1 T0 8

CONTENTS:
1. Non Directional Over current & Earth fault Protection - Presentation
2. Notes on Non Directional Over current & Earth fault Protection
3. Directional Over current & Earth fault Protection - Presentation
4. Notes on Directional Over current & Earth fault Protection
5. Distance Protection Basic Principles-Presentation
6. Distance Protection Mutual Compensation Principles-Presentation
7. Distance Protection Schemes- Presentation
8. Notes on Distance Protection Schemes
9. Notes on Distance Protection
10. Additional Notes on Distance Protection
11. Sample setting Calculation notes on Distance Protection
12. Numerical relay- The MiCOM Technology- Presentation
13. MiCOM Px40 – An introduction- Presentation
14. Numerical Distance Protection Relay-MiCOM P442- Presentation
15. Documentation on functional testing workshop - MiCOM P440 series relays
16. MiCOM P442 series relays Test formats – Practical session
17. Application Check on Instrument Transformer for Distance Protection
18. Transformer Protection - Presentation
19. Notes on Transformer Protection
20. Notes on Transformer relays setting Tutorial
21. MiCOM Px30 Platform & Hardware Introduction
22. MiCOM S1 – Px30 Series

23. Numerical Transformer Protection Relay-MiCOM P632- Presentation
24. Documentation on functional testing - MiCOM P630 series relays
25. MiCOM P630 series relays Test formats – Practical session
26. Commissioning & Maintenance of Protective Relaying Equipment
27. Maintenance & Equipment Failures - MiCOM
28. Notes on Commissioning

Two Weeks (9 working days) Theoretical & Practical Course On
MiCOM P442 & P633 Protection Relays
Course Schedule:
Day 1,
08:30 Introduction to the Course Program- Base Line evaluation
09:00 Distance protection in transmission lines- Basic Principles
10:30 Refreshments
10:50 Distance protection in transmission lines- Basic Principles & Characteristics
12:45 Refreshments
13:45 Distance protection in transmission lines- Zones
16:00 Finish
Day 2,
08:30 Distance protection in transmission lines- Under reach & Over Reach / SOTF
10:30 Refreshments
10:50 Distance protection in transmission lines- VT Supervision, Current Reversal
12:45 Refreshments
13:45 Distance protection in transmission lines- Power Swing Blocking
16:00 Finish
Day 3,
08:30 Distance Protection Communication Schemes
10:30 Refreshments
10:50 Distance Protection Communication Schemes Contd...
12:45 Refreshments
13:45 Distance Protection Communication Schemes Contd...
16:00 Finish
Day 4,
08:30 An Introduction to MiCOM Numerical IEDs - Technology & Platform
10:30 Refreshments
10:50 An Introduction to MiCOM S1 – Settings & Programming Tool
12:45 Refreshment
13:45 MiCOM S1 – Px40 Series relaying – Programmable Scheme Logic Editor
16:00 Finish
Day 5,
08:30 MiCOM P442 Distance Protection relay - Features and Application of Functions
10:30 Refreshments
10:50 MiCOM P442 relay - Functional testing & performance Analysis
12:45 Refreshments
13:45 Faults/Events & Disturbance Records – Extraction & Interrogation
16:00 Finish
Day 6,
08:30 Transformer Protection
10:30 Refreshments
10:50 Transformer Protection Contd...
12:45 Refreshments
13:45 Transformer protection relays setting philosophy and criteria
16:00 Finish
Day 7,
08:30 Transformer protection relays setting philosophy and criteria
10:30 Refreshments
10:50 An introduction to MiCOM Px30 Series relays – Plat form & Hardware
12:45 Refreshments
13:45 An introduction to MiCOM Px30 Series relays – Plat form & Hardware Contd...
16:00 Finish
Day 8,
08:30 MiCOM P632 - Transformer Protection – Features, Functions and Applications
10:30 Refreshments
10:50 MiCOM P632 relaying – Local Communication
12:45 Refreshments
13:45 Settings & programming with MiCOM S1 – Files creation, Uploading & Downloading
16:00 Finish
Day 9,
08:30 MiCOM P632 - Functional testing & performance Analysis
10:30 Refreshments
10:50 Faults/Events & Disturbance Records – Extraction & Interrogation
12:45 Refreshments
13:45 Final Evaluation, Q&A session
16:00 Finish
Non-Directional Overcurrent and Earth
Fault Protection
Definite
Logarithmic inverse
Normal inverse
t min
I min
Very inverse
Extremely inverse
Overcurrent Protection
Fuses
Simple
Can provide very fast fault clearance
<10ms for large current
Limit fault energy
2 2
Fuses - disadvantages
Problematic co-ordination
IFA approx 2 x IFB

Limited sensitivity to earth faults
Single phasing
Fixed characteristic
Need replacing following fault clearance
3 3
Direct Acting AC Trip
AC series trip
common for electromechanical O/C relays
4 4
DC Shunt Trip
I
I
!"
# #$
Requires secure DC auxiliary

No trip if DC fails
5 5
Principles
Operating Speed
Instantaneous
Time delayed
Discrimination
Current setting
Time setting
Current and time
Cost
Generally cheapest form of protection relay
6 6
Instantaneous Relays
B A
50 50
I I
Current settings chosen so that relay closest to fault

operates
Problem
Relies on there being a difference in fault level between the two
relay locations
Cannot discriminate if IF1 = IF2
7 7
Definite (Independent) Time Relays
TIME
TOP
IS Applied Current
(Relay Current Setting)
8 8
Definite (Independent) Time Relays
%&' %&
Operating time is independent of current

Relay closest to fault has shortest operating time
Problem
Longest operating time is at the source where fault level is highest
9 9
IDMT
TIME
IS Applied Current
Inverse Definite Minimum Time characteristic

10 10
Disc Type O/C Relays
Current setting via plug bridge

Time multiplier setting via disc
movement
Single characteristic
Consider 2 ph & EF or 3 ph plus
additional EF relay
11 11
Static Relay
M CGG
A B C
INST INST No
Ph+
t t In Hz
Vx V
I > Is I > Is
0.1 0.05 0.05

