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Current Electricity
AIEEE Syllabus
Electric current, Drift velocity, Ohm’s law, Electrical resistance, Resistances CHAPTER
of different materials, V-I characteristics of Ohmic and nonohmic conductors,
Electrical energy and power, Electrical resistivity, Colour code for resistors;
Series and parallel combinations of resistors; Temperature dependence of
resistance. Electric Cell and its Internal resistance, potential difference and
emf of a cell, combination of cells in series and in parallel. Kirchhoff’s laws
and their applications. Wheatstone bridge, Metre bridge. Potentiometer -
principle and its applications
First Digit
Second Digit
Multiplier
Tolerance
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l ml
R
A ne 2 A
m
2. Resistivity of a conductor, = (where m is mass of an electron, n is number density of electrons,
ne 2
is average relaxation time).
3. Resistivity is the property of material and does not depend on the dimensions of conductor but depends
on nature and temperature of conductor.
4. For a hollow cylinder of inner radius r1 and outer radius r2, length l and material of resistivity
l r1 r2
R
(r22 r12 )
1
2. For same potential difference, v d [It is independent of area]
l
R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1
= R (t t ) , R0 = (t t ) , = R t R t
0 2 1 2 1 12 2 1
Note : If two wires having resistances R1 and R2 and temperature coefficients of resistance a1 and a2 then
the equivalent temperature coefficients of their combination.
R11 R2 2
(a) In series s
R1 R2
R1 2 R21
(b) In parallel p
R1 R2
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Super Conductors
The phenomenon in which resistance of a conductor becomes zero at very low temperatures.
(In graph TC is critical temperature and for Hg. TC = 4.2 K)
T
TC
Superconductors are found to show perfect diamagnetism (Xm = – 1). This is known as Meissner’s Effect. This
effect is used for running of magnetically Leviated Superfast train.
l
R=
A
(a) If a wire is cut to alter its length, then area remains same.
Rl
(b) If a wire is stretched or folded, area varies but volume remains constant.
R l2
For small percentage changes in length by stretching or folding, then,
R 2l
=
R l
2. Variation with area of cross-section or thickness :
(a) If area is increased / decreased but length is kept same.
1 1
R or R 2 (r = radius / thickness)
A r
(b) If area is increased / decreased but volume remains same.
1 1
R or R
A2 r4
(c) A resistance wire has a resistance R. Half of this wire is stretched to double its length and half is
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R1 R2 R3 RS = R1 + R2 + R3
2. Parallel Grouping
R1
R2 Rp
1 1 1 1
R p R1 R2 R3
R3
Illustrations :
R
nR/n + 1
1.
nR
R1 R1 R2
R1 + R2
2.
R2
R1
R2 R3 R2 Rp
3.
A R1 B R3 1 1 1 1
Rp R1 R2 R3
CELL
1. Primary cell :
(a) A cell in which electric energy is produced due to chemical reaction in it during the use of cell.
(b) Chemical reactions are irreversible.
(c) These cannot be charged (exception lithium cells are primary cells but can be charged)
(d) Examples : Daniel cell, Leclanche cell, Dry cell.
2. Secondary cell :
(a) A cell in which electric energy is first stored in the form of chemical energy and this chemical energy
converts into electrical energy during the use of cell.
(b) Chemical reactions are reversible.
(c) These are charged before use.
(d) These are also known as storage cells.
(e) Examples : Lead-acid accumulator, Ni-Fe alkaline accumulator.
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Defects in Cells
1. Polarisation : Problem arises due to accumulation of hydrogen gas around a positive electrode.
Remedy - Use of depolariser which is basically an oxidising reagent.
2. Local actions : It is due to the presence of impurities in electrodes.
Remedy - Use of amalgamated electrodes.
Type of Cells
1. Daniel cell :
Electrolyte dil H2SO4; depolariser CuSO4 solution
positive electrode Cu and negative electrode Zn
emf = 1.08 V but not constant due to defects.
2. Leclanche cell :
Electrolyte NH4Cl (solution); depolariser MnO2 powder
positive electrode carbon; negative electrode Zn
emf = 1.5 V when just prepared.
3. Dry cell :
Electrolyte NH4Cl (paste); depolariser MnO2 powder
positive electrode carbon; negative electrode Zn
emf = 1.5 V when just prepared.
