Chapter 3 - Principles of Classroom Amnahement - Levin and Nolan

CHAPTER
Understanding Why Ch¡ldren

Misbehave
Tbe Basics
r
Nature of tbe Dl.sci.pline Problem
I
:, ' , Understanding Wlty Cbi.ld.ren Misbebaae
üre r
Understanding Societal Change and lts lnfluence on Children's Behaviors Recógnizing Student Needs
:feit .
Recognizing Bullying o Understanding Dwelopmental Changes and Accómpanying Behaviors
-. hat
. .
Recognizing the lmportance of lnstructional Competence Understanding Besiliency
lor?
-'oes
PRINCIPLES OF CIA.SSROOM MANAGEMENT
---ent 1-. An awareness of the influences of misbehavior, which are often beyond the schools'
- had control, enables teachers ro use positive intelvention techniques rather than negative
techniques, which stem from erroneously viewing rnisbehavior as a personal affront.
rha-
::-ICe ?
2. Satisfaction of basic human neecls such as food, safety, belonging, and security is a
.l of prerequisite for appropriate classroom behavior.
3. The neecl for a sense of significance. competence, vil'tue, and power influences stlldent
behavior.
4. Cognitive and moral developmental changes result in normal student behavior that often is
disruptive in learning environments.
5. Instructional competence can lessen the efTects of negative outside inflr.iences as well as
prevent the misbehavior that occllrs as a result of poor instruction.
PREREADING QT]ESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND JOURNALING

1.. As you think about changes in sociery that yor-r have seen in your life, how have societal
vieu.s of appropriate and inappropriate behavior changed? Are these changes positive or
negative? §7hy?
37
38 Section 1 . Foundations
2. Many students exhibit disruptive behaviors in school at one time or another. §fhat
factors influence students to choose to behave in inappropriate ways?
3. How might changes in students' cognitive and moral development be a contributing
factor in influencing students' behavior?
4. \fhy do many teachers and administrators ignore bullying in the schools? Vhy does
cyberbullyinghave such a negative impact on those being bullied?
5. §7hat teaching strategies facilitate resilient student behavior?
¡NTRODUCTION
"Kids aren't the way they used to be. §íhen I went to school, kids knew their place. Teachers
wanted to teach and srudents wanted to learn. The students respected their teachers, and be-
lieve me, they sure didn't fool around in school like they do today." Adults frequently make
these statements as they remember the "way it used to be," but are they true? Not entirely!
There have always been some behavior problems in our schools if only because of
students' normal developmental changes. There also have always been some schools and
homes that have been unable to provide adequately for children's needs. Even so, recent
rapid societal changes-including the significant changes in society's beliefs about "the
place" of all people in society, especially children-have been the catalyst for new behavior
problems and have compounded existing ones (Levin and Shanken-Kaye,2002). There have
been significant shifts in the family strucrure, the U.S. distribution of wealth and knowledge,
the culrural and racial makeup of the population, and wodd economies, as well as advances
in technology that were only fantasized a few decades ago. In addition, media reports of vi-
olence have increased disproportionately to actual violence in society. These changes have
resulted in many students at risk for future problems. These changes are evident in students'
thoughts, attirudes, and behavior. Nonetheless, students still are intrinsically motivated toward
skill acquisition and competency (Stipek, 2001), and teachers still want to teach.
If, however, teachers want to maximize their teaching time, they must minimize the
effect of societal changes on student behavior. Teachers must (1) not expect srudents to
think and act the way they did years ago, (2) not demand respect from students solely on
the basis of a title or position, (3) understand the methods and behaviors young people
employ to find their place in today's society, (4) understand the ongoing societal changes
and the influence these changes have on students'lives, and (5) be a catalysf for encourag-
ing resiliency for at-risk students. To assist teachers in reaching this goal, this chapter de-
scribes some of the main factors that have influenced students to change and provides an
explanation of why srudents now behave as they do.
SOCIETAL CHANGES
For over 100 years, it has been recognized that schools are microcosms of the larger society
(Kindsvatter, 1978; Dewey, 1.91.6). Therefore, discipline problems in the schools reflect the
problems that face society. The social climate of the nation, city, or town and the commun§
that surrounds each school has profound effects on students' perceptions of the value of ed-
ucation and their behavior in school (Menacket §7eldon, and Hurwitz, 198».
It is widely recognized that our society is plagued by the ills of drug and alcohol use,
crime and violence, unemployment, child abuse, adolescent suicide, and teenage pregnancy.
Chapter 3. Understanding \X4ry Children Misbehave 39
It is no coincidence that if these problems exist, so do school discipline problems. This clear
relationship between social problems and school discipline problems simply highlights the
fact fhat many factors that contribute to discipline problems are beyond the schools' control
(Bayh, 7978;Barton and Coley, 2007).
Even if there were no societal problems, disruptive behavior could still be expected in
a school because it is an institution that brings together many of the conditions that facilitate
misbehavior. Large numbers of young people, many of whom are still learning socially ac-
ceptable behaviors and would rather be elsewhere, are concentrated in one place for long
periods of time. These young people come from a wide range of backgrounds, with differ-
ent ethnic, racial, and parental attiludes and expectations concerning education. A school
exposes all students to norm-violating behaviors and makes failure visible (Elliott and Voss,
197 4; Feldhusen, 1978).
Children no longer grow up in a society that provides them with constant, consistent
sets of guidelines and expectations. The intense, rapid technological advancements in mass
communication of the last two decades have exposed young people to violence and a mul-
titude of varying viewpoints, ideas, and philosophies. \fith this exposure, the direct influ-
ence of parents, community, and school has begun to wane. Role models have changed.
Schools are now faced with children who are exposed to more varied types of information
than ever before. As a result these children think and act differently.
The Knowledge Explosion and the Erosion of Respect for Authority

Since the 1950s, when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first satellite, there has been
an unabating explosion in scientific knowledge and technological advancements. This ex-
plosion has resulted in products only dreamed of previously. Digital and satellite phones,
DVDs, satellite dishes, CD-ROMs, powerful personal computers, personal digltal assistants
(PDAs), FAX machines, the Internet, e-mail, and other telecommunication devices that are
used for instantaneous worldwide personal communications and access to an ever-expanding
array of databases are common loday.
To understand how great the explosion of knowledge has been, consider this. In the
early 1970s, less than 20 years after Sputniks launch, it s/as estimated that by the time chil-
dren born in 1980 reached the age of 50, the wodd's knowledge would have increased 32
times, and 97 percent of all knowledge would have been learned since they were born
(Toffler, 1970). §fith the advances that have been made in the last 35 years, these estimates
are probably much too low. Nothing illustrates this better than the emergence of the Internet.
Such a rapid expansion of knowledge has caused generation gaps charactetized by
discontinuities rather than mere differences. By the end of elementary school, many children
possess knowledge that their parents only vaguely comprehend. This is poignantly clear in
areas such as personal computing, information retrieval, ecology, biotechnology, andastron-
omy. In addition, because of the almost instantaneous telecommunication of national and
wodd events, children are keenly aware of the state of the present world. They see famine,
terrorist attacks, war, political coruption, drug busts, street violence, and chemical spills on
a daily basis.
Such knowledge has caused many young people to view adults as ineffective in man-
aging their own wodd. These young people perceive past solutions to life's problems as
irrelevant to the wodd in which they live. Therefore, respect, which was once given to
adults because of their woddliness and expertise, has eroded, and adults exercise less
int-ir-rence <tn the yollng than they once clid. 'ü7hen

talking to adolescents' it is common to
"Why cio we have to do it by hand
hear sr.rch statements ,.,t, "UV parents clon't unclerstancl,"
to be honest when gov-
when there are calculatr"' ttl" can clo it for you?" "\x/hy do I have
spell checkT
efnlllent olficials are always lying?" ancl "Dicln',t yolt ever hear <>f
complex ancl frightening place and as yotlng people per-
As the worlcl becomár rr',',-r.r..
ceive tl-reir parents ancl teachers to lle less relevant soLlrces for solutions, the future for these
producing such feelings
y()Llng people ltecornes more remote, uncefiain, and unpredictable,
.,live for toclay." M<»'e than 40 years ago, Stinchcombe (1964) clerlonstrated a direct rela-
as
attittldes ancl behaviors' Thclse
tkrnship betr,veen aclolescents' ifirages of the future ancl their
aclolescents who saw little or nothing to be gained in the
fttture frorn school attenclance were
there are even more yoLlng
likely to exhibit rellellior,rs, alienated behavitlr. Unfc>rtunately,
Clearly, then, a teacher's
peoplc today with this irnage of the future th¿rn there were in 1964.
detnc¡nstrate the present and future usefulness of the
alrility to m¿rximize student success ancl
perceived value of education'
material to be learnecl plays an irnportant role in str¡clents'
The Knowledge Explosion, Teacher and Student Feelings

of Frustration, and the Relevancy of Schooling
Teachers too perceive many school
Students are not alone in their feelings of fiustration'
because of the aimost impos-
curricula to be irrelevant to toclay's worlcl. They are fir-rstrated
ancl the new technologies'
sible task of keeping r-rp with the expansion of knowleclge
coft-rpared to the daily expansion
Changes in school crirricuia occur at a snail's pace when
of infbrmation ancl technological advances'
keep abre¿st of clev-elopments
Many teachers have ,id ,hr, they lincl it i'rpossible to
pedagogical n-roclels, many of
in their content areas ancl the rapidly expanding ai.ay of new
l'rzu'e for'rncl it ciifficr-rlt to
which supp()ft the use ()r ne\\,-technologies. ln aclclitkln, many twhile
they truly clesire to
integrate the ner,v material into an alreacly overltlaclecl curriculum
integrate technol<lgies into their
restrLlcture their curricula in me¿rningfr'rl ways ancl tc>
the necessary resollrces or
instrtrctional pr¿rctices, they ctften fincl that their scl-rools lack
<lr teacher release time f<¡r currictt-
c<>mnitment t() invest in the latest technrtlclgies, training,
Theif feelings <;f fir-rstration leacl to ioll clissatisfactirln and poor morale'
lum clevelopment.
interactir>ns'
q,l-rich can spill int<> the class«x,,n clisguisecl as less than ideal teacl-rer-stuclent
and teachers are properly
Horvever, u,hen schot¡ls are alrle to invest in the new technologies
()ccllr f«¡r botl-r teachers ancl students, as illustratecl
trainecl in tl.reir use, pou.crful changes cltn
in Case 3.1.
Case 3.1 ,,
of Teaching"
"This ls the'GreatestThing That Has Happened to Me in Twen§Years
At a national eclucation conference, one of endles§ hassle. He was not sure he wanted
the authoru met Mr. Lee, a 2O-year veteran to return to the classroom the next year' .
high-school'earth science teacher' Mr'-Lee A few Years latei, surPrisinglY,
saicl'that he''fék he was no longer reaching Mr. Lee s/as seen again at another'national
his studen8 who were disinterested and education conference. He said that not
rumed off. In his opinion, every daywas an only had he remained in the classroÓrn
Chapter 3. Understanding §7hy Children Misbehave 41
Just as students are positively affected by contemporury and innovative educational

programs that meet their needs, they are negatively affected by those that do not. Frustration
is a natural outcome when instructional methodology does not change, and students are ex-
pected to learn more in shorter periods of time. Traditional instructional practices used to
deliver outdated content become meaningless and boring to youth who are growing up in a
world significantly different from that of their parents. §7hat often is labeled by teachers as
only a lack of motivation may actually involve the students' inabiliry to feel any affiliation
with what is going on in the classroom (Gabay,799I). Lack of affiliation leads to boredom
and off-task, disr-uptive classroom behaviors.
Teaching facts only is oot sufficient. To prepare them for their future rather than our
past, students must be instructed in ways that facllitate their "learning how to learn" (see
Chapter 5). However, such pedagogical outcomes are being significantly hampered by an
educational climate that emphasizes accountability measured by high-stakes assessments.
Thus, many teachers find themselves "teaching toward the test." Case 3.2 illustrates how stu-
dents respond to different types of educational experiences, depending on their relevancy.
Obviously, Mary has a much better attitude about capitals than her sister. Although neither
sister knew the requested capital, Mary knew one v/ay to find it and was willing to follow
through. Could it be that the different attitudes are related to the different instr-r-rctional
strategies that had been used in the giils' classrooms? Unlike Amy, Mary had an oppofiunity
to use appropriate instructional technology and was taught a skill that facilitates her ability
to be a selfJearner. In other words, Mary was "learning how to learn."
Television and Violence