0.1 0 0
0.2 0 Is = 0 Is =
0.4 0 0
Σ x Is Σ x Is
0.4 0 0
0.4 0 0
0.8 0 0
RESET
0 1 1
0 1 1
0 1 1
D
0.025 0.05 0.05
LT1
0
0
0.05
0.1 x t = 0.05
0.1 x t = t
0 0.2 0.2
0 0.3 Σ 0.3 Σ S1
V1
0 0.4 0.4 E1
I
0 1 1
I I
INST = INST =
0 2 2
0 4 4
0 8 8
0 10 Σ x Is 10 Σ x Is
0 ∝ ∝
Electronic, multi characteristic

Fine settings, wide range
Integral instantaneous elements
12 12
Numerical Relay
I(
(
I(
()
I(
(*
I(
(+
Multiple characteristics and stages

Current settings in primary or secondary values
Additional protection elements
13 13
Co-ordination Principle
Relay closest to fault must

operate first
Other relays must have
R1 R2
adequate additional
I
operating time to prevent
them operating
T Current setting chosen to
allow FLC
Consider worst case
conditions, operating modes
and current flows
IS2 IS1 Maximum I

Fault
Level
14 14
Co-ordination Example
15 15
IEC Characteristics
%%%
%%
SI t = 0.14
,/
(I0.02 -1)
%
VI t = 13.5 $#
(I2 -1) #
EI t = 80
0#
(I2 -1)
#
LTI t = 120
%&
(I - 1) % %%
,- .# /
16 16
Operating Time Setting - Terms Used
Relay operating times can be calculated %%%

using relay characteristic charts
Published characteristcs are drawn
against a multiple of current setting or %%
,/
Plug Setting Multiplier
Therefore characteristics can be used for %
any application regardless of actual relay
current setting
e.g at 10x setting (or PSM of 10) SI
curve op time is 3s
%&
% %%
,- .# /
17 17
Current Setting
Set just above full load current

allow 10% tolerance
Allow relay to reset if fault is cleared by downstream device
consider pickup/drop off ratio (reset ratio)
relay must fully reset with full load current flowing
DO/PU for static/numerical = 95%
DO/PU for EM relay = 90%
e.g for numerical relay, Is = 1.1 x IFL/0.95
18 18
Current Setting
Current grading
ensure that if upstream relay has started downstream relay has
also started
R1 R2 I
Set upstream device current setting greater than downstream
relay
e.g. IsR1 = 1.1 x IsR2
19 19
Grading Margin
Operating time difference between two devices to ensure

that downstream device will clear fault before upstream
device trips
Must include
breaker opening time
allowance for errors
GRADING
relay overshoot time MARGIN
safety margin
20 20
Grading Margin - between relays
R1 R2
Traditional
breaker op time - 0.1
relay overshoot - 0.05
allow. For errors - 0.15
safety margin - 0.1
Total 0.4s
Calculate using formula
21 21
Grading Margin - between relays
Formula
t’ = (2Er + Ect) t/100 + tcb + to + ts
Er = relay timing error
Ect = CT measurement error
t = op time of downstream relay
tcb = CB interupting time
to = relay overshoot time
ts = safety margin
Op time of Downstream Relay t = 0.5s

0.375s margin for EM relay, oil CB
0.24s margin for static relay, vacuum CB
22 22
Grading Margin - relay with fuse
Grading Margin = 0.4Tf + 0.15s over whole characteristic

Assume fuse minimum operating time = 0.01s
Use EI or VI curve to grade with fuse
Current setting of relay should be 3-4 x rating of fuse to ensure co-
ordination
23 23
Grading Margin - relay with upstream fuse
Tf
Tr
I FMAX
1.175Tr + 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.6Tf

! $ #
" #
or
Tf = 2Tr + 0.33s
24 24
Time Multiplier Setting
%%
Used to adjust the operating

time of an inverse
,/
%
characteristic
Not a time setting but a
multiplier
Calculate TMS to give desired
operating time in accordance
with the grading margin
%&
% %%
,- .# /
25 25
Time Multiplier Setting - Calculation
Calculate relay operating time required, Treq

consider grading margin
fault level
Calculate op time of inverse characteristic with
TMS = 1, T1
TMS = Treq /T1
26 26
Co-ordination - Procedure
Calculate required operating current

Calculate required grading margin
Calculate required operating time
Select characteristic
Calculate required TMS
Draw characteristic, check grading over whole curve
Grading curves should be drawn to a common voltage

base to aid comparison
27 27
,& ,&
I
( *
% +
I % & I % & ' !( $ % &)$
Grade relay B with relay A

Co-ordinate at max fault level seen by both relays = 1400A
Assume grading margin of 0.4s
28 28
,& ,&
I
( *
% +
I % & I % & ' !( $ % &)$
Relay B is set to 200A primary, 5A secondary

Relay A set to 100A ∴ If (1400A) = PSM of 14
relay A OP time = t = 0.14 x TMS = 0.14 x 0.05 = 0.13
(I0.02 -1) (140.02 -1)
Relay B Op time = 0.13 + grading margin = 0.13 + 0.4 = 0.53s
Relay A uses SI curve so relay B should also use SI curve
29 29
,& ,&
I ( *
% +
I % & I % & ' !( $ % &)$
Relay B Op time = 0.13 + grading margin = 0.13 + 0.4 = 0.53s