4. Weston cadmium cell :
Used as standard cell. Electrolyte CdSO4(solution), depolariser Hg2SO4 paste,
Positive electrode Hg with Hg2SO4 paste.
Negative electrode amalgam of Cd with Hg
emf = 1.0183 V at 20ºC.
5. Lead Accumulator :
Electrolyte dil H2SO4, positive electrode Lead dioxide in grids of hard Pb-Sb alloy
Negative electrode spongy lead in grids of hard Pb-Sb alloy, emf = 2.1/2.0 V.
(a) Standard cell : A cell whose emf is precisely specified and remains constant w.r.t. time is known
as standard cell. e.g., Weston cadmium cell.
(b) Ideal cell : A cell whose internal resistance is zero.
Cell Terminology
1. EMF (E)
The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when no current is being drawn from it.
2. Internal Resistance (r)
The opposition of flow of current inside the cell.
It depends on
(i) Distance between electrodes (r d)
1
(ii) Area of electrodes r
A
(iii) Concentration of electrolyte (r conc.)
(iv) Temperature
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E – V = Ir .... (i)
E V V
r = R
V
from (i)
E r
when r = 0, E = V
Cell
Here E is emf and V is potential difference. Clearly V < E when the cell supplies current.
r R
i
R
(d) (s) If all cells have equal emf E and equal internal resistance r then
nE
i
nr R
E
Cases : (i) If nr >> R i
r
nE
(ii) If nr << R i E1 r1
R
2. Parallel Grouping : E2 r2
E1 E2 E3
...... E3
r1 r2 r3 r3
(a) Eequivalent =
1 1 1
........
r1 r2 r3
1 n cell
(b) requivalent = i
1 1 1
......
r1 r2 r3
(c) If all cells have equal emf. E and internal resistance r then
R
Eequivalent = E
r
requivalent =
n
E
Current i
r
R
n
r nE
Cases : (i) If R i
n r
r E
(ii) If << R i
n R
Note : If polarity of m cells are made reverse in the series combination of n identical cells then
equivalent emf Eequivalent = (n – 2m)E and internal resistance requivalent = nr
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Illustrations :
I R1 R2 I
E ER1 ER 2
1. I = R R , V1 = IR1 = R R , V2 = R R
1 2 1 2 1 2 V1 V2
V1 R1
V R
2 2
E, r = 0
I1 R1
2. E = I1R1 = I2R2
I
E E I2 R2
I1 = R , I2 = R
1 2
I1 R2
E, r 0
I 2 R1
R nR
V nV V1 V2
4. V = V1 + V2, V1 = , V2 =
n 1 n 1 V
I1 R
I I
nI I
5. I = I1 + I2, I1 = , I2 = nR
n 1 n 1
I2
E I I1 I2
6. I , V = E – Ir E
R1R2 V R1
r R2
R1 R2 r
V V
I1 , I2
R1 R2
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
1. Junction Rule : It is based on conservation of charge.
I I1
I = I1 + I2
I2
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Note : By convention rise in potential is taken as positive and fall in potential is taken as negative.
R1 R3 R1 R2
Hence if R R or R R or R1R4 = R2R3, then I2 R3 B R4
2 4 3 4
No current through R so
R1 R2 R1 R2 V
R
R3 R4 R3 R4
Similarly, for a capacitive circuit shown here,
C1 C3
If =
C2 C4
C1 C2 C1 C2
C
C3 C4 C3 C4
METER BRIDGE
Based on Wheatstone bridge principle. It is used to find unknown resistance.
Unknown
R X
D
G
l 100 – l
A B C
E
( )
P R R X
When there is no deflection in G bridge is called balanced and for balanced bridge ,
Q S l 100 l
100 l
Unknown X R
l
Note : Location of null point is independent of resistivity or area of cross-section of wire AB.
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INSTRUMENTS
1. Ammeter
(a) Ammeter is a current measuring device.
(b) It is connected in series in the branch in which current is to be measured.
R I
A
3. Potentiometer
It can measure potential difference without drawing a current from the circuit. Thus it gives accurate reading
and it can measure emf of a cell.