Unlike any stimulus available eadier in human history, including radio, television transmits
to a viewer incredible amounts of information and gives the viewer a "window on the
world." Ninety-nine percent of 8- to 1S-year-olds live in homes that have at least one televi-
sion set (Rideout et a1.,2005). The average American child spends as much or more time
watching television and using other media-approximately 28 to 40 hours per week
(American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry et al., 2000; Rideout, et a1., 2005)-
than she does in a classroom. Clearly, then, television has become a maior source of infor-
mation for and major influence on children. The inhabitants of the TV world, however, often
act and think in ways that contrast sharply with the attitudes and behaviors of parents and
teachers.
42 Section 1. Foundations
on the amount
Most studies on the impact of television on children have concentrated
In Psychological Association stated'
of violence portrayed and iti effects. 7993 the American
,:N"u.ly 4 dÉcades of research on television viewing and other media have documented the
levels of media violence" (p' 33)'
almost universai exposufe of American children to high
that' on average' there were
content analysis of ielevision shows in the early 1950s indicated
1993)' However' TV pro-
11 threats or acts of violence per hour (Congressional Quarteily,
is 50 to 60 times more
grams in the early 2000s indiáate that commercial TV for children
acts of violence per hour on
violent than prime-time TV for adults. On average, there are 26
over 80 acts of violence per
weekend children's programming, with some cartoons having
most TV programs in
hour (American esyihiairic Association,2OO2). Given the format for
frequent interruptions for unre-
the United States-brief sequences of fast-paced action with
the average child would witness 16'000
lated commercial messag.r-i was prediited that
televised murders )OO,OOO acts of violence by the age of 18 (American Psychiatric
"n¿
Association, 2002).
The "eyewitness"
violence is not solely a characteristic of fictionalTY progtamming'
stories' Content analysis has indicated that
local news format frequentty features violent
covered as local
stories about -rr.de., ,"p., und assault are disproportionately
news, while stories of inteinational violence and crime predominate in national ne\ /s-
casts (Atkin, 1983). Television news collects and concentfates violence by practicing
,,bodycount journalism" (Simmons, 1994), which follows the axiom "if it bleeds it
leads,, (Kerbel, 2000). Although actual homicides have steadily
declined over the last
two decades, there has been an inversely proportional increase of 450 percent of
homicide stories on the maior networks (Grand Rapids Institute for Information
to percent of all the aiftime devoted to new§
Democracy, 2000), which accounts for 40 50
(Klite, 7999).
a violent news
The immediate emotional reaction that children have after watching
,,is that, it's going to happen to them next" (cantot, 7999; Rees, 2003)' children are
srory
news' Longer-tefm
particularly ,rrr..ptlbl" to this fear when the violence is real as on TV
Chapter 3. Understanding §íhy Children Misbehave 43
effects include emotional, physical, and behavioral problems (Cantot 2002; Kaiser Family
Foundation, 2003a\.
Although in the 1950s some psychologísts suggested that TV violence had a cathafiic
effect and reduced a child's aggressive behaviors, by the 1980s, laboratory and field stud-
ies had cast serious doubt on the cathartic hypothesis (Pearl, Bouthilet, andLazar, 1982).
By L993, the American Psychological Association stated: "There is absolutely no doubt that
higher levels of viewing violence on television are correlated with increased acceptance of
aggressive attitudes and increased aggressive behavior" (p.33). Psychologists now suggest
that the effects of TV violence may extend beyond viewers' increased aggressive behav-
iors to the "bystander effect," or the increased desensitization or callousness toward vio-
Ience directed at. others (Congressional Quarterly, 1.993). In addition the American
Psychiatric Association stated, "The debate is over. Over the last three decades, the one
overriding finding in research on the mass media is that exposure to media portrayals of
violence increases aggressive behavior in children (American Psychiatric Association,
2002, p. 1). The National Institute of Mental Health reported, "In magnitude, exposure
to television violence is as strongly correlated with aggressive behavior as any other
behavioral variable that has been measured" (cited in American Psychiatric Association,
2002, p. 1.).
Some researchers have proposed that violence on TV produces stress in children. Too
much exposure to too much violence over too long a time, they say, creates emotional upset
and insecur§, leading to resultant disturbed behavior (Rice, 1981). L 1984 study has indicated
that hea'r.y TV viewing is associated with elementary school children's belief in a "mean and
scary world" and that poor school behavior (restlessness, disruptiveness, inattentiveness,
aggressiveness) is significantly correlated with the home TV environment (number of
sets, hours of viewing, and type of programs) (Singer, Singer, and Rapaczynski, 1984;
Mwruy, L995).
Of course, there have been many theorles about the relationship between TV viewing
and children's behavior (Pead, 7984). The observational modeling theory, which is now over
30 years old, is the most widely accepted. This theory proposes that aggression is learned
from the models and real-life simulations portrayed on TV and is practiced through imitation
(Bandura, 1973; Cantor, 2002).In trying to explain the effects of TV on school behavio¡ Rice,
Huston, and W'right (1982) hypothesized that the stimuli of sound effects, exciting music, and
fast-action images generate an arousal reaction, with an accompanying inabiliry to tolerate
the sometimes long conversations, explanations, and delays characteristic of the real world
of school.
In addition to vieu/ing violence on TV, children can participate vicariously in violence
by playing today's video games. Eighty-three percent of homes have video-game-capable
technologies (Rideout et al., 2005). According fo CQ Researcber,80 percent of today's video
games contain violence, a noted increase from eadier years (Congressional Quarteily, 1993).
Teenagers also spend 4 to 5 hours a day listening to music and watching music videos and
report that this is their favorite activity (Children's Defense Fund,2002a). Music videos aver-
age more than one violent scene per minute, which is more than twice the rate on TV
(Center for Media and Public Affairs, 1999). Recent meta-analysis research indicates that ex-
posure to violent video games is associated with increases in aggressive behavior
(Anderson, 2004).It has been hypothesized that this increase in aggressive behavior may be
more than that associated with other violent media that is more passive than the hands-on
active engagement necessary when playing violent video games.
44 Section 1o Foundations
effects on chil-
Researchers are beginning to discover that in addition to short-term
dren,s behavior, media ..iol".r.. has long-term negative effects.
In one of the eadiest longi-
relationship between early TV viewing at age
tudinal studies, it was found that there was a
g and aggressive behavio t af age 18. These same individuals were followed up al age 30 and
chld and arrests and convictions for
again th1"re was a relationshipLetween TV viewing as a
In a more recent study' it was found that
violent crime (Eron , 1982; nion and Slaby, 1994)'
family background, community envi-
even when the variables of prior aggressive behavior,
for, there was a relaüonship between the
ronment, and psychiatric diagnosis were controlled
behavior at age 22 (Johnson et al.,
number of hours of TV watcñ ed as a child and aggressive
exposure to violent media has a cumu-
2OO2). There is also empirical evidence that repeated
and occasionally a
lative effect and is preáctive of a person becáming habirually aggressive
violent offender (Huesmann et a1.,2003).
Repeated media violence increases aggressive behavior across the
life span because it
soluüons,to conflict while decreasing
influences more positive attitudes towafd aggressive
behavioral §cfipts more cogni-
negative emotioáal responses to violence; it makes violent
of nonviolent scripts (Anderson, 2003)'
tivály avallable while dlcreasing the availabiliry
Television and Alternat¡ve Role Models