Relay A uses SI curve so relay B should also use SI curve
Relay B set to 200A ∴ If (1400A) = PSM of 7
relay B OP time TMS = 1 = 0.14 x TMS = 0.14 = 3.52s
(I0.02 -1) (70.02 -1)
Required TMS = Required Op time = 0.53 = 0.15
Op time TMS=1 3.52
Set relay B to 200A, TMS = 0.15, SI
30 30
Blocked OC Schemes
4 3 3
) 1 (
1 3
I )
I(
I
- , 2 1. 3 -
31 31
Instantaneous Protection
Fast clearance of faults

ensure good operation factor, If >> Is (5 x ?)
Current setting must be co-ordinated to prevent overtripping
Used to provide fast tripping on HV side of transformers
Used on feeders with Auto Reclose, prevents transient faults
becoming permanent
AR ensures healthy feeders are re-energised
Consider operation due to DC offset - transient overreach
32 32
Instantaneous OC on Transformer Feeders
HV2 HV1 LV
Set HV inst 130% IfLV
HV2 Stable for inrush
HV1 No operation for LV fault
TIME
LV
Fast operation for HV fault
Reduces op times required
of upstream relays
CURRENT
IF(LV) IF(HV)
1.3IF(LV)
33 33
Earth Fault Protection
Earth fault current may be limited

Sensitivity and speed requirements may not be met by
overcurrent relays
Use dedicated EF protection relays
Connect to measure residual (zero sequence) current
Can be set to values less than full load current
Co-ordinate as for OC elements
May not be possible to provide co-ordination with fuses
34 34
Earth Fault Relay Connection - 3 Wire System
, ,
Combined with OC relays Economise using 2x OC relays
35 35
Earth Fault Relay Connection - 4 Wire System
, ,
Independent of neutral current

but must use 3 OC relays for
EF relay setting must be
phase to neutral faults
greater than normal neutral
current
36 36
Earth Fault Relays Current Setting
Solid earth Resistance earth

30% Ifull load setting w.r.t earth fault level
adequate special considerations for
impedance earthing - directional?
37 37
Sensitive Earth Fault Relays
A
B
C
Settings down to
0.2% possible
Isolated/high E/F
impedance earth networks

For low settings cannot use residual connection, use dedicated CT
Advisable to use core balance CT
CT ratio related to earth fault current not line current
Relays tuned to system frequency to reject 3rd harmonic
38 38
Core Balance CT Connections
NO OPERATION OPERATION
Need to take care with core

balance CT and armoured cables CABLE GLAND
Sheath acts as earth return path CABLE
BOX
Must account for earth current
path in connections - insulate
cable gland
E/F
CABLE GLAND/SHEATH
EARTH CONNECTION
39 39
TECHNICAL TRAINING
TYPES OF PROTECTION
FUSES
The simpl estform ofovercurrentprotecti on i s the fuse.The fuse i s capable ofoperati

ng inless than
10ms forveryl arge val ues ofcurrent,thus consi derabl yl i
miti
ng faultenergy.
However,i tdoes have a numberofdi sadvantages,namel y;
x Can be di fficul
tto co-ordi nate
x Its characteri sti
ci s fixed
x Needs repl acing followi ng faul tclearance
x Has l i
mi ted sensi ti
vi ty to earthfaul ts si
nce i tis rated above the ful
lload currentofthe feeder
x Operati on ofsi ngle fuse resul ts i
n a condi ti
on refereed to as single phasi
ng.Si ngl
e phasi ng can
be di
sastrous forrotati ng pl antsuch as motors.
The fuse characteri

sti
cis splitinto two sections,the `Pre-arci
ng Ti
me’and the ‘
Arci
ng Ti
me’
.The
addi
tion ofthese ti
mes is referred to as the ‘
TotalOperati ng Time’
.
Arcing Tim e
Pre Arc
Tim e Prospective Fault
Current
Total t
Operating
Tim e
PRINCIPLE OF OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

The purpose ofovercurrentprotecti on,as wi th otherforms ofprotecti on,i s to detectfaults on a power
system and as a result,ini
ti
ate the opening ofswi tchgeari n orderto i
solate the faulty partofthe
system. The protection mustthus be di scri
mi native,thati s to sayitshall,as faras possi bl
e,sel ect
and isol
ate onl
ythe faul typartofthe system l eavi ng allotherparts in normaloperati on.
Discri
minati
on can be achi
eved byovercurrent,orbyti
me,orbya combi
nati
on ofovercurrentand
ti
me.
DISCRIMINATION BY CURRENT
Discrimination bycurrentrel i
esupon the factthatthe faultcurrentvaries wi
th the posi ti
on ofthe faul
t.
This variati
on is due to the i
mpedance ofvari ous i
tems ofplant,such as cabl es and transformers,
between the source and the faul t.Rel
ays throughoutthe system are setto operate atsui table val
ues
such thatonl y the rel
aynearestto the faul toperates.
Relays whi ch adoptthi s pri
nci pl
e ofoperation are general
lytermed Instantaneous overcurrentrel ays.
(W here the faultleveldoes notvarygreatl y between two relayl ocati
on then the use ofi nstantaneous
overcurrentrel ays is notpossi bl
e).
© 2006
DISCRIMINATION BY TIME
If the fault level over a system is reasonably constant then discrimination by current will not be
possible. An alternative is to use time discrimination in which each overcurrent relay is given a
fixed time delay with the relay farthest away from the source having the shortest time delay.
Operating time is thus substantially independent of fault level but the main disadvantage is that
the relay nearest the source will have the longest time delay and this is the point with the
highest fault level.
Relays which adopt this principle of operation are generally termed definite (independent) time
overcurrent relays.
NOTE : When applying definite time overcurrent relays care must be taken to
ensure that the thermal rating of the current measuring element is not exceeded.
TIME
TOP
I Applied Current
S
DISCRIMINATION BY BOTH TIME AND CURRENT

