for air is 28.84 kg/kgmol, re-calculate the values of Cv and
Cp at 300 K, in terms of J/kg K.

(Ans: 720.8 and 1009 J/kg K)

3/3 a) The temperature of 5kg of air is increased from 273 K to 773 k. Assuming
constant values of Cp.and Cv of 1005 and 718 J/kg K, calculate the heat
transfer if the process is carried out

i) at constant volume (Ans: 1.795 MJ)

ii) at constant pressure (Ans: 2.513 MJ)

b) Why is the answer to part ii) above, greater than that for part i)?

86
 4. First Law for Closed Systems

4/1 A system receives 100 kJ of heat whilst it does work of an amount 125 kJ on. the
surroundings. Is this possible? Why?

4/2 The internal energy of a system increases by 50 kJ whilst the system is receiving
40 kJ of work. How much heat is transferred and in what direction?

4/3 A system works in a cycle and performs 100 kJ of work. What is the change in
internal energy and how much heat has to be transferred into the system?

87
 5. Work and Heat Transfer Equations – Closed Systems

5/1 A closed thermodynamic system contains a perfect gas. Derive expressions for the
work and heat transfer for each of the following REVERSIBLE processes (Cp and Cv
are to be assumed constant).

a) Constant Pressure process

(Show that your answers are consistent with the first law)

b) Constant Volume process

(Again, demonstrate first law consistency)

c) Isothermal process
(i.e. Temperature is constant)

d) Adiabatic process - i.e. q = 0

(Formula pv  = constant)

e) Polytropic process
(Formula pv n = constant where n   )

88
 6. Numerical Problems – Closed Systems

6/1 The pressure and-temperature of the-air in a cylinder are-1x105N/m2 and 50°C. The
air is compressed according to the law pv1.3 = constant until the pressure is
8.25x105N/m2. The volume of air initially is 0.042m3.
Find
(a) the mass of air in kg,
(b) the temperature at the end of the compression,
(c) the work done in compression,
(d) the heat transfer between the gas and its surroundings.

For air = 1.4, Cv= 0.718kJ/kgK,R=0.287 kJ/kgK

(Ans: 0.045 kg, 526 K, -8.79 kJ, -2.09 kJ)

6/2 0.34m3 of gas at 10.0 Bar and 130°C expands reversibly and adiabatically until its
pressure is 1 Bar after which it is compressed isothermally to its original volume.

Find the final temperature and pressure of the gas and the change in internal energy.
The specific heats of the gas at constant pressure and volume are 1.005 kJ/kg K and
0.718 kJ/kg K.

(Ans: 208.6 K, 5.176x105N/m , -410 Id)

6/3 A cylinder fitted with a piston contains air at 1.0 Bar and 17°C. The gas is
compressed according to the law PVn = const., until the pressure is 4 bar when the
specific volume is found to be 28% of the initial value. Heat is then added to the air at
constant pressure until the volume is doubled. The same amount of heat is now
removed from the air at constant volume.

Determine the value of the index n in the compression process.

Find also
(a) the overall change in internal energy/kg of air and
(b) the final pressure of the air.

R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, Cp = 1.005kilkgK

(Ans: 1.09, -68kJ/kg, 1.2 x 105N/m2

89
 7. Numerical Problems – Open Systems

7/1 A vehicle is fitted with a forward facing engine .intake and is run on a day when
ambient pressure and temperature are 1.0 Bar and 20°C. Calculate the
stagnation temperature and stagnation pressure in the intake system for forward
speeds of 25, 50, 75 and 100 m/s (57, 114, 170 and 227 mph, respectively).
Cp  1005 J / kgK

(Ans: 293.31, 294.24, 295.80 and 97.98(K)

1.004, 1.015, 1.034 and 1.061 (Bar))

7/2 Air enters a centrifugal compressor at a pressure and temperature of 1.0 Bar and
15°C and leaves at 2.0 Bar and 95°C. If the mass flow is 55 kg/min., find:

a) The actual power required to drive the compressor (73.7kW)

b) The power required to produce the same pressure ratio if the

compression had been frictionless (58.1kW)

c) The rate of increase of enthalpy due to friction (15.6kW)

(Neglect kinetic energy changes and assume that y = 1.4 and

Cp = 1.005kJ/kgK)