rv-ide range of alternative
Television also influences children's behaviors by presenting a
(MTV) broadcasts 24 hows a day the
models and life-styles. For instance, Music Television
'§l'hat once §¡ere mostly inaudible lyrics
audio and video imagery of the latest rock music.
which drug and alcohol use, sexual
are now visual depictions of songs, many of concern
promiscuify, hopelessness, and distrust of school and teachers'
' young petple often look to professional athletes as role models. Yet there ate an
violence that goes beyond
alarming nimb.iof incidents wheré professional athletes model
violence occurs both on and
what is acceptable on the playing fiel,C, and this unaccept¿ble
players but also sometimes spills into the
off the field. The violence is noi only befween
NBA Indiana Pacers' Ron Artest throwing
stands. Some recent noteworthy examples are the
punches as he charged into th" ,tu.,d,, the pregame fight between the NFL Pittsburgh
Steelers and Cleveland Browns, Texas Rangers' pitcher Frank
Francisco throwing a chair into
Canucks assaulting from behind a player
the stands, Todd Betuzzi of the NHL's Vancouver
from the colorado Avalanche, and healyweight boxer Mike Tyson biting off the e¿r of
Evander Holyfield. Each year many professional athletes face charges
of domestic violence
drugs. All of these acts of violence are
and felonies, as well as tÉe use of stároids and other
and replayed on national media outlets-
- publicized
highly'fiie
recent proliferation of talk shows, especially during late afternoon hours,
presents
family life as they attempt to
children with a §lamorized view of oftentimes dysfunctional
how far they can go in testing the limits of
determine who they are, what they can do, and
communicates to children pluralistic stan-
their parents, and teachers' authoiity. Television
dards, changing customs, and shifting beliefs and values'
'§ühile behavioral experimentatán is both a prerequisite arld a necessary component of
wo¿d is not as sim-
the cognitive and moral dlvelopmental growth of young people, today's
to be aware of alternative models with
ple as it once was, and paren; and teachers need
which they comPete.
children who live
Television's messages possibly have the most detrimental effects on
do not possess the things most other
in poverty. These childrán usually ate aware that they
Chapter 3. Understanding \ühy Children Misbehave 45
Americans have. They also know they lack the opportunities to obtain them in the near
future. Thus, television's depiction of the "good life" may compound their feelings of hope-
lessness, discontent, and anger. Such feelings, coupled with the fact that many of these chil-
dren feel they hold no stake in the values and norms of the more affluent society, lay the
foundation for rage, which is oÍten released in violent or aggressive behaviors directed at
others (American Psychological Association, 1993).It is imperative for teachers to be aware
of these outside influences on student behaviors in order to work constructively with and be
supportive of today's youth. Teachers are in an ideal position to help youth understand how
popular media attempts to manipulate feelings and behavior.
Changes in Ethnicity
Public schools foday are being asked to educate students who are more racially and ethni-
cally diverse than at any other time in our history. There were approximately 4p million stu-
dents during thre 2004-2005 school year (National Center for Education Statistics, 2006).
Presently, 35 percent of school-age students are from minority ethnic groups. This percent-
age is predicted to increase to 44 percent by 2020 and over 50 percent by 2040 when the
majority of school-age students will be members of "minority" groups (Olson, 2OOOa).
During the 2004-2005 school year, 42 percent of public school students were members of a
minority group. Minority students in seven states were the majorily of students (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2003a). Demographers predict that there will be an increase
in minority students in all but two srates by 2015 (Olson, 2000a).
§7hile these significant changes in the population of students can offer unparalleled
opportunities to enhance the learning environment and opportunities of all students, they
can also raise major challenges for schools and teachers. For example, in the nation's fifth
largest school district, Broward County, Florida, students come from at least 52 dlfferent
countries and speak 52 different languages (Olson, 2000b). Even more astonishing are the
80 languages spoken by students in the Housta school district, the nation's seventh largest
public school systems (\7eaver, 2006).
\X4rile the percentage of students from minority groups increases, now at 40 percent,
the percentage of teachers from minorily groups remains at an all-time low of 17 percent.
(Strizek et al., 2006). Nearly half of all schools had no minority teachers (§Teaveq 2005; U.S.
Department of Education, 1996). Communication theory discusses the concept of homophily-
the more lwo people are allke in background, attitudes, perceptions, and values, the more
effectively they will communicate with each other (Abi-Nader, 199).lt is theorized that the
disproportionate number of minority teachers leads to a lack of homophily o¡ in other
words, a lack of cultural synchronization between minoriry students and their teachers. This
can lead to misunderstandings, conflict, distrust, and hostility between students and the
teacher as well as negative teacher expectatíons. This is especially problematic when a
school's or classroom's philosophies and practices are characterizedby a lack of understand-
ing of minority students' cultural values, norms, styles, and language (hwine, 7990).
Typically, schools thaf arc based on a white middle-class culture often deliver a curriculum
that charucterizes minórily language as a corruption of English, minority familial structures
as pathological, and historical contributions from minorities as absent or minimal (Ladson-
Billings, 1994). Such learning environments create a negative learning climate in which the
productive engagement of minority students in learning is greatly reduced, with a concomi-
tant increase in disruptive behavior.
46 Section 1' Foundations
BASIC NEEDS
FAILURE TO MEET CHILDREN'S
The Home Environment
Eclucatorshavelongrecognizedthe.significantinfluenceofhomelifeonachild,sbehavior
abii§ to meet students'basic
As case 3.3 ilLrr;;;;r,in. 1ro-"'t
ancl on academic p.og."ri.
needs is particularly crucial' is it surpnsl ns that she has academic
rü/hen consiclering Teresa's home environment' neecls predicts
tf tt"'y áf ¡"it human
and behavio, p.obl.*.r'in schooli .t¡.unu* rüurio*t
Teresa,sbehavior.AccordingtoMaslow(1968),basichumanneeclsalignthemselvesintoa
hierarchY of the following levels:
thirst' breathing
L. Physiological neecls: hunger' heat and coid
needs: protection lrom iáiury, pain, extremes of
2. Safety ancl security
3.Belongingandafáctionneecls'gi'i";;;át"ttli"glove'warmth'andaffection
4.Esteemandself-respectneeds:feelingadequate,competent,worthy:beingappreciated
seffi-rulfillmenr by using one's
talents ancl potential
,.3:*;:',ffi::1iJ;::::
Ifiower-levelneeclsafenotmet,aninclividualmayexperiencedifficulry,ffustration,
to meet the higher-order needs'
and a lack of motivation in attempting
Case 3.3
Maslow's hierarchy also represents a series of developmental levels. Although the meeting
of these needs is important throughout an individual's life, a young child spends considerably
more time and effort meeting the lower-level needs than an older child. From preadolescence
on, assuming the lower-level needs are met, emphasis shifts to the higher-order needs of
esteem and self-actuahzafion. (Fumher discussion of self-esteem is found in a later section.)
Academic achievement and appropriate behavior are most likely to occur when a
student's home environment has met her physiological, safety, and belonging needs. This
enables her to begin to work on meeting the needs of esteem and self-actualizafion both at
home and at school.
Let's now examine Teresa's home environment in light of Maslow's hierarchy of basic
needs. Her breakfast of potato chips and soda, her clothing (a light jacket and sneakers) on
cold days, the lack of a father at home, and a mother who is rarely present are indications
that her physiological, safery, and belonging needs are not being met. Because of her inad-
equate home environment, she has attempted to meet her need for belonging and esteem
by bragging about hanging out with teenagers and by using loud, vulgar statements in class
and disturbing other students. Given her situation, it is surprising that Teresa still attends
school on a regular basis. If her home environment remains the same, if she continues to
achieve below grade academically, and if she continues to exhibit behavior problems, she
probably will quit school at an early age, still unable to control her own behavior.
The results of a longitudinal study of third-, sixth-, and ninth-grade students
(Feldhusen, Thurston, and Benning, 1973) provided clear evidence of the imporlance of the
home environment on school behavior. Persistently disruptive students differed substantially
from persistently prosocial students in a number of home and family variables:
1. Parental supervision and discipline were inadequate, being too lax, too strict, or erratic.
2. The parents were indifferent or hostile to the child. They disapproved of many things
about the child and handed out angry, physical punishment.
f. The family operated only partially if at all, as a unit, and the marital relationship lacked
closeness and equal§ of partnership.
4. The parents found it difficult to discuss concerns regarding the child and believed that
they had little influence on the child. They believed that other children exerted bad
influences on their child.
In its 1993 publication, Violence and Youtb, the American Psychological Association
offered examples of the family characteristics of children with antisocial behaviors that were
quite similar to the Feldhusen et al. findings. The examples included parental rejection,
inconsistent and physically abusive discipline, and parental support of their children's use of
aversive and aggressive problem-solving approaches. The study found lack of parental
supervision was one of the strongest predictors of children's later conduct disorders.
Case 3.3, Feldhusen's longitudinal study, and the American Psychological Association
sufirrnary describe homes that could be considered abusive or at least neglectful. Statistics
from 2005 indicate that over 3.3 million referrals were made to authorities regarding possible
child abuse or neglect. Approximately 899,000 children were found to be victims of abuse or
neglect (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2007). Abuse and neglect have a
negative impact on children's ability to learn and increase the vulnerabil§ of children to
future violent behavior and substance abuse (Children's Defense Fund, 2002d). Additionally,
domestic violence poses a serious risk factor for child abuse (National Center for Injury
Prevention and Control, 1999). Estimates range from 1 million to 4 million women experience
48 Section 1 o Foundations
Bureau of Justice
domestic violence each year (American Psychological Association, 1996;
violence occufs are 1,500
statistics, 1995). Children who come from homes in which domestic
not from such homes
times máre [kely to be victims of abuse than children who do come
(Department of Justice, 1,993).It is estimated that belween 3.3 and 10 million children witness
These children are at risk for
clomestic violence .n Ly.u, (Children's Defense Fund, 2002e).
much more likely to display
future behavioral, emotitnal, and academic clifficulties and are
many nonabusive or
violent and other delinquent behavior (Peled et al., 1995)' However,
nonneglectful home environments also create situations that are quite stressful to children'
for example'
This stiess may be symptomatically displayed as behavior problems Consider,
from Teresa's, it too has a
Case 3.4. \7hi1e Seth's home environment is significantly different
increasing number of
detrimental effect on behavior in school. seth's situation is one that- an
in an address given
children face. As former u.S. secretary of Education, Terrel H. Bell, said
today arc atleasf pattly
in L984to educaüonal leaders: "The problems of American education and
in the lifesryle, stability,
attributed to changes that have taken place over the past decade
commitment of parents." Bell's assertion that students' education can be negatively affected
of the failure that students
by home factors has recently been empirically demonstrated. Much
poverty, and the gov-
e*pe.ience in school cun bá predicteá and explained by home factors,
ernment,s inadequate ,rppt., of education. Specifically four variables, all beyond the
rate, being fead to
schools' control, *.r" unuiyred: being raised by a single parent, absentee
of what was going on in
by a parent, and the u-orr.rt of time watching television. Regardless
for Ñvo-thirds of the
túe school, using these four variabler, ..r.urih.rs were able to account
vartance found in standardized academic tests
(Barton and Coley, 2007)'
During
\Xhat changes have occurred in the home environment of American children?
the last half century, the divorce rate increased over 100 percent' ln 1996 the divorce rate was
The total number of
approximately 50 percent of new marriages (Kreider and Fields, 2001).
divorces in 2000 was approximately 1.1 million, up from approximately 950,000
in 1998
(National Center for Heátttr Statistics, 2006). Although most divorced people eventually
."-urry (Kreider and Fields, 2001), remarriage often creates additional problems for children
(vishei and visher, 1g7g). \xhile it has been noted that any form of marital conflict increases
(Rutter, 1978), chil-
the iikelihood that children will develop some type of behavioral problem
dren of divorced or nevef-married parents afe tv/ice as likely to drop out of school, three
times as likely to get pfegnant as teenagers, 12 times as likely to be incarcerated if they are
n ümes more likely to be incarcerated if they are children of never-
children of divorce,
"ia
married parents (Public Broadcasting System, 2002)'
*t,ll.i:i:!it:i:!r
Chapter 3. Understanding \7hy Chitdren Misbehave 49
),.).:.........1 t.a:t,..:............1.iíP:t:::
)j...:..:::.. \.::))jj).....:..||1|i.:.:::::::::::
j:'.. :i-:.'''''1..:ll}ü]
ru::rlt, r:tirx;;;::#
Single-parent households are also increasing. The number of single mothers increased
from 3 million in 197o to 10 million in 2000, and single fathers increased from approximately
400,000 to 2 million over the same time period (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2001). The per-
centage of children under 18 living with one parent has increased from 12 percent in t970
to 32 percent it:, 2007 (Barton and Coley, 2007). Divorce not only changes the family struc-
ture, but also frequently results in a decrease in the family's standard of living, with an
increasing number of children and their single mothers moving into povefty status (Levine,
1984; Kreider and Fields, 2001). In 2000, approximately 15.3 million children lived in female-
headed households, 40 percent of which were at or below the poverty level (Children,s
Defense Fund, 2002b). In 2000, 16.2 percent (11.6 million) of all children under the age of
18 lived below the poverty level (Children's Defense Fund, 2002c). These children ate at a
greater risk than others of developing academic and/or behavioral problems (American
Psychological Association, 1993; Children's Defense Fund, 7997; Gelfand, Jenson, and Drew,
7982; Parke, 1978).
If, as Levine (1984) suggested, out-of-school experiences are stronger predictors of
school behavior than in-school experiences, today's children need competent teachers more
than ever before. Still, as the president of the Elementary School principals Association
noted, there never will be any lasting educational reform until there is parental reform
(vhitmire, 1991).
The School Environment