Due to the limitations imposed by the independent use of either time or current, the inverse
time overcurrent characteristic has been developed. With this characteristic the time of
operation is inversely proportional to the current applied, i.e.; basically the higher the current
applied, the faster the relay operates. Thus, the actual characteristic is a function of both time
and current settings, thereby gaining the advantages of the previous mentioned methods and
eliminating some the disadvantages.
TIME
IS Applied Current
PRINCIPLES OF CO-ORDINATION
The principle of co-ordination refers to the procedure of setting overcurrent relays to
ensure that the relay nearest the fault operates first and all other relays have adequate
additional time to prevent them from operating. If the relay nearest to the fault fails to clear the
© 2006
Page 2
fault, and the co-ordination is correct, then the next up-stream relay should operate and so on
towards the source, thus isolating the minimum amount of plant.
The principle of co-ordination is often referred to as ‘grading’.
When performing any co-ordination exercise the following need to be considered:
x Relay Characteristics
x Relay Current Setting
x Grading Margin
x Time Multiplier Setting
Relay Characteristics
There are numerous characteristics, however they all confirm to either BS142/IEC or
ANSI/IEEE standards. The BS142/IEC standard incorporates the following characteristics:
x Standard Inverse
x Very Inverse
x Extremely Inverse
x Long Time Inverse
The ANSI/IEEE standard incorporates the following characteristics:

x Moderately Inverse
x Very Inverse
x Extremely Inverse
x Short Time Inverse
x Inverse
The BS142/IEC standard curves are mainly adopted in the UK and the most commonly used
ones are explained in more detail below:
Standard Inverse - This characteristic is commonly known as the 3/10 characteristic, i.e. at
ten times setting current and TMS of 1 the relay will operate in 3 secs.
The characteristic curve can be defined by the mathematical expression :
0.14
t
° ,
0.02 ½°
® - 1¾
°̄ , s °¿
where I = applied current

Is = setting current
I/Is = multiple of setting current
The standard inverse time characteristic is widely applied at all system voltages – as back up
protection on EHV systems and as the main protection on HV and MV distribution systems.
In general, the standard inverse characteristics are used when :
There are no co-ordination requirements with other types of protective equipment further out on
the system, e.g. Fuses, thermal characteristics of transformers, motors etc.
The fault levels at the near and far ends of the system do not vary significantly.
There is minimal inrush on cold load pick up. Cold load inrush is that current which occurs
when a feeder is energised after a prolonged outage. In general the relay cannot be set above
this value but the current should decrease below the relay setting before the relay operates.
© 2006
Page 3
Very Inverse Time - This type of characteristic is normally used to obtain greater time
selectivity when the limiting overall time factor is very low, and the fault current at any point
does not vary too widely with system conditions. It is particularly suitable, if there is a
substantial reduction of fault current as the distance from the power source increases. The
steeper inverse curve gives longer time grading intervals. Its operating time is approximately
doubled for a reduction in setting from figures 7 to 4 times the relay current setting. This
permits the same time multiplier setting for several relays in series.
The characteristic curve can be defined by the mathematical expression :

13.5
t
, ½
® - 1¾
¯ ,s ¿
Extremely Inverse Time - With this characteristic the operating time is approximately inversely
proportional to the square of the current. The long operating time of the relay at peak values of
load current make the relay particularly suitable for grading with fuses and also for protection of
feeders which are subj ect to peak currents on switching in, such as feeders supplying
refrigerators, pumps, water heaters etc., which remain connected even after a prolonged
interruption of supply.
For cases where the generation is practically constant and discrimination with low tripping
times is difficult to obtain, because of the low impedance per line section, an extremely inverse
relay can be very useful since only a small difference of current is necessary to obtain an
adequate time difference.
Another application for this relay is with auto reclosers in low voltage distribution circuits. As
the majority of faults are of a transient nature, the relay is set to operate before the normal
operating time of the fuse, thus preventing perhaps unnecessary blowing of the fuse.
Upon reclosure, if the fault persists, the recloser locks itself in the closed position and allows
the fuse to blow to clear the fault.
This characteristic is also widely used for protecting plant against overheating since
overheating is usually an I2t function.
© 2006
Page 4
This characteristic curve can be defined by the mathematical expression :
80
t 2
,½
® ¾ - 1
¯ ,s ¿
Long Time Inverse – This type of characteristic has a long time characteristic and may be
used for protection of neutral earthing resistors (which normally have a 30 sec rating). The
relay operating time at 5 times current setting is 30 secs at TMS of 1.
This can be defined by :
120
t
, / ,s - 1
Current Setting
The current setting of a relay is typically described as either a percentage or multiple of the current
transformer primary or secondary rating.
If the CT primary rating is equal to the normal full load current of the circuit then the percentage setting
will refer directly to the primary system. This is an important point as if, for example, the normal
primary full load current was, say, 400 amp but the CT ratio was 500/5 then a relay with setting range
50-200% of 5 amp set at 100% would not represent a "full load"setting; the actual setting would in fact
be 125% of full load current.
The choice of current setting thus depends on the load current and the CT ratio and is normally
close to but above the maximum load current (typically 10% ) - assuming of course the circuit is
capable of carrying the maximum foreseeable load. It should be stressed at this point, that the relay is
neither designed nor intended to be used as an overload relay but as a protective relay to protect the
system under fault conditions.
It is also important to consider the resetting of the relay. The relay will reset when the current is
reduced to 90% -95% of the setting (Depending on relay design) and if the normal load current is
above this value the relay will not reset after starting to operate under through fault conditions which
are cleared by other switchgear.
The setting for a typical overcurrent relay with a reset ratio of 95% can be determined using the
following:
Is = 1.1 x IFL/0.95
Where: Is = Setting
IFL = Full Load Current
Grading Margin
As previously mentioned, to obtain correct discrimination it is necessary to have a time interval
between the operation of two adjacent relays. This time interval or grading margin depends upon a
number of factors :
a) The circuit breaker fault interrupting time