AB = Potentiometer wire of resistance R and length L. EP r Rh
( )
(It has two properties high resistivity and low )
Any two point C and D are separated by length ‘l’. L
A I
EP R iR i VAB B
Potential gradient x C D
r R R h L L A L l
(here - resistivity and A - Area of cross section of potentiometer wire)
Applications
1. Find the emf of a Cell or comparison of emf of two cells
EP r Rh
( )
l1
A B
l2
E1
E2 (< E1)
E1 l1
E2 l 2
If one of the emf is known then
l
unknown E2 2 E1
l1
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EP r Rh
( )
l1
A B
E,r G (No deflection)
Rext
K
Case II :
Key K is closed, balance point is at length l2.
E l1
V l2
V l2
E V l l
Rext 1 2 Rext
V l2
EP r Rh
( )
l2
A B
E1r
G
Rext K
Sensitivity of a potentiometer
VAB
Smaller the potential drop per unit length better is the sensitivity. i.e., x should be small.
L
This can be achieved by increasing the length of potentiometer wire or decreasing the current through it.
R-C CIRCUIT
1. Charging C R
Key K is closed at t = 0. Current starts flowing and charging of capacitor starts.
At any instant t, q is charge on capacitor. I is current in the circuit. E K
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q I
–t
E
I e t / RC = I 0 e
RC
(b) q0
R I0
0.63q0
At t = 0, I = E/R
0.37 I0
t t
RC RC
(c) RC = time constant. During charging, in t = RC, q = 0.63q0.
2. Discharging + –
+ – R
+ –
Key K is closed at t = 0 + –
+ –
q0
(a) q = q0e–t/RC
K
q0
(b) I = –I0e–t/RC where, I 0 q
RC
q0
(c) RC = time constant ()
at t = 0, q = q0
0.37 q0
at t = RC, q = 0.37 q0 0.135 q0
t
at t = 2RC, q = 0.135 q0 RC 2RC
(d) The charge and potential difference both decay exponentially like radio-active decay with half life
= 0.693 RC
Joule’s Law
When I current is passed through a device having resistance R, then the amount of heat produced in time t
H = I2Rt in joules
I 2Rt
H in calories
J
where J = mechanical equivalent of heat = 4.186 or 4.2 J/cal
Electric Power
Let a charge dq flows through a device from a to b, (from higher potential to lower potential).
V
I
Device
a b
E
Decrease in potential energy dU = Vdq = VIdt
dU
Power associated with this flow = VI
dt
Rate of electrical energy transferred to the device = VI
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Rating of an Appliance : A device is rated as P watt, V volts. This means that when the device is connected
to V volt, it will consume a power P.
V2
Resistance of the device R is constant, while both P and V are variable.
P
Generally if a voltage more than the rated voltage is applied, the device may get destroyed (like a bulb may fuse).
nV 2
Note : For n identical resistors, PTotal
R
2. Parallel combination R1
V2 V2 V2 R2
P1 , P2 , P3
R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 R3
P1 : P2 : P3 :: R : R : R
1 2 3
V
V2 V2 V2
PTotal = r=0
R1 R2 R3
1 1
1
1
1
= V 2 where
R R R1 R 2 R 3
nV 2
Note : For n identical resistors, PTotal
R
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3. Short circuit
V
(a) When switch ‘S’ is open I
3R
R R R
V2
Total power =
3R
V2 V
S
Power dissipated in each resistor is
9R
(b) When switch S is closed (third resistor’s short circuited)
V
I
2R R R R
V2
Total power =
2R
V2 V S
Power dissipated in each resistor is
4R
E 2R dP (R r )2 2R(R r ) I
E r
P I 2R 2
E2 0
(R r ) dR (R r ) 4
R=r
R
Results :
E2
1. Power in external resistor is .
4r
P
E2 Pmax
2. Dissipated power in internal resistance is .
4r
E2
3. Total power supplied by the cell is .
2r
r=R R
4. Efficiency of the circuit is 50 %.
Fuse Wire
1. Made of lead and tin alloy.
2. Has low melting point.
3. Current capacity (current at which it blows)
r3
I2
(a) I r3/2,
1
(b) I ,
(c) I is independent of length of fuse wire.
4. Time taken to melt the fuse wire t A2 or t r4, ‘t’ is also independent of length.
5. A fuse wire is connected in series with main supply.
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