PHYslotoclclll NEEDS Students are in school to learn. They are continually asked to
demonstrate their new understanding and skills. In asking them to do so, schools are
attempting to aid students in a process that Maslow calls self-acttalization. \ffhen students
successfully demonstrate new learnings, they usually are intrinsically and extrinsically posi-
tively reinforced, which leads to the development of self-esteem ancl self,respect. poiitive
self-esteem futher motivates students to learn, which results in the further development of
self-actualization. The self-esteem, learning, self-actualization cycle can be maximizedonly if
the home and schools create environments in which the lower-level needs-physiological,
safety and security, belonging and affection-are met.
Case 3.5 illustrates how a young child attempts to meet the physiological need of move-
ment and activity. For some young children, no school activity takes more energy than sitting
still. §flhen the teacher demanded that Sarah sit and eventually removed recess, Sarah's phys-
iological need was no longer being met. This resulted in Sarah's excessive movement around
the room. \x4ren sarah's needs were met, the disruptive behaviors stopped.
50 Section 1' Foundations
Theimportanceofmeetingstudents,physiologicalneedsaSaplelequisitetolearning
should be evident to everyone. Ask any t.achl.
hÑ,ruch learning occurs on the first cold
or on the first hot dar- of early spring be-
day of fa1l before the heaíing system is functional are
Unfortunately, manr- of our nation's schools
fore the heating ,yrr.- lru, ñ.". turned off. the dilapidated
has turned to correcting
not new, and it is or.ty-."..r-rtty that public attention
of the nation's schools' In 7995 it §-as estimated that 14 million
conditions that exist in many
in the most serious disrepair and that 22 percenf
chil<lren auende<l,h. ;;¡óó public schools for
of public s.hools-ap-jrt*i-r,"rv 17,000
facilities-wefe o'ercfo§'¿sd (National center
in er-er\- school si-iould have ade-
every classroom
Education statistics, 2000). At a minimum
quate space ancl proper lighting and ventilation'
than a^school's environmental condi-
Somewhat iess evident, but no t"r, lÁfortunt
dons,areConcefnsabouthunger,overcrowcling,noise,andfrequentinterruptions.Teachers
have long known that studeits are iess
atte"ii"t in classes held just before lunch §?hen
a three-hour
facilities are inadequate' lunch can span
schoois are overcrov,/l.¿.,.i nnator lunch others may not eat until
periocl. Some sru<len;;t eat lunch belore 11:00 .r.u.' whereas
afterl:00p.u.Thiscanproduceagroupofstudentswhoselongt.aitforlunchleavesthem school day'
sor-ne studies suggest that the rypical
inattentive to learning tasks. In adciition, rhlthms of students'
,.ñoo-i b"gir-r, early, does not match
the circadian
particuiarly and academic performance
,,peak "rt-r.,
This .r"gu1*ely affect students' attentiveness
hours.,, -ny
(Callan, 1998; Dahl, 1999)'
overcrow<1ing' and latigue produce
in students' regardless of age'
Interfuptionr, ;;;;,
emotionaluneasinessthatmayresultinnelvousness,anxiety,aneedtowj.thdraw,orovef- and
uneasiness interferes with on-task behavior
activiry. In both or,t-r.r. .rrá, emotional
Chapter 3. Understanding slhy Children Misbehave 51
reduces the effectiveness of the teaching/learning environment. Schools must pay particular
attention to minimizing distractions if they \ /ant to reduce student off-task behavior.
SAFETY AND sEcURlw NEEDS For the most part schools create environments in which stu-
dents feel safe from physical harm. Despite increased media coverage, incidents of school
violence have decreased by half in the last decade. In L992 there were 4g acts of violence per
1,000 students while in 2002 this rate decreased to 24 acts of violence per 1,000 students
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2005). In 2000, students were more than twice as
likely to be a victim of violent crime and 70 times more likely to be a victim of homicide away
from school than at school. Thus, schools continue to be one of the safest places for children
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2OO3b). There are, however, occasions when stu-
dents, like Keith in Case 3.8, fear for their physical safety. Any incident of crime, violence,
bullying, or coercion that is the catalyst of fear for one's safety compromises the learning en-
vironment. In 2002 there were approximately 660,000 violent crimes and'1..1million thefts in
our nation's schools (National center for Education statistics, 2005).
52 Section 1" F'oundations
rr,iCá§§ 3r?':',..
''',., ,,",;; ,';.),'
,,', ?oo'MuchNoisé',r,
'' 1'¿i¡¿¡ isr».t¡¡¿-grad.e itudenr'''who'ris well

corner and rits against the wall' The
,'r i ú¿há;-ád, ,aná,.&ái.. wé11: aeaclemically.
,
teacher asks her n'ha¡ is the r¡átteÍ¡r'§hel
,':,,6rr*d¿y,di;f ihá irhiÍ<l,grade,cl4sse.§,.are sa-vs the noise h¡-lrts her eai§;r"sh€r.f.e ..,
' :r'-iákéiá,iher átt'purpó,se1iaori,,to o-bs,§rve

liie cn ing aad she ¿os5¡11¡ w,'a .1ó¡''tie,..-'
,.::
á- ij1m. Tte clá§§és. até 'di§{oi§§Ed,á:ir,nÚlta
there Ll it is going to he so noisY'
the teachers quiet ther§ludeafu
':,á¿¡tsty; án¿1rc. thit&n i*-'rhe. haltw¿v lKur.nAfter
her class. Referraf is'ao"eítt":,"
-
i.,r rre,ri¿iir- n:óiáyr béeáuse ; of :,,éxqite mel1t.

r
reioi¡rs
specialist discloses that Karen,:-há§.:rno.'f;
.,'- ¡<áie¡. i" ¡éei,wn1k!ig.'in'the'hal1vra¡1@h
'1,' t¿¡l'll6¿l'oyá her, ears,,vrhen ¡he, en!éis
problems rvith her hearing tha.t"lwoüld'r''
I, i11á1áom;'5 .éo$i.clirectti Íhé-bq have caused such a reaction
students ages 12-18 \\-ho lepofied being

Betv/een 1995 ancl 2003, the percentage of
victims of crime at school decreaseá from
t0-percentto 5 percent. Bett-een 1993 and2003'
reponecl being th'eatened or iniured with a
the percentage of stuclents in gracles 9-12 u.'ht
ar 7-9 percent, In 2003. 12 percent of
weapon on school p.;;*y r;ainecl falrly,constanr
worcls were clirected at them at school'
students ages 12-18 reported that hate-relatecl
from 5 to 7 percent of snrdents r'r'ho reported
Between 7993 aocl2003, there was an increase
Education statistics, 200í).
being bullie.l ut ,.t-rooiiNational center for
BetweenTgg3alld2003,tlrerewasadecreasefrom12to6percerrtofstudentsin
grades 9-12 who reportecl carrying a $,'eapon
to school ln 2003' 21 pelcent of students
percent
ú1eir school. This u''as a clecline from 29
reportecl that streer gnü, *.." p..r.nt_ir,
2005)'
in 1,995 (National Centei for Education Statistics'
Cásá3'8 ,
ÁÍiá¡¿ of going to §th0o1..',' .,'.',,'-',:,.':,-t'.t .'.,
graq§-',s ént;.aÓh!eve' Af,rer a feu daYs of such hehavior'

1{ é ith ;á, eigt tt -
, rt¿i¿fl*t asks Keith to stay, f.diáry-.,,
;t, ¿1,a"á*Éé ler,.el i.iá his.§oiiá1,Átpdiés:.
.íiáuiái
iási,, *hiel :áeets during the,]ásl pénó-dd .ú.Á¿,tt "nerpoint Keith lslls-híl!ér§heli,::
class to discuss',:h§ilÍbháv",,
tl¿, ¿áy''1Á¡éroximaié11r nridw@ ft ié§

ir
to be the first toléáí'§r§,
y,,ea¿.,r¿lth s'behavlry in'rhi§'''14§§' ije,; 'ú'.h¿-has
.
ct áo¿e'.xe,goes'frorn ar sruleni 'á¡áau* Greg t'ill beat himuf'!ftásees',,;;

,áini-G
i.} oi: is. *táxtí*:ánd ó¿rtici@eífleely;to *,,r.itt is fearful of G{ :b¿§áQs..9
,,ó*é, *áo i&,1álicipáre,:anrl ;h3l to
s, has th¡eatened him' for'te.!tingr*he'..
.r ¡hat he was tfu@gfti1§ t
.
:;¿li ,¡ait¡iiárá*¡tñ
,
,t!íe: rctc,h',er, '!¡*tr*u.t

llIi llrs around the loi§ei',ióqmr¿§t€tr,'
.
t.t1e,.oft¿¡,,i§.lee&..ü'er¡oti§lÍ,:lqqking-.our
: itrá r"i¿áoir'áaá ¿l, tháfirit'óüt ,of' hl's .ceat
gym class.
-.' ,r :'r
,l"ááeliroorn,atthe'encl Of,c1a¡;sr.':', , ,
There are students in all schools who experience anxiety and sometimes fear about walk-
ing to and from school, going to the restroom, dressing in locker rooms, or changing classes.
However, this fear and anxiety among students has also decreased. In 1995, 12 percent of stu-
dents ages 12-18 reported that sometimes or most of the time they were fearful at school, com-
pared to 6 percent of students in 2003. Similady, there was a decrease in students who reported
avoiding certain places in school for safety concerns from 9 percent in 1995 to 4 percent in 2003
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2005). The more students feel insecure about their phys-
ical safety, the less likely they will exhibit the on-task behaviors necessary for learning.
BELONGING AND AFFECTION NEEDS §rhile these needs are most often met by famlly at
home or by the students' peers in and out of school, there must be elements of caring, trust,
and respect in the interpersonal relationships between teachers and students. In other
words, there should be a caring, supportive classroom climate. Such a climate is more likely
to be created by teachers who subscribe to a referent pos/er base in the classroom. The
development of various teacher power bases will be studied in Chapter 4.
§fithall (1"96» stressed that the most impofiant variable in determining the climate of a
classroom is the teacher's verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Appropriate student behavior can
be enhanced s/hen teachers communicate the following to the learners:
Trust: "I believe you are able to learn and want to learn."
Respect: "Insofar as I try to help you learn, you are, by the same token, helping me
to learn."
Caring: "I perceive you as a unique and worthwhile person whom I want to help to
learn and grow." (\X¡ithall, 1979)
For students to learn effectively, they must pafiicipate fully in the learning process. This
means they must be encouraged to ask and answer questions, attempt ne.w approaches, make
mistakes, and ask for assistance. However, learners only engage in these behaviors in settings
in which they feel safe from being ridiculed or made to feel inadequate. Study Case 3.9. As the
year progressed, Ms. §l'ashington failed to demonstrate her trust, respect, and caring for her stu-
dents. Thus, her students were discouraged from fully participating in the learning process.
Comments such as, "\7hy do you ask so many questions?" "You should know this: we
studied it last week," or "Everyone should understand this; there should be no questions"
serve no useful purpose. Indeed they hinder learner participation, confidence, and motivation
and lead to off-task behavior. Glasser (1978) saw failure as the root of misbehavior, noting that
when students don't learn at the expected rate, they get less "care" and recognition from the
teacher. As the situation continues, students see themselves as trapped. Acceptance and recog-
nition, it seems to them, can be gained only through misbehavior. In sharp contrast to the feel-
ings of Ms. §l'ashington's students are the feelings of the fifth-grade students in Case 3.10.
:]r§wwt
:.:.rá ffiffiffiffi§
,«,
6§ii:rrrrirlls§.:::,rrr,rrt,r,rr,ll,rrlrllrrii:tiirilit,il,iri
))).)j).)))j)j:j)j',:.j)j:1:::,t::t::):):::::):)::)),.)).)j.),,:il:.::1:,.]..:::.::l:iiliillllitlltillltililliiltiiiittiiil
CHILDREN'S PURSUIT OF SOCIAL RECOGNITION AND SELF.ESTEEM