b) The overshoot time of the relay
c) Errors
d) Final margin on completion of operation (safety margin)
The discriminating relay can only be de-energised when the circuit breaker has
completely interrupted the fault current. It is now normal practice to use a value of 50 - 100 ms
© 2006
Page 5
for circuit breaker overall interrupting time but obviously if it is known that the switchgear is
slower than this time, this must be taken into account.
Operating of the relay may continue for a short time after the relay is de-energised until
any stored energy is dissipated. For example, an induction disc element will have stored
kinetic energy (or inertia) and a numerical relay may have stored energy in capacitors.
Although these factors are minimised by design, some allowance is usually necessary. It is
common to use a figure of 50 ms.
NOTE : The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some forward
operation takes plan but is the time that the relay would have taken to travel the
same distance had the relay remained energised.
Travel
100%
Overshoot
Travel t1 = relay de-energised
t3 - t1 = actual overshoot time
t2 - t1 = overshoot time used in the
calculation of margin
Time
t1 t2 t3
All measuring devices such as relays and current transformers are subject to some
degree of error. The time characteristic of either or both of the relays involved may have
positive or negative errors. Current transformer errors are mainly due to the magnetising
characteristic. It should be noted the CT errors do not affect definite time overcurrent relays.
A safety margin of 100 ms is normally added to the final calculated margin to ensure
correct discrimination. This additional time ensures a satisfactory contact gap (or equivalent) is
maintained.
In the past, a fixed margin of 04 secs was considered adequate for correct
discrimination. With faster modern switchgear and lower overshoot times a figure of 0.35 secs
is quite reasonable and under the best possible conditions 03 secs may be feasible.
However, rather than using a fixed margin it is better to adopt a fixed time for circuit
breaker operation and relay overshoot and add to this a variable time value which takes into
account relay and CT errors and the safety margin. This is particularly so when grading at low
values multiples of setting current where the relay operating time is longer and a fixed total
margin may be of the same order as the relay timing error.
A fixed value 025 secs is chosen which is made up of 01 secs for circuit breaker operating
time, 005 secs for relay overshoot time and 01 sec for safety margin.
In considering the variable time value, it is assumed that each IDMT relay complies with basic
assigned error class 75 according to British practice in BS 142. The error for a class 75 relay
is r 75%, but allowance should be made for the effects of temperature, frequency and
departure from the reference conditions as laid down in the BS. A more practical approximation
is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 75 i.e. 15% and this is to apply to the relay nearest
the fault which is considered slow. To this total effective relay error a further 10% is added to
allow for overall CT error.
© 2006
Page 6
Thus it is proposed to adopt the following equation to determine the grading margin between
IDMT relays :
t' = 025 + 025 secs where t = normal operating time of

relay nearest the fault
As far as definite time overcurrent relays are concerned, the fixed value will remain the same
but the relays are assumed to comply with error class 10 i.e. r 10%. For the reasons stated
previously, a practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 20% with the relay nearest
the fault considered slow. As previously stated, CT errors will have little effect of the operating time,
thus it is proposed to adopt the equation :
t' = 025 + 025 secs
For the majority of systems an overcurrent grading exercise can be performed quite adequately
using a fixed margin of 04 secs. It is only when a number of stages are involved and difficulties are
being encountered that it may become necessary to investigate margin times in more detail. To
summarise, each system is different and should be treated as so, it is not possible to lay down rigid
rules regarding grading margins and every grading exercise will ultimately be a compromise of some
form.
Grading Overcurrent Relays With Downstream Fuse

For some applications it will be necessary to grade overcurrent relays with fuses. When the fuse is
downstream of the relay the following formula can be used to calculate the grading margin:
Grading Margin = 0.4Tf + 0.15s over the whole characteristic.
The above formula assumes a minimum fuse operating time of 0.01 seconds
Generally for this type of application a Extremely Inverse characteristic should be chosen to grade with
the fuse and the current setting of the relay should be 3 – 4 x rating of fuse to ensure co-ordination.
Time Multiplier Setting

The time multiplier setting is a means of adjusting the operating time of an inverse type characteristic.
It is not a time setting but a multiplier.
In order to calculate the required TMS (Treq), calculate the operating time of the nearest downstream
protection device at the maximum fault level seen by both devices, add to this the grading margin,
calculate the operating time of the upstream device at this fault level with a TMS equal to one (T1) and
then use the following for formula:
TMS = Treq / T1
Plotting OfCharacteristic
It is convenient to show the standard inverse time characteristic on log/log graph paper with the '
y'axis
scaled in seconds and the ' x'axis in terms of "multiples of current setting". By doing this the
characteristic can be applied to any relay, irrespective of setting range and nominal rating.
HIGH SET OVERCURRENT
Where the source impedance is small in comparison with the protected circuit impedance, the
use of high set instantaneous overcurrent units can be advantageous (for example on long
transmission lines or transformer feeders).
© 2006
Page 7
The application of an instantaneous unit makes possible a reduction in the tripping time at high
fault levels and also allows the discriminating curves behind the high set unit to be lowered
thereby improving overall system grading.
It is important to note that when grading with the relay immediately behind the high set units, the
grading interval should be established at the current setting of the high set unit and not at the
maximum fault level that would normally be used for grading IDMT relays.
When using high set units it is important to ensure that the relay does not operate for faults
outside the protected section. The relays are normally set at 12 - 13 times the maximum fault
level at the remote end of the protected section.
This particularly applies when using instantaneous units on the HV side of a transformer when
the instantaneous unit should not operate for faults on the LV side.
The 12 - 13 factor allows for transient overreach, CT errors and slight errors in transformer
impedance and line length.
Transient overreach occurs when the current wave contains a dc component. Although a relay
may have a setting above the rms value of current, the initial peak value of current due to the dc
offset may be sufficient to operate the relay, if it has high transient overreach.
Percentage transient overreach is defined as I1 - I2 x 100