7/3 9kg of air per minute enters a nozzle with negligible velocity and expands from
a pressure of 4.13x105Pa to 2.27x105Pa. The temperature falls from 900°C to
750°C in the process. Assuming  = 1.4 and Cp = 1.005kJ/kgK find

a) The velocity of the air leaving the nozzle (549m/s)

b) The velocity which would have been reached if the process had
been frictionless (609m/s)

c) The nozzle efficiency [=Actual Enthalpy Change/Ideal Enthalpy

Change] (0.813)

d) The nozzle exit area (0.353x10-3m2)

7/4 The flow rate through a turbine is 11300 kg/h and the inlet and exit velocities are
1830m/min and 7610m/min respectively. If the initial and final enthalpy values are
2790 kJ/kg and 2090 kJ/kg and the heat loss through the casing amounts to 36.7
kJ/sec; calculate the shaft power generated. (2137kW)

90
 8. Second Law of Thermodynamics

8/1 An inventor claims to have devised a steady flow compressor which requires no
shaft power input. He claims that carbon dioxide at 13.6 bar and 49°C can be
compressed to 20.4 bar, where it will emerge at -6°C, simply by transfer of energy
as heat from his device. His patent application states that the device will handle
2kg of carbon dioxide per second and is driven by a `cold source' at -95°C to
which the heat transfer rate is 92.4 kW. Carry out a critical analysis of his
invention:

a) by investigating whether the claims are consistent with the first law, and

b) by calculating the total entropy change during the process in order to see if
the second law has been violated.

(For CO2 take R = 0.190 kJ/kgK and Cp = 0.84kJlkgK)

8/2 A heat engine operates in a Carnot Cycle, exchanging heat energy with hot and
cold reservoirs of temperature 1000K and 400K. If the heat flow rate from the hot
reservoir is 50 kW, calculate the rate of heat rejection (do not resort to a
calculation of cycle efficiency in order to do this).

Is it possible to have an engine which operates between the same two reservoirs,
also receiving heat at a rate of 50 kW, but rejecting 10% less heat than that
calculated above? Briefly explain your answer by making reference to:

i) The Entropy Principle, and

ii) The concept of Carnot Efficiency

91
 9. Air Standard Cycles

9/1 0.5 Kg of air at 1 Bar and 15°C is compressed isothermally to 10 Bar. It is then heated at
constant pressure and finally expanded isentropically to its original condition. Calculate the
mean effective pressure and the efficiency of the complete cycle.

R  0.287 kJ / kg K , γ  1.4
( MEP  1.065 Bar , η  0.295 )

9/2 In a gas turbine plant the pressure ratio is 6.0. Calculate for an inlet temperature of
15°C and a maximum temperature of 1200°K.

a) The heat supplied per Kg of air.

b) The net work output per Kg of air.

 = 1.4, Cp = 1.0, KJ/Kg K.

(a = 719 KJ/Kg, b = 289 KJ/Kg).

9/3 Show that the ideal MEP of the Otto cycle is given by


prv   1 rv 11 
rv  1  1
where p = Pressure at beginning of compression.
rv = Compression ratio.
α = Ratio of maximum pressure to pressure at the end of compression.

9/4 A quantity of gas at a pressure of 1 Bar in a cylinder has a volume of 0.14 m3 at a

temperature of 67°C. It is taken through the following cycle of operations:

a) Isothermal compression until the pressure is 15 Bar

b) Heat addition at constant volume, the temperature being raised by 1100°K.
c) Heat addition at constant pressure, the volume being increased by 50%.
d) Isentropic expansion to its original volume
e) Cooling at constant volume so that the gas is brought to its initial state.

Find the pressure and temperature at the end of each stage of the cycle   1.4

T2  340 K , p2  15 Bar , T3  1440 K , p3  63.5 Bar , T4  2160 K , p4  63.5 Bar ,T5  858 K , p5  2.51 Bar 

92
 9/5 An engine working on the constant volume cycle has a compression ratio of 6 to 1
and both the compression and expansion are according to the law pv 1.3 = const. The
conditions at the commencement of compression are, pressure 0.98 Bar,
temperature 323 K. The maximum pressure at the end of constant volume
combustion is 29.0 Bar. Assuming that the working fluid is air, estimate:

a) The mean effective pressure.'

b) The heat supplied per Kg during combustion.

c) The heat passed to or from the cylinder jackets

per Kg of air during both compression and
expansion, stating the direction of flow in each case.