Social Recognition
Alfred A<ller, the renowned psychiatrist, and Rudolph Dreikurs, Adier's student and col-
league, believed that behavior can be best understood using three key premises.
1. people are social beings who have a need to belong, to be recognlzed, and to be
accepted.
2. Behavior is goal directed and has the purpose of gaining the recognition and accept-
ance that people want.
l. Peopie can choose how they behave; they can behave or misbehave. Their behavior is
not outside their control.
Chapter 3. Unde¡sranding \X/hy Children Misbehave 55
Putting these key ideas together, Adler and Dreikurs theorizecl that people choose to
try a wide variefy of behaviors to see s/hich behaviors gain them the recognition and accepr-
ance they want. \üFhen socially accepted behaviors do not produce the neecled recognition
and acceptance, people choose to misbehave in the mistaken belief that socially ,rrri...p,-
able behaviors will produce the recognition they seek.
Applying these premises to children's conduct, Dreikurs, Grundwald, and pepper
(1982) identified four goals of disruptive behaviors: attention getting, power
seeking, ..,r".rg.
seeking, and the display of inadequacy. According to this theory, these goals, which are usu-
ally sequential, ate strongest in elementary-aged children but are also present in adolescents.
Attention-seeking students make up a large part of the misbehaving population in the
schools. These students may ask question after question, use excessive .hurrr, continually
need help or assistance, continually ask for the teacher's approval, call out, or show off. In
time, the teacher usually becomes annoyed. \7hen the teacher reprimands or gives these
children attention, they temporarily stop their attention-seeking behavior. In CasJ 3.11, Bob
was a child who felt that he was not getting the recognition he desired. He saw no chance
of gaining this recognition through socially accepted or constructive contributions. He first
channeled his energies into gaining attention. Like all attention-seeking students, he had the
notion that he was important only when others took notice of him and acknowledged his
presence.lü{hen attention-getting behavior no longer gives the students the recognition they
want, many of them seek recognition through the next goal, power, which is exactly what
Bob did when he began to confront the teacher openly.
Students who seek pov/er through misbehavior feel that they can do what they want
and that nobody can make them do an)'thing they don'r want ro clo. ey challenging teáchers,
they often gain social acceptance from their peers. Power-seeking students n.g.r-., ú", ignore,
become stubborn, have temper tantrums, and become disobedient in general to show that
they are in command of the situation. Teachers feel threatened or challengecl by these chil-
dren and often feel compelled to force them into compliance. once teachers enter into
power struggles with power-seeking students, the students usually "win." Even if they do not
succeed in getting what they want, they succeed in getting the teacher to fight, thereby giv-
ing them undue attention and time as well as control of the situation. If the teacher ,,*lnr,, ttr.
power struggle, the winning reinforces the students' idea that power is what really counts.
§7ith a power-seeking student, reprimands from the teacher result in intensified chal-
lenges or temporary withdrawal before new power-seeking behaviors reappear. As power
struggles develop befween a teacher and a student, both teacher co.rt.oliirg and siudent
power-seeking behaviors usually become more severe and the student-teachér relationship
deteriorates further (Levin and Shanken-Kaye, 2002). lf the student sees herself as losing the
power struggle, she often moves to the next goal-seeking rel,enge.
56 Section 1o Foundations
treated un-
feel that thev have been
VhenStudentsperceivethattheyhay3noControloveftheirenvironment,theyexpe-
ut'¿ f#il"ñt;
rience an increasecl '";J;;;;tiátv disrásard for their feelings'
;;;Ñwhat they .""jioJ;;';'"^;;;"t' rhem. Eor
fairty ancl are deeply thar they thilk ha.,e hun
Thev seek revenge uv n"-i^!
others'
"É.." '".1,,,..ho," who happenecl to be sitting along
instance, Bob sought iir'r#.*; or-, rnr-r¿o,-ti,"át"á"'rt
otnli stuclents and sometimes
t1-ti1d]t"'-' destroy
his aisle. Revenge-seetti'1g ';;;';n1=utt'1
il:t;Éi*iiff,'1:;i;:,"j';'i:'*,ii1lil*IX!,T;?!llJl; hu. and have a dirricu*
result in
,i*¿"* Teacher reprimands usualiy
bert io. ,f-r"
time being .or-r."..,"A'#nn;;;;;,
Chapter 3. Understanding \X/try Children Misbehave 57
an explosive display of anger and abusiveness from the student. Over time, the teacher feels
a strong desire "to get even."
Unfortunately, revenge-seeking behaviors elicit dislike and more hurt from others.
Revenge-seeking students continually feel a deep sense of despair and worthlessness. Their
interactions with other people often result in negative feelings about themselves, which even-
tually move them to the last goal-the display of inadequary. They cannot be motivated and
refuse to participafe in class activities. Their message is clear: "Don't expect any,thing from me
because I have nothing worthwhile to give." They are often heard saying, "§rhy donlt you just
leave me alone, I'm not bothering anyone"; "Mind your own business"; "§7hy try, I,ll just get
it wrong"; or "I can't do it."
Teachers often feel that they have tried everything with these students. Further
attempts usually result in very little,if any, change in the students' refusal to show interest,
to participate, or to interact with others. Bob's teacher actually felt somewhat relieved that
he no longer was a disturbing influence in class. However, if the teacher had been able to
stop his progression toward the display of inadequacy, Bob would have had a much more
meaningful and valuable sixth-grade learning experience, and the teacher would have felt
much more professionally competent.
Most of the goals of misbehavior are pursued one at a ttme, but some students ss/itch
back and forth berween goals. Goal-seeking misbehaviors can also be situational. The decision-
making hierarchical approach to classroom management presented in this book offers many
strategies for working with children seeking these four mistaken goals. In addition, specific
intervention techniques for each goal are discussed in detail in Chades and Senter (2004);
Dreikurs, Grundwald, and Pepper (1982); Dubelle and Hoffman (19g4); and Sweeney (19g1).
Self-Esteem
Self-esteem, or a feeling of self-worth, is a basic need that individuals continually strive to
meet. §Tithout a positive sense of self-esteem, a child is vulnerable to a varie\r of social,
psychological, and learning problems (Gilliland, 1986).
In his definitive work on self-esreem, Stanley Coopersmith (196D wrore that self_
esteem is made up of four components:
Significa'nce: a learner's belief that she is liked, accepted, and important to others
who are important to her.
Competence: a learner's sense of mastery of age-appropriate tasks that have vaiue
to her.
Pouter: a learner's ability to control impofiant parts of her environment.
Virtue: closely akin to significance, a learner's sense of worthiness to another per-
son's well-being because of the care and help she provides to the other person.
If families, teachers, or communities fail to provide prosocial opportunities that allow

students to experience a sense of significance, competence, pos/er, and virtue, students are
likely to express their significance, competence, power, and virtue in negative, distorted
ways (Levin and Shanken-Kaye, 2002).
It is possible to express the concept of self-esteem mathematically. V/hen it is symbol-
ized i¡ this manner, it offers an explanation of why students choose to be disruptive.
Self-Esteem : Significance * Competence * power * Virtue

58 Section 1 ' Follndations
1o\\' levels oi prosocial
exhibit chronically disrr:ptire beha'ror,h¡\e and
sNdents who hV their teachers' peers'
ifpi.rlty they are ,",", riri"a o"t"'pt"' because
significrnce hecatrse coúlpetence are depressed
Their levels or f.o'oti"t in extracurricr'rlar
sometimes even tnerr ir...rrr. compeient or inr-olr-ecl
aádemically, or are by' the
thev rarely achieve
ii*" 'o.iuttu
.r.,¿",ri, á.tlt thoo'e or. are rarely selected is lov''
actiities. tn addittonl;;;; *nrl orr-r"rr,lrr.t. sense of orosocial virtue
teacher ro inreracr Jr;;;;ü the onlr'ton-'pontt" ieft
to build the self-
setfll,.u;;;;i,r;io,', *¿i.rtlr, this striving
Therefore, as the is po§-er' It is eractly
."r-rruirs chronic misbehavior rr-h'en students choose
to
esteem of a student -r-r" i' operating
of the ,, L" *o" individual
for power, or control u *.r¿..,, .'ur-t l" "tt*"¿
"r-rrriror-rrr.r-rt,-it-rut po*'erful
behave disruptively.l,
i".i,'rr.n the amoLlnl of tin-re spent
on learn-
in the classro,r-.
g# ,j-rl'ü"r-rur." or*.r"Jái."oines §-ith a headache' or', in
,"u.ñ", i"ur", tt-'" classroom that this is not proso-
ing in the .turr.oo*-ur1J*n"tt]..,t. note
t, ir, however, important to pro\ icles the sudent with
some cases, Ieaves ,#';.;f"*i;.r. er
cial power o" oot""llJ'*;;;'
;^; ilpi;; or á'toit"¿ po\\
, ¿rrto.t.¿ "'."" or""i-gl'lou'.""