I2
Where :
I1 = relay pick-up current in steady state rms amps
I2 = rms value of current which when fully offset will just pick up the relay
Modern Relays have integral instantaneous elements which have low transient overreach. The
degree of transient overreach is normally affected by the time constant of the measured fault
current. For example, a typical transient overreach of a numerical overcurrent relay is less than
5% for time constants up to 30 ms and less than 10% for time constant up to 100 ms. This
allows the instantaneous elements to be used as high set units for application to transformers
and long feeders. The low transient overreach allows settings to be just above the maximum
fault current at which discrimination is required. The instantaneous elements are also suitable
for use as low set elements in conjunction with auto-reclose on distribution systems
EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
Earth faults, which are by far the most frequent type of fault, will be detected by phase
overcurrent units as previously described but it is possible to obtain more sensitive protection by
utilising a relay which responds only to the residual current in a system. Residual (or zero
sequence) current only exists when a current flows to earth.
The residual current can be detected either by connecting a CT in an available neutral to earth
connection or by connecting line CT's in parallel. By using this parallel connection the earth fault
relay is completely unaffected by load currents whether balanced or unbalanced. The parallel
connection can be extended to include either two or three overcurrent units without any effect on
the earth fault relay. Two elements are often considered sufficient as any interphase fault must affect
at least one of the relays, however, consideration must be given to the possibility of 2-1-1 current
distribution in the system (refer delta/star transformer protection).
It should be noted that on an LV 4 wire distribution system, 4 CT's will be required to ensure stability
under all load conditions, the 4th CT being placed in the neutral connection. This fourth CT can be
omitted if the earth fault relay setting is above the maximum spill current caused by unbalanced loads,
but as the degree of unbalance is not normally known (accurately) the inclusion of the 4th CT is
recommended.
© 2006
Page 8
Time Grading
The procedure for grading is similar to that for phase fault relays.
It is important to appreciate that fuses cannot discriminate between phase faults and earth faults and
therefore grading of earth fault relays (which have relatively sensitive settings) with fuses is not
possible.
When the system contains some neutral earthing impedance, the earth fault level is practically
constant over the whole system and grading is carried out at this fault level. As the fault level is
constant there is no particular advantage is using IDMT earth fault relays over definite time earth fault
relays.
Sensitive Earth Fault Relays
Where the earth path resistivity is high which may be the case on systems that do not
utilise earth conductors, the earth fault current may be limited to such an extent that
normal earth fault protection may not be sensitive enough. To overcome these problems
a very sensitive relay is required, but the relay must have a very low burden in order that
the effective setting is not increased. This very sensitive protection cannot be graded with
other conventional systems and it is normal to apply this protection with a definite time
delay of up to 10 or 15 secs. This time delay will prevent unwanted operation due to
transient unbalance under phase fault conditions. Care must be taken to ensure that the
relay setting is above any residual current that may be present under normal load
conditions. This may be due to slight differences in CT characteristics or unbalanced
leakage (capacitive) currents in the primary system. In order to ensure that the relay will
reset after the transient operation of the current measuring unit, the do/pu ratio should be
high, i.e.. approximately 99%.
© 2006
Page 9
Earth Fault Protection for Cables - Core Balance CT Connections
NO OPERATION OPERATION
CABLE GLAND
CABLE
BOX
E/F
CABLE GLAND/SHEATH
EARTH CONNECTION
INTERCONNECTED SYSTEMS
The foregoing has basically looked at grading procedure as applied to radial feeders. If the
system is interconnected and involves parallel paths and rings, the grading can become
increasingly more complex.
For example, the operation of a particular circuit breaker may not itself result in the
isolation of the faulty plant, but may affect the fault current distribution in the other circuits. The
affect of this may be to start other relays operating or to change the operating parameters of
relays that have already started. On such interconnected systems the fault level does not tend
to vary very much and it may be found impossible to obtain correct discrimination for all faults.
The system must be looked at in detail under maximum and minimum fault conditions and the
best compromise reached. Very often directional overcurrent relaying can help to overcome the
problems slightly.
© 2006
Page 10
Application of Directional Overcurrent
and Earthfault Protection
Need for Directional Control
Generally required if current can flow in both directions

through a relay location
e.g. Parallel feeder circuits
Ring Main Circuits
Relays operate for current flow in direction indicated. (Typical

operating times shown).
2 2
Ring Main Circuit
With ring closed :
Both load and fault current may flow in either

direction along feeder circuits.
Thus, directional relays are required.
Note: Directional relays look into the feeder.
Need to establish principle for relay.
3 3
Ring Main Circuit
Procedure :
1. Open ring at A
Grade : A’ - E’ - D’ - C’ - B’
2. Open ring at A’
Grade : A - B - C - D - E
Typical operating times shown.
Note : Relays B, C, D’, E’ may be non-directional.
4 4
Parallel Feeders
Non-Directional Relays :-
“Conventional Grading” :-
Grade ‘A’ with ‘C’
and Grade ‘B’ with ‘D’
Relays ‘A’ and ‘B’ have the same setting.

5 5
Parallel Feeders
Consider fault on one feeder :-
I I
I
Relays ‘C’ and ‘D’ see the same fault current (I2). As ‘C’ and ‘D’
have similar settings both feeders will be tipped.
6 6
Parallel Feeders
Solution :- Directional Control at ‘C’ and ‘D’.
I I
I
Relay ‘D’ does not operate due to current flow in the reverse
direction.
7 7
Parallel Feeders
Setting philosophy for directional relays
Load current always flows in ‘non-operate’ direction.

Any current flow in ‘operate’ direction is indicative of a fault condition.
Thus Relays ‘C’ and ‘D’ may be set :-
- Sensitive (typically 50% load)
- Fast operating time (i.e. TMS=0.1)
8 8
Parallel Feeders
Usually, relays are set :-

- 50% full load current (note thermal rating)
- Minimum T.M.S. (0.1)
Grading procedure :-
1. Grade ‘A’ (and ‘B’) with ‘E’ assuming one feeder in
service.
2. Grade ‘A’ with ‘D’ (and ‘B’ with ‘C’) assuming both
feeders in service.
9 9
Establishing Direction :- Polarising Quantity
The DIRECTION of Alternating Current may only be determined

with respect to a COMMON REFERENCE.
In relaying terms, the REFERENCE is called the POLARISING

QUANTITY.
The most convenient reference quantity is POLARISING

VOLTAGE taken from the Power System Voltages.
10 10
Directional Decision by Phase Comparison (1)
S1 = Reference Direction = Polarising Signal = VPOL

S2 = Current Signal = I
OPERATION when S2 is within ±90°of S1 :-
11 11
Directional Decision by Phase Comparison (2)
RESTRAINT when S2 lags S1 by between 90°and 270° :-
12 12
Polarising Voltage for ‘A’ Phase Overcurrent Relay
OPERATE SIGNAL = IA
POLARISING SIGNAL :- Which voltage to use ?