5.24 Bar , 746 KJ/Kg, 55KJ/Kg rejected during compressio n, 158KJ/Kg received during expansion 

Cv  0.718 KJ / KgK , R  0.287 KJ / KgK ,   1.4

9/6 A Diesel engine has a compression ratio of 14 to 1 and the fuel is cut off at 0.08 of
the stroke. If the relative efficiency is 0.52, estimate the mass of fuel of calorific
value.43,200 KJ/Kg which would be required per hour for 1 kw output.
(.272 Kg/Hr).

9/7 An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 15 and the heat transferred to
the working fluid per cycle is 1850 KJ/Kg. At the beginning of the compression
process, the pressure is 1.013 Bar and the temperature is 15oC. Determine:

a) The pressure and temperature at each point in the cycle.

b) The thermal efficiency.

c) The mean effective pressure

  1.4 , cv  0.718 KJ / Kg K
44.9 Bar, 851K, 2692K, 5.08 Bar, 1444K, 55.1%, 13.4Bar 

9/8 A compression ignition engine working on the dual combustion cycle has a
compression ratio of 10.5 to 1, and two-thirds of the heat of combustion is liberated at
constant volume, the remainder at constant pressure. The maximum pressure is 44.1
Bar and the pressure and temperature at the start of compression are 0.93 Bar and
49oC. The index of compression and also of expansion is 1.33 and the working fluid
may be assumed to be air throughout the cycle.

Find:

a) The thermal efficiency of the cycle.

b) The mean effective pressure.

(52.3, 5 Bar).
93
 10. Heat Transfer

10/1 A pipe containing a gas at a temperature of 195°C has an external radius of 75mm. It
is lagged to a radius of 150mm with asbestos of conductivity 0.163W/mK. The
surrounding air is at 21°C and the loss from the lagging surface is
10.25 x 10-3kW/mK difference of temperature between lagging surface and air.

Find the heat loss in kW per 30m length of pipe.

(6.71kW)

10/2 A tank containing oil at 65°C loses 634W/m2 to its surroundings. When it is insulated
with 50mm of material of k = 0.163W/mK, the outer surface of the insulation takes up
a temperature of 26°C.

Find the reduction in the heat loss.

(80%)

10/3 Determine the heat leakage through 1 sq meter of the wall of a cold chamber
constructed of brick (k = 0.5) 175mm thick, insulated externally by a 75mm layer of
cork (k = 0.025), the latter being protected externally by wood (k = 0.1) 50mm thick.
The interior of the cold chamber is at -1°C and the outside temperature is 15°C. Find
also the interface temperatures. Units of k are W/mK.

(4.15W, 0.45°C, 12.92°C)

10/4 Water at 65°C flows through a 50mm bore steel pipe 5mm thick. The surroundings
are at 18°C. The pipe conductivity is 52W/mK and the surface heat transfer
coefficients inside and outside are respectively 1500W/mK and 13W/mK.

Calculate the heat loss per meter and the surface temperatures. An insulating layer
25mm thick and of conductivity 0.17W/mK is added to the outside of the pipe.
Assuming the same inside coefficient and the outside coefficient of 9.7W/mK,
calculate the heat loss/meter length and the surface temperatures.

(114W/m, 64.52°C, 64.50°C, 54.2W/m)

10/5 A pipe of outer diameter 50mm is covered with two layers of insulating material each
25mm thick, the conductivity of one being five times that of the other. Prove that the
insulation is about 30% more effective when the better insulating material is put on
the inside than when it is put on the outside. Ignore the surface heat transfer
coefficients.

10/6 Determine the rate of heat transfer per unit area of a black body at -20oC

(232.3W/m2)

94
10/7 In a storage radiator the surface of the core has an area of 0.5 m2 and temperature of
200°C. If the outer cover has the same surface area and a temperature of 60°C,
calculate the rate of heat transfer taking place.

Assume the surfaces to act as black bodies and the convective heat transfer
coefficient between the surface of the core and the air to be 10 W/mK.
Take the ambient temperature. to be. 20°C.

(1970.4W)

10/8 Re-calculate Q10.7 above assuming that the core and outer cover act as grey bodies
with emissivity values of 0.8 and comment on your results

(1613.6W)

10/9 An un-insulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are
25°C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and
emissivity are 200°C and 0.8, respectively.
If the coefficient associated with free convection heat transfer from the surface to the
air is 15W/mK, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe?

(998W/m)

95