Ifn" ott-t.. kids know that they can coun
^*':li'i#"T}.;]ir";1T::"-:;'#il:J:::'lH
tf-ttt.frtt up abit'" .11 .^,^^r^ó when s'ithout considering
-,hcn teacher interacts with a student
a teat
12 illustrates' rr-ill use distorted
As Case 3
ir-,..ea*, ,il. itrttitná"cl that the- srudent
the student,, ,.it-"rt""*,
she threatened in front of
;il. ,,r¿"*'s seif-esteem ls puuiicty
Dower ro pfeselve ]"*r;;;
will use distorted powef increases'
il, ;";,"illirañ""liirraishe
Bullying s^^^-^Â ccrintts oroblem that has a long-term
oi n s'iucren'Í a"emp'iins '[o
::l'nx: lilT,:'}il:;ili:1"?1iiiÉ'\1"";'lÉi::'i':i'iüi'
tr-r" ru.rity gonh or
powef artJ'"\/"ttgt seeking
and self-
throrrgr,
obtain social recognition power'
significance ancl distofied
esteer) through ¿i3io't"¿
Chapter 3. Understanding §(zhy Children Misbehave 59
Bullying does not have a universally accepted definition but there is consensus that
three components are present in bullying behavior. These are (1) intentional "harm-doing"
behavior by a person or a group (2) caried out repeatedly and over time and (3) targeted
toward someone less powerful (Nansel et al., 2001).
The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development,s 1999 nationally rep-
resented survey of over -1.5,600 students in grades 6 through 10 indicated that 30 percent of
the students were involved in bullying either as perpetrators, victims, or both. Expanding
this to a nationwide population, 3.7 million students were bullies, J.2 million were victims,
and L.2 million were both. Results indicate that bullying is present in all schools and rates
are not significantly different among mral, urban, and suburban schools. Boys were more
likely to be victims (21 percent) and bullies (26 percent) than girls (14 percent and 1.4 per-
cent respectively) (Nansel et al., 2001). The great majority of bullying occurs in schools, with
middle and junior high schools experiencing more bullying than elementary and high
schools (Sampson, 2002; Nolin et a1., 1995).
In school, there are several types of bullying behavior that involve direct or physical
action and/or indirect action such as verbal harassment (euiroz, 2002). These are (1) direct
and physical behavior (hitting, spitting, shoving); (2) verbal behavior (name calling, verbal
threats, put-downs; (3) emotional behavior (making indecent gestures, rejecting, stafiing
rumors, blackmailing); (4) sexual behavior (propositioning, physical touching, commenting
about physical traits); and (5) hate-motivated behavior (taunting about sexual orientation,
race, religion, culture). Boys tend to engage more in direct bullying while girls bully using
more indirect behavior (Nansel et aL.,2001).
The negative impact on victims and bullies are both immediate and long-term.
Students who are victims of bullying become fearful of going to school. It is estimated that
160,000 students miss school each day because of fear of being bullied (Coy, 2001). Other
student behavior associated with being bullied includes avoiding certain places or people in
school; exhibiting sudden changes in behavior, such as becoming withdrawn, fearful, or
anxious; complaining about unexplained physical symptoms, such as headaches, stomach
pains, or tiredness; and unexpected changes in academic performance resulting in lower
grades (Pace, 2001). Students who were bullied were found to have lower self-esteem ancl
higher levels of depression at age 23 when compared to adults who were not bullied in
school (Nansel et aL.,2001,). After the Columbine shootings, the United States Secret Service
attempted to profile a school shoorer. They found that of the 37 school shootings studied,
almost three-quarters were bullied prior to choosing to attack others in the school. Upon
being interyiewed, some of the shooters described bullying that in the workplace woulcl
meet the legal definition of harassmenf and/or assault (vossekuil et al., 2oo2).
Approximately 60 percent of boys who were classified as bullies in grades 6 through !
were convicted of at least one crime by the age of 24 and 40 percent had three or more con-
victions compared to 23 percent and 10 percent, respectively, of boys who were not bullies
(Olweus, 1993).
Research focuses on three areas in trying to understand and predict which students will
likely become bullies. These are characteristics of the child, parental,/home influences, and
the out-of-home environment (Batsche and Knoff, 1994). To date, there are no definitive
characteristics of children that predict future bullying behavior. At home, parents who fail
to set behavioral limits for their children's behavior; who use controlling, aggressive, and
coercive means to discipline; and who encourage their children to assert themselves in socially
unacceptable ways increase the likelihood that their children may become bullies. In the larg-
er environment, the media often glamorize bullies, and their actions frequently go without
60 Section 1 ' Foundations
Consequencesandmayacruallyberewarded.Arecentstudyshowedapositiverelationship
and büllying beha'ior (Kaiser Family Foundation'
between exposure to'media ,iol".r." nof growing up and that "kids will
is transient
2003b). Socieqr's anitudes that bullying ^ádp
and pafiicularly teachers to pay litd;
if any attention to the bullies or their
be kids,, lead adults
victims. Finally, .ro*d"á school conditions
,"á ó"".ry zupervised school locations such as
and ha[wáys increase the likelihood of
bullying'
locker rooms, .uf","tiu', p1áygt""a'' for their victims' and
Because most buliés victimize "weaker"
,*d".ro, lack empathy
Seemtoderivepleasurefromthetofmenttheyinflictolottrls'itisonlynaturalthatthe form of
to it"uth the bully a lesson" through some
traditional school lntelention is intended punishments are limited in their
punishment. For all th. l.uro., discussed
in chapt.. 6.
behavior and encourage appropriate behavior' If punish-
effectiveness to prevent inappropriate the
is anadditional disadvantage because this models
ments are aggressively dellre.eá, there
bullyingprocess.Thistimeit'sabigger'strongeradult-picking":F"smaller'weakerbully'
in the normal. development of young peo-
Bullying should ,rot ¡" cons-idered , ,irg"
futíre behavior, including violence and weapons
ple. Bullying l, u pr..rrrrorof more serious a social con-
Given the fact that bullying occurs in
and assault offences (Nansel et al', 2003)' that "kids will be kids;"
text of schools where teachers and parents
1.. ,r.rr*^.", or believe
and
á g"' involved; victims are usually scared
observing students are afraidor reluctant power, effective intervention
defenseless; and bullies are motivated
by reverige, control, and
involve the"entire school cornmunity' A well-researched
necessary to pr"rr..rt'úrrl,irrg "r""
á.,[yi.rg Prevention Program, has consistently
schoolwide prevention progfam, olweus
reducedbullyingby50percent(olweus,2001;olweusandLimber.Tgg).othercompre- (2004)'
are described by Smiü et al'
hensive bullying prevention programs
CyberbullYing
A relatively new and particularly virulent.for- "f
O:lYii1; "''"t or cyberbullying'
Cyberbullyingisthe*rur.,tandrepeatedharmtoapersoninflictedthroughelectronic
media.Itenablesbtrlliestopostput-downs,nastyrumors.aldhumiliatingpictureson
u'd cell phones' As noted previously'
e-mail, blogs, chat rooms, websites' i""'"i'Á""ugt''
(r) irréntional harm (2) carried out repeatedly
bullying behavior has three components' po*1. is usually physical or social with traditional
over time, arñ a (3)power differential. (Patchin and
from onllne proficie.rcy of the bully
bullying. \rith cyberbullying, power stems follows a stu-
rhat occurs in school, cyberbullying
Hinduja, zoo6). un¡k. t u¿liárrut bullying
at any time'
dent (ome where she can be victimized
ThemostfecentcomprehensivedataindlcatesthatTpercentofstudentshavebeen year' Boys
have bullied online during the previous
vicrims of .yberuutiy;;;, ñ G f..."rr, 14 years old and
and girls are equally likely to b. ,u.g.r.j1,
*"tt u, to be butlies. Teens
olderaremorelikelytobevictimsthanyo,,,g",students.(YbattaandMitchell,2004a), person'
effects as those who are victimized in
victims of cyberbullying exhibit the samJ depression' and-in
These effects include lower grades, torr".
*r-tsteem, a lost of interests'
áO p.r.".i of cVler6¡Uied
victims reported being
extreme cases-suicide. In Áe ,,ray,
orr",
.; exrremely afraid (Finkelhor et al', 2000)'
very or er,rremely upset and 1! percent;;
DEVELOPMENT
STAGES OF COGNITIVE AND MORAL
think'
thought exactly the same way as adults
Not too long ago it was believed that children has shown that children
piaget,s work in the area of cognitive developlent, however, think
Jean
through distinct stages of cognitive a.d
motaide"elopment' At each stage children
move
Chapter 3. Understanding \Vhy Children Misbehave 61
and interpret their environment differently from children at other stages. For this reasoll, a
child's behavior varies as the child moves from one stage to another. An understanding of the
stages of development enables a teacher to better understand student behavior patterns.
Cognitive Development
Throughout his life, Piaget studied how children interacted with their environment and how
their intellect developed. To him, knowledge was the transformation of an individual's expe-
rience with the environment, not the accumulation of facts and pieces of information. His
research resulted in the formulation of a four-stage age-related cognitive development theory
(Piaget, 1970), which has significantly influenced the manner in which children are educated.
Piaget called the four stages of development the sensorimotor, the preoperational, the
concrete operational, and the formal operational stages. The sensorimotor stage occurs from
birth to approximately 2 years of age. It is characterized by the refinement of motor skills
and the use of the five senses to explore the environment. This stage obviously has little im-
portance for teachers working with school-age children.
The preoperational stage occurs from approximately 2 fo 7 years and is the stage most
children have reached when they begin their school experience. Children at this stage are
egocentric. They are unable to conceive that others may see things differently from the way
they do. Although their abil§ to give some thought to decisions is developing, the greatma-
joriry of the time they act only on perceptive impulses. Their short attention span interacts
with their static thinking, resulting in an inabilily to think of a sequence of steps or opera-
tions. Their sense of time and space is limited to short duration and close proximity.
The concrete operational stage occurs from approximately 7 to 12 years. Children aÍe
able to order and classi$z objects and to consider several variables simultaneously as long
as they have experiences with "concrete" content. Step-by-step instructions are needed
by these children if they are expected to work through lengthy procedures. Vhat can be
frustrating to teachers who do not understand the characteristics of this stage is that these
children do not attempt to check their conclusions, have difficulry thinking about thinking
(how they arrived af certain conclusions), and seem unaware of and unconcerned with
inconsistencies in their own reasoning.
At about the age of 1.2 years, at the earliest, children begin to move into the formal
operarional stage. They begin to develop independent critical thinking skills, to plan lengthy
procedures, and to consider a number of possible answers to problems. They no longer are
tied to concrete examples but instead arc able to use symbols and verbal examples. These
children, who are adolescents, begin to think about their own and others' thinking, which
leads them to consider motives; the past, present, and future; the abstract; the remote; and
the ideal. The methodological implications for teaching students at each stage ate somewhat
obvious and have been researched and written about extensively (Adler, 1966; Gorman,
1972; Karplus, 1,977).
Moral Development
Piaget related his theory of a child's cognitive development directly to the child's moral de-
velopment. Through his work, Piaget demonstratedthata child is close to or at the formal
operational stage of cognitive development before she possesses the intellectual ability to
evaluate, consider, and act on abstract moral dilemmas. Thus, what an elementary school
child thinks is bad or wrong is vastly different from what an adolescent thinks is wrong
(Piaget,1.965).
Using Piaget's work as his basis. laurence ñohiberg purposecl that moral clevelopmer
progresses through six levels of moral reasonins: punishment-obedience, exchange «
favors, good boy-nice gid, Iaw and order. social contnct. and universal ethical principlt
(Kohlberg, 1.969, 197 5).
Berq/een the ages of 4 and 6, children har-e a -punishment--obedience" orientation I
moral reasoning. Their decisions are based on üe phr-sical consequences of an act; will th(
be punished or rewarded? Outcomes are paramount. and rhere is very little comprehensic
of a person's motive or intention. Children's ego(-enrism ai rhis stage limits their abiliry t
see other points of view or alternatives.
Between the ages of 6 and 9, children mor-e inro üe -eschange of favors" orientatior
At this level, judgrnents are made on the basis of reciprocal thr-ors: you do this for me ancl
will do this for you. Fulfilling one's own needs comes tjrsr. Children are just beginning t
understancl the motive.s behind behaviors and outcomes.
Between the ages of 10 and 15, children mor-e into the "good boy-nice girl" orienti
tion. Conformity dictates behavior and reasoning abilin. Peer rer-iew is strong, ancl jud¡
ments about how to behave are made on the basis of ar-oidin-e criticism and pleasing other
The drive to conform with peers is so strong that it is quite comnon to follow peers unqller
tioningly but, at the same time, continually to ask -s'hr-- svhen requests are made by aduit
The "law and order" orientation dominates mor¿i reasoning bern een the ages of 1
and 18. Individuals at this stage of developr-nent are quite rigid. _Iudgments are made on th
basis of obeying the law. Motives are understood but nor s-holeheartedly consiclered if th
behavior has broken a law. At this stage, teenagers are quick to recognize and point out ir
consistencies in expected behavior. It is quite cornflron ro hear rhem say to adults, "§7hy d
I have to do this? You don't." At this stage, adolescents begin to recognize the consequence
of their actions.
According to Kohlberg, few people reach the last rs'o ler-els of moral reasoning. Th
"social contract" orientation is reached by some bern'een the ages of 18 and 20. At this leve
rnoral judgments are made on the basis of upholding indiridual rights and democratic prir
ciples. Those who reach this level recognize that individuals differ in their values ancl clo nc
accept "becar¡se I said so" or "that's the way it is" as rationales for rules.
The highest level of moral reasoning is the "universal
eüical" orienrarion. Judgmenl
are based on respect for the dignity of human beings and on s'hat is good for humanity, nc
on selfish interests or stanclards upheld by authoriw.
As in cognitive development, the ages of any moral der-elopment stage are approxime
tions. Individuals continually move back and forth benveen srages. depending on the morz
situation at hand, especially at transitional points bersveen stages.
Behavior: The Interaction of Cognitive and Moral Development