Selectable from
VA
VB
VC
VA-B
VB-C
VC-A
13 13
Directional Relay
Applied Voltage : VA
Applied Current : IA
!
I
" #
I
!
$ % # &'
Question :
- is this connection suitable for a typical power system ?
14 14
Polarising Voltage
Applied Voltage : VBC

Applied Current : IA
- .*- / - ) *+*!*+, *)
!
I!
Polarising voltage remains
healthy
Ø!
Fault current in centre of
characteristic
( $ ) *+*!*+,
*)
15 15
Relay Connection Angle
The angle between the current applied to the relay and the voltage
applied to the relay at system unity power factor
e.g. 90°° (Quadrature) Connection : IA and VBC
°
!
! !
The 90°° connection is now used for all overcurrent relays.
30°° and 60°connections were also used in the past, but no longer,
as the 90°° connection gives better performance.
16 16
Relay Characteristic Angle (R.C.A.) for
Electronic Relays
The angle by which the current applied to the relay must be displaced
from the voltage applied to the relay to produce maximum operational
sensitivity
e.g. 45°
0 $ +
I $ - .*- / - 0 $ +
$ +$ *) !
) *+*!*+,
$
1 °
!
17 17
90°Connection - 45°R.C.A.
- . ) *+*!*+,
0 $ + *)
I
! ! I $- .
$ +$ *) ) *+*!*+,
1 °
° 1 °
! !
°
! !
$ , / $$ ) + ! + 2
I !
I !
I !
18 18
90°Connection - 30°R.C.A.
- . ) *+*!*+,
0 $ + *)
I $ +$ *)
! ! I $- .
° ) *+*!*+,
° °
!
! °
! !
$ , / $$ ) + ! + 2
I !
I !
I !
19 19
Selection of R.C.A. (1)
Overcurrent Relays
90°connection 30°RCA (lead)

Plain feeder, zero sequence source behind relay
20 20
Selection of R.C.A. (2)
90°connection 45°RCA (lead)

Plain or Transformer Feeder :- Zero Sequence Source in Front of
Relay
Transformer Feeder :- Delta/Star Transformer in Front of Relay
21 21
Directional Earthfault Protection
Directional Earth Fault
Requirements are similar to directional overcurrent

i.e. need operating signal
and polarising signal
Operating Signal
obtained from residual connection of line CT's
i.e. Iop = 3Io
Polarising Signal
The use of either phase-neutral or phase-phase voltage as the
reference becomes inappropriate for the comparison with residual
current.
Most appropriate polarising signal is the residual voltage.
23 23
Residual Voltage
May be obtained from ‘broken’ delta V.T. secondary.
! 32 ! 32 ! 32
VRES = VA-G + VB-G + VC-G = 3V0
!$
Notes :
1. VT primary must be earthed.
2. VT must be of the '5 limb'construction (or 3 x single phase units)
24 24
Directional Earth Fault Relays
Relay Characteristic Angle
0 - Resistance earthed systems
45 (I lags V) - Distribution systems (solidly earthed)
60 (I lags V) - Transmission systems (solidly earthed)
25 25
Residual Voltage
Solidly Earthed System

$
( (
32
!
!
! ! ! ! ! !
! !$
! !$
! ! !
! ! !
Residual Voltage at R (relaying point) is dependant upon ZS / ZL ratio.
(
!$ = 4
( +( + ( +(
26 26
Directional Earth Fault Relays
Relay Characteristic Angle

0 - Resistance earthed systems
45 (I lags V) - Distribution systems (solidly earthed)
60 (I lags V) - Tranmission systems (solidly earthed)
Zero sequence network :-
( I (
$ !
V0 = ( - ) I0 (ZS0 + 3R)
27 27
TECHNICAL TRAINING
DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAYS
Iffaul
tcurrentcan flow in both di
recti
onsthrough the relay l
ocation i
tisnecessaryto
add directi
onalpropertiesto the overcurrentrelaysin orderto obtai
n correct
discri
mi nati
on. Directi
onalprotection iscommonl yappl i
ed i
n two areas,namely,
parall
elfeeders(transformers)and ring mai ns.
RING MAINS
The more usualappl i
cation ofdi recti
onalrel aysi sto ri
ng mai ns. In the case ofa ri ng
system,fed atone poi ntonl ythe rel aysatthe generati on end and atthe mi d-point
substation,where the setti ng ofboth overcurrentrel aysare i dentical,the relays can
be made non-di rectional,provided thati n the l
attercase the relaysare l ocated on the
same feeder,one ateach substati on. In thisrespecti tisinteresting to note that
when the numbersoffeedersi n the ringsi san even number,the two rel ays with the
same operati ng time are atthe same substati on and wi l
lhave to be di rectional
whereaswhen the numberoffeedersi sodd,the two rel ayswi th the same operati ng
time are atdifferentsubstati onsand therefore,do notneed to be di rectional. Also at
intermedi ate substati onsitwi l
lbe noted thatwheneverthe ti mesofthe two rel aysat
a substation are different,the difference in operating ti
me i sneverl essthan the
gradi ng i
ntervalof04 secondsand consequentl yitispermi ssibl
e forthe rel aywi th
the largeroperati ng ti
me to be non-di rectional.
Grading Ring Mains