To understand how chilclren perceive what is right and \\'rong. sr-hat cognitive skills they ar
able to use, and what motivates their social and academic behavior, teachers must uncler
stand the stages of moral ancl cognitive growth. Teachers must also recognize comlnon de
velopmental behaviors that are a resr.rlt of the interaction of the cognitive and moral stage
through which the children pass. §7hile this interaction does not and cannor explain all clis
ruptive classroom behaviors, it does provide a basis on which v/e can begin to unclerstanr
many disruptive behaviors. Table 3.1 summarizes the cognitive and moral stages of develop
ment, their characteristics, and associated behaviors.
Some misbehavior can result when

instruction is not matched with students'
cognitive development stages.
At the beginning of elementary school, students are in the "preoperational" stage cog-
nitively and the "punishment-obedience" stage morally. Their behavior is a result of the in-
terplay of factors such as their egocentricity, limited sense of time and space, little compre-
hension of others' motives, and short attention span. At this stage, children become
frustrated easily, have difficulty sharing, argue frequently, believe that they are right and
their classmates wrong, and tattle a lot.
By middle to upper elementary school and beginning junior high or middle school,
children are in the "concrete operational" stage cognitively and the "exchange of favors" to
the "good boy-nice girl" stages morally. Eady in this period, students form and re-form
cliques, acf on opinions based on a single or very few concrete characteristics, and tell se-
crets. They employ many annoying attention-seeking behaviors to please the teacher. Later
in the period the effects of peer conformity appeat. Students are often off-task because they
are constantly in conversation with their friends. Those who do not fit into the peer group
are excluded and ridiculed, which may explain why, cyberbullying begins to increase in jun-
ior and middle school (Ybana and Mitchell,2004).
Students still have little patience with long discussions and lengthy explanations. They
are unaware of, or unconcerned about, their inconsistencies. They are closed-minded, often
employing such phrases as, "I know!" "Do we have to discuss this?" or "I don't carel" with a
tone that communicates a nonchalant lack of interest.
By the time students are leaving junior high school and entering high school, most
of them are in the "formal operational" stage cognitively and moving from the
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64
Chapter 3. Understanding §lhy Children Misbehave 65
"good boy-nice girl" to the "law and order" stage morally. By the end of high school, a few
of them have reached the "social contract" level.
At this stage, students can deal with abstractness and conceive of many possibilities
and ideals as well as the reality of their environment. Although peer pressure is still sffong,
they begin to see the need and rationale for rules and policies. Eventually they see the need
to protect rights and principles. They are now attempting to discover who they are, what
they believe in, and what they are competent in.
Because students at this stage ate searching for self-identity and arc able to think
abslractly, they often challenge the traditional values taught in school and home. They need
to have a valid reason for why everything is the way it is. They will not accept "because
I said so" as a legitimate reason to conform to a rule. Some hold to a particular behavioE ex-
planation, or judgment, even in the face of punishment, if they feel that their individual
rights have been challenged or violated. Unfortunately, many of these behaviors are carried
out in an argumentative format.
There have been a number of studies that supporl the idea that normal developmental
changes can lead to disruptive behavior. Jessor and Jessor (1977) found that the correlates of
misbehavior in school are (1) growth in independence, (2) decline in traditional ideology,
(3) increase in relativistic morality, (4) increase in peer orientation, and (5) increase in mod-
eling problem behaviors. They concluded that the normal course of developmental change
is in the direction of greater possibility of problems. However, CLailzio and McCoy (1983)
found that normal problem behaviors that occur as a developmental phenomenon have a
high probability of being resolved with increasing age. A study of 400 famous twentieth-
century men and women, which concluded that four out of five had experienced difflcul-
ties and problems related to school and schooling (Goertzel and Goefizel, 7962'), appears
to support the Clarizio and McCoy findings.
Age-specific behavior often is the result of the interaction of cognitive and moral development.
66 Section 1. Founclations
INSTRUCTIONAL COMPETENCE
influences of
At first glance, it wotild seem that the teacher has little of no control over the
thus far. While it is true that a teacher cannot signifi-
misbehavior that have been cliscussed
societal, famiiial, and developmenial events, she can
cantly aiter the course of most of these
Excellent instructional competence can minimize the
control her instructional competence.
maximize the learning potential in the ciassroom, and pre-
effects of these ongoing
"r.Ár,
vent misbehavior caused by poor instructional methodology'
her
¡7hy cloes Ms. cook ir', cnr" 3.13, who is knowleclgeable and enthusiastic about-ürhy
young people, have such discipline problems?
subject -",r"1. and enjoys working with
weil-behávecl students misbehzrve to such an extent in one pafiicular
class?
do otherwise
The stuclents, responses indicate a reasonable answer: tire teacher's lack
of skill in basic
instmctional methodologY.
Because of l¿s. Coát's instructional skill deficiencies. her students clicl
not accord to her
respect a teacher receir-es because she possesses spe-
expert pouer, the social authority ancl
(Fi'ench ,.,i1 Rn,r.,-t, 1960). (This and other authority bases are
ciat knt*rtectge ancl expefiise
inability to com,-ittnicate content c1early, evaiuate and
discussecl in clepth in ihapter 4.) Her
remecliate student misundlrstandings. an<l explaln the reler.'anc)' of tl-ie content to her stu-
her expertise in tl-re field of mathematics'
dents, lives causecl her stuclents to fail to recognize
Case 3.13
' i¡,*áiinlt'l,.'.,r'i:' f i: '''iii'''"
)'i,,"'
"".''*
Á*§ .' ',
;:,,,¡-ffi§.:,:i:Cóstu love§...§1aaié§*iiit,gó*.étiáyl ,.lárlinistration, &1s. Cook decide§ aÓ§,:¿ ;r,
,:r,ñrti¡g,,'*i6,y."untl,¡eo,iq,álr¡tt ,,sAer.Íitúr*iot her second ,"ut oleuóh,i{qñ

..::,,,Ofte* nn,:eai*g.Iánályallnlrái§áÁ@.,....,,r',,,..,,,i,,Ia, ,án attea-lpt to understaádr.;th*
.,,,riú;i ¿í.ááAáiiná,,i. iiáái:s. tiehavior, the students' aie,,iñtet''r
rr-,ilmethemátjssr,.rhá,,,,*es:iirc,¡Lt§:.,'e¿'rt a.rr'¡-i";", at the end of the schÓol.iCá.tti:Tbá
,:'';iiiá*.¿áC¡aá§ údááúc§,áná,:]bé:].. l.9ying are the most corB1!tÜr!.ie§p.ol1.
,í,iá e§,áLttneára,éá*.ai,,i6¿.llá¡áld«tlíé ¡i"r"ing Ms. cook's,rnéthods';,,1,,.':r',,;...
..*tiéVáit§¡é,oú¡¿ils.á,Éa¿ñiaá,pqqttl§ái¿t.4..'rrrrl',,,,, . r ,,.,,,,,,,.
,,.
,,,,,'r,'1.i..,,,:r:ir.,,,11,'':.:
¿! ' rb¿;jü.*lqi..tñiáhl§ j§ :',:rir.r:,"'1.lGave unclear explañátim§..-;;,: '1;'.¡..;.

'"r$;
,.'r2i,¡':7,&s:.,.,¿á ró*¿i áüiilitá t6r,x,,§,'Discussed ropics ,havj!§-CIo&i+g
tll*1.¿},&il! {¿á;¿'óáéiit,¿ñii¿i:;.. ,,.., r,little to do with "'§1bié¿tlrt&
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Chapter 3. Understanding Vhy Children Misbehave 67
A teacher's ability to explain and clarlfy is foremost in developing authoriry. Kounin

(7970) found that teachers who are liked are described by students as those who can explain
the content well, whereas those who are disliked leave students in some state of confusion.
Kounin also noted that when students like their teachers, they are more likely to behave appro-
priately and are more motivated to learn. As Tanner (1978) stated, "Teacher effectiveness, as
. perceived by pupils, invests the teacher with classroom authority" (.p. 6D. To students, teacher
effectiveness translates to "explaining the material so that we can understand it." \ü4ren this
occurs, students regard the teacher as competent, and the teacher is invested with authority.
RESILIENCY
This chapter summarizes many of the ills of society and how such environments negatively
affect students' behavior. These negative influences are often called risk signs. Research in
identifying factors that put students at risk for developing problems later in life began in the
1970s. Most of these risks are beyond the control of teachers and schools and include expo-
sure to social and economic disadvantages, dysfunctional child-rearing practices, family and
marital discord, parental mental health problems, antisocial peer group, and trauma. These
factors are cumulative; the risk for poor life outcome rises sharply as the number of risk fac-
tors increase (Resiliency Resource Centre, 2008). However, there is much qualitative and em-
pirical evidence that supports what most teachers already know: that many children rise
above the multiple and severe risks in their lives to become competent adolescents and
adults. §7hen this occurs it is said that the student possesses resiliency, or the student is
resilient. In other words, resiliency is the capacity for children to adapt successfully and
overcome severe stressors and risks (§l'erner and Smith, 1992).
Longitudinal studies consistently document that at least half to as many as two-thirds of
children growing up in dysfunctional famiiies, poverq/, and drug- and violence-infested en-
vironments overcome these adversities and turn life from one characterized by extreme risk
to one of resilience or successful adaptation (Benard, 1995). What are the characteristics that
differentiate those children who possess resiliency from those who succumb to the adversi-
ties they face?
Researchers have considered a wide range of individual, family, social, and environ-
mental factors as discriminators. These factors seem to cluster into three broad categories:
(1) cognitive and behavioral, (2) social and contextual, and (3) genetic. Cognitive and
behavioral factors that enable a child to cope effectively with stress include social and emo-
tional problem-solving abilities, a sense of optimism and autonomy, and self-esteem (Rutter,
1985). Social and contextual factors include quality relationships with parents, teachers, and
other significant adults; access to community services; and regular attendance at schools
where teachers have high behavioral and academic standards ('§flerner, 799r. Genetic
factors include gender, temperament, intelligence, and physical health. Girls, individuals
with an easygoing personality with above-avetage intelligence, and individuals in good
health are more resilient.
Resiliency is not a finite characteristic of a student, with some students possessing it
and some students not. Instead resiliency is a complex dynamic process reflecting the inter-
actions among cognitive, social, and genetic factors. Thus, it is probably more accurate to
think in terms of children manifesting resilient behaviors and those that are not rather than
describing a student as resilient or not resilient. Resiliency is dynamic and depends on con-
text, age of the student, and the teacher. §7hat may be considered resilient behavior in ele-
mentary school is likely not to be the same behavior in high school'
Researchers have analyzed the experiences of teachers and families working and living
with at-risk youth. An outcome of this research is an understanding that there are characteris-
tics of the family, school, and community that can aid students in circumventing risks and in-
crease the likelihood of students' displaying resilient behaviors. The famiiy, school, and
community can selve as protective factofs. Protective factors can be grouped into three
major categories: (1) caring and supportive relationships, (2) positive and high expectations,
and (3) oppofiunities for meaningful participation. Many of the protective factors are the re-
verse of risk factors. Thus, it is often helpful to consider risk factors and protective factors to
be the opposite ends of continuums. For example, a risk factor might be a pessimistic out-
look toward the future, while a protective factor might be an optimistic orientation'
Caring, supportive teachers are the most frequently encountered positive role model
outside the immediate family (Benard, 1995; Noddings, 1988). A meaningful student-teacher
relationship built on a foundation of care, respect, and trust gives young people the motiva-
tion to try (Levin and Shanken-Kaye,2002).
Teachers and schools that establish high academic and behavioral standatds and provide
students with the suppolt needed to reach the expectations have high rates of appropriate
behavior and academic performance. The expectations and support ate charactetized by
pedagogy and evaluations informed by what is known about how students learn and are not
driven by high-risk standardized tests (Cotton, 2001). Providing young people with oppornrni-
ties for meaningful involvement and responsibilities within the school and community, partic-
ularly in ways that provicle students' with a sense of virtue, fosters resiliency (Benard, 1991).
To summarize, caring teachers who communicate high expectations, provide students
with suppott, and encourage meaningful student involvement are positively affecting young
peoplei basic needs and their self-esteem. -ü7hen basic needs are met and young people
feel good about themselves, they are likely to be more protected from their adverse environ-
ment and to display resilient behavior.
For teachers to be a catalyst for facilitating resilíent behavior in their students they must
examine their beliefs. Teachers must genuinely believe their students are capable of
succeeding; otherwise, teachers may experience the negative effects of a self-fulfilling
prophecy (Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968): that is, negative beliefs about students lead to
negative feelings about stuclents that lead to negative behaviors toward students (Levin and
Shánken-Kaye,20OZ). Thus, teachers need riot master nev/ strategies or specialized skills to
encourage resilient student behavior. Instead they must remain positive and encouraging
and serve as a roie model to their students (Howard and Johnson , 7998). The best outcomes
for students are more likely when interventions are continuous and are implemented at an
early age, before problematic behaviors become evident (Nastasi and Bernstein, 1998).
A teacher has total control over the use of effective teaching strategies.
Summary
Although there are innumerable influences on emotional impact on both the bully and the
students' behavior in schools, this chapter has bullied. Out-of-school experiences are much
focused on some of the major ones. more significant predictors of school behavior
Societal changes, most notably the ef- than children's in-school experiences. §7hen a
fects of the knowledge explosion and the child's basic need for self-esteem is not met at
media revolution, have created an environ- home andlor is not met at school, discipline
ment that is vastly different from that in which problems frequently result.
children of previous generations grew up. Throughout the school years, children's
More children now than ever before live in cognitive and moral development, as well as
single-parent homes. Also, more children their continual need for social recognition, is re-
today arc living at or below the poverty level flected in their behavior. A teacher has little or
than in previous generations. Additionally, no control over many of these developments.
'§7hat
schools are more diverse now than ever be- she can control is her own instructional
fore. Because of these and other factors, some competence. Excellent instruction can amelio-
children's basic needs, including the need for rate the effects of outside influences and can be
self-esteem, are not met by the home. In- a catalyst for encouraging resiliency. Effective
school bullying and cyberbullying are often teaching can also prevent the misbehavior that
overlooked and dismissed by teachers and occurs as a direct result of poor instruction.
administrators, even though it is widespread Effective teaching techniques are covered in
and has a significant negative physical and more detail in Chapter 5.
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Exercises
prevention pro-
5. Research indicates that bullving
1. Look back on your os/n school experiences' grams should be schools'ide to include parents'
your
§trhat are some instructional techniques and victims lf you
that ha«1 the potential to discourage i"u.n.tt, students' bullies,
teachers used a comprehensive preventlon pro-
were designing
disruPtive student behaviors? wóu1d be some important objectives
gram, whát
2. \rhai, if anything, can schools and classroom
for each of the constiruents?
meet the following
teuch"r, do to help students
6. B".u.rr" cyberbull-ving usually occurs
outside
neecls, (a) physiological' (b) safety
basic human
afíection? schooi, should schools intetwene?
and security, and (c) belonging and school's con-
can be conceptualized mathematically 7. Even though they are beyond the
3. Self-esteem
t-r.t in society can
trol, changes influence student be-
as follows: oo1. Vhat changes in society during
nrúo. ir,
the last ten years do you feel have had
negative
Self-Esteem : + Competence
Significance
1 Power + Vifiue influences on ciassroom behavior?
students to
8. In your opinion, can media influence
If so' list some spe-
misbehavL in the classroom?
How does the self-esteem formula help to
ex-
cific exampies to support your opinion
lf not'
p1ui" *ny students behave disruptively inside
explain whY.
and outside the classroom? a lack of cultural synchronization
be-
insight - - ;áw might
9.
4. How does the self-esteem formula provide *""., a-teacher and stuclents influence student.s'
to de-
into the types of interventions that can lead
behavior? behavior?
creasing a student's dismptive
10.§7hat can a teacher.do to improve cultural syn- (c) Subject-predicate agreement

chronization in a classroom? (d) Gravity
11. Explain why some educational researchers be- 13. How might inappropriate teaching of these con-
lieve that cognitive development is a prerequisite cepts for the cognitive level of the students con-
for moral development. tribute to classroom discipline problems?
12. Considering students' cognitive development, 14. Considering students' moral development,
how might a teacher teach the following concepts what can we expect as typical reactions to the
in the third, seventh, and eleventh grades? following events at each of the following grade
(a) Volume of a rectangular solid : L X §l X H levels?
(b) Civil rights and equality
Event First Fourth Seventh Twelfth

a. A student from a poor family steals
the lunch ticket of a student from a
fairly wealthy family.
b. A teacher keeps the entire class on a
detention because of the disruptive
behavior of a few.
c. A student destroys school property
and allows another student to be
falsely accused and punished for
the vandalism.
d. A student has points subtracted
from her test score for talking after
her iest paper was already turned in.
15. §lhat are some normal behaviors (considering ' their negative behavior toward a student by blam-
their developmental level) for elementary stu- ing it on the student: "I'11 respect Nicole when she
dents, junior high or middle school students, and respects me." Using the levels of moral cognitive
senior high students that can be disruptive in a development, explain why the student's ratlo¡ali-
classroom? zati.on is understandable but the teacher's is not.
16. §fhat might a teacher do to allow the normal be- 18. May resiliency researchers conceptualize risk
haviors (listed in the answer to question 15) to be signs and protective factors us opposite and
expressed, while at the same time preventing points on a continuum. Provide a few examples
them from disrupting learning? that illustrate this.
L7. Disruptive students often rationalize their inappro- 19. §(¡hat behaviors have you employed to success-
priate behavior by blaming it on the teacher: "I'11 fully overcome stressors and adversities that you
treat Mr. Lee with respect when he treats me with have experienced?
respect." Unfortr-rnately, teachers often ratiotalize

Chapter 3 - Principles of Classroom Amnahement - Levin and Nolan

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CHAPTER

Understanding Why Ch¡ldren

PRINCIPLES OF CIA.SSROOM MANAGEMENT

PREREADING QT]ESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND JOURNALING

The Knowledge Explosion and the Erosion of Respect for Authority

int-ir-rence <tn the yollng than they once clid. 'ü7hen

The Knowledge Explosion, Teacher and Student Feelings

Just as students are positively affected by contemporury and innovative educational

Television and Violence

Television and Alternat¡ve Role Models

The School Environment

'' 1'¿i¡¿¡ isr».t¡¡¿-grad.e itudenr'''who'ris well

' :r'-iákéiá,iher átt'purpó,se1iaori,,to o-bs,§rve

i.,r rre,ri¿iir- n:óiáyr béeáuse ; of :,,éxqite mel1t.

students ages 12-18 \\-ho lepofied being

ÁÍiá¡¿ of going to §th0o1..',' .,'.',,'-',:,.':,-t'.t .'.,

graq§-',s ént;.aÓh!eve' Af,rer a feu daYs of such hehavior'

tl¿, ¿áy''1Á¡éroximaié11r nridw@ ft ié§

ct áo¿e'.xe,goes'frorn ar sruleni 'á¡áau* Greg t'ill beat himuf'!ftásees',,;;

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CHILDREN'S PURSUIT OF SOCIAL RECOGNITION AND SELF.ESTEEM

If families, teachers, or communities fail to provide prosocial opportunities that allow

Self-Esteem : Significance * Competence * power * Virtue

, ¿rrto.t.¿ "'."" or""i-gl'lou'.""

Behavior: The Interaction of Cognitive and Moral Development

Some misbehavior can result when

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¿! ' rb¿;jü.*lqi..tñiáhl§ j§ :',:rir.r:,"'1.lGave unclear explañátim§..-;;,: '1;'.¡..;.

A teacher's ability to explain and clarlfy is foremost in developing authoriry. Kounin

10.§7hat can a teacher.do to improve cultural syn- (c) Subject-predicate agreement

Event First Fourth Seventh Twelfth

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