The usualpracti ce forgrading rel aysin an i
nterconnected system i s to open the ri ng
atthe suppl y pointand to grade the rel aysfirstclockwi se and then anti -clockwise.
Thus,the rel aysl ooking in a clockwi se di
recti
on around the ri ng are arranged to tri p
i
n the sequence 1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 and the rel aysl ooking in the anti -clockwi se
direction are arranged to tri
pi n the sequence 1'-2'-3'-4'-5'-6' . The arrows
i
ndi cate the directi
on in which the powermustfl ow in orderthatthe di rectionaluni ts
willclose theircontactsand prepare the overcurrentel ements foroperati on. The
doubl e headed arrows on each ofthe two feedersatthe generati ng stati on indicate
non-di recti
onalrel ays,directionalfeatures bei ng unnecessary atthese poi nts,
because powercan fl ow in one di recti
on only,thati soutofthe generati ng stati
on. At
allotherpoi ntssi ngle headed arrowsare shown. These i ndi cate directi onalrel ays
connected so asto operate wi th powerfl ow in the di
rection ofthe arrow whi ch isin
every case from the substati on busbarsand i nto the protected line. See Fi gure 1.
Thi srulei si
nvari able and appl i
esto al lformsofdi rectionalrel ays. Selecti
on ofthe
faultysection isbyti me and faul tpowerdi rection. Faul tpowerhastwo phases xand
y. Itdivides between the two pathsi n the inverse ratio ofthe i mpedancesand
passesthrough al lthe substationsi n the ri ng. Thus,ateverysubstati on one setof
relayswi llbe i
noperati ve because the powerfl ow isagai nstthe arrow and otherset
operative because the fl ow iswith the arrow. In everycase i twi l
lbe found thatthe
ti
me setti ngsofthe rel aysthatare i noperati ve are shorterthan those ofthe operati ve
relays,excepti n the case ofsubstati on C where the setti ngshappened to coi nci de.
In thi
sway,al lrel ayswi th shortti
me on secti onsbetween the faul tone and the
generating station are prevented from operati on. The others,whi ch are operative are
graded downwards towards the faul tand the l astto be traversed bythe faul tcurrent,
namel ythaton the faul ty feedersecti on,hasthe shortestti me and operates fi rst.
Thi sappl i
es to both pathsto the faul t. Consequentl y,the faulty secti
on isthe onl y
one to be isolated and suppl yismai ntai ned to allsubstati ons.
© 2006
Grading Ring Mains With More Than One Source
W hen grading ring systems with more than one infeed (say two sources of supply)
the best method of approach is to either :
a) Open the ring at one the supply points by means of a suitable high set
instantaneous overcurrent relays and then proceed to grade the ring as in the
case of a single infeed.
b) Treat the inter-connector between the two sources of supply as a continuous
bus, separate from the ring and protect it by means of a unit system of
protection such as pilot wire relays. Then proceed to grade the ring as in the
case of a single infeed.
PARALLEL FEEDERS
If non-directional overcurrent relays are applied to parallel feeders any faults

occurring on any one line will inevitably, irrespective of the relay setting chosen,
isolate both lines and completely disrupt the supply. To ensure discriminative
operation of the relays during line faults, it is usual with this type of system to design
and connect relays R1' and R2' such that they will only operate for faults occurring on
the protected line in the direction indicated by the arrows. See Figure 2. W ith
parallel feeders to ensure correct discrimination during line faults, it is important that
the correct directional relay R1' or R2' operates before the non-directional relays R1
and R2. For this reason relays R1' and R2' are given lower time settings than relays
R1 and R2 and also lower current settings. The usual practice is to set relays R1'
and R2' to 50% of the normal full load of the circuit (ensure that the relays are
capable of carrying without damage, twice their setting current continuously),
operating with an IDMT characteristic with a TMS =1.0
Care should be taken when using definite time relays. For such applications the
directional relays should be set above full load current to prevent them operating due
to load current reversal as a result of a phase to phase fault on the other side of the
transformer.
ESTABLISING DIRECTION
The direction of alternating current can only be determined with respect to a common
reference. In relay terms, the reference is commonly referred to as the polarising
quantity. The most convenient reference quantity is polarising voltage taken from the
power system voltages.
The relay compares the power system current against this fixed polarising reference
to determine direction of operation.
RELAY CHARACTERISTIC ANGLE (RCA)
This is a setting on the relay and is defined as the angle by which the current applied
to the relay must be displaced from the voltage applied to the relay to produce
maximum sensitivity.
© 2006
Page 2
RELAY CONNECTIONS
This is the angle by which the current applied to the relay is displaced from the
voltage applied to the relay at unity power factor.
The 90q connection (quadrature connection) is now used for all overcurrent relays.
30q and 60q connections were used in the past, but no longer, as the 90q connection
gives better performance. The 90q connection is achieved by using IA and VBC.
Hence, for an A phase fault the polarising voltage does not collapse. Without a
polaring voltage most relays are unable to make a directional decision. Modern
numerical relays are able to use prefault data to make a decision, a technique
referred to as memory polarising.
90q Connection -45q RCA
The 'a' phase relay is supplied with Ia current and Vbc volts displaced 45q in an anti-
clockwise direction. In this case the relay maximum sensitivity is produced when the
current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 45q. This connection gives a
correct directional tripping zone over the range of current 45q leading to 135q lagging.
See Figure 3.
TYPICAL RCA SETTINGS
A relay designed for quadrature connection and having an RCA of 30q is

recommended when the relay is being used for the protection of plain feeders with
zero sequence source behind the relaying point.
In the case of transformer feeders or feeders which have a zero sequence source in
front of the relay, a quadrature connected relay is recommended but it is preferable
when protecting this type of feeder that the directional relay is designed to have an
RCA 45q.
An RCA 45q is necessary in transformers and transformer feeders, to ensure correct

relay operation for faults beyond the star/delta transformer.
Three fault conditions may theoretically cause mal-operation of the directional relay.
They are phase to phase to ground on a plain feeder;phase to ground fault on a
transformer feeder with the zero sequence source in front of the relay and phase to
phase fault on a transformer with the relay looking into the delta winding of the
transformer.
DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT RELAYS
These relays are similar in construction to the overcurrent relays but are polarised by
residual voltage or current. The polarising voltage is obtained from the secondary of
a three phase voltage transformer connected in broken delta. It is essential to
ensure that the correct voltage is fed to the relay that the voltage transformer primary
neutral is earthed and that it be a three phase, five limb type or consist of three single
phase units. Current polarisation is normally obtained by connecting a current
transformer in a local transformer neutral. If voltage polarisation is used a 45q RCA
is normally used for solidly earthed systems and 0q for resistance earthed systems.
© 2006
Page 3
Voltage Polarised Earth Fault Relays
Some care is necessary when using voltage polarised relays on solidly earthed
systems, as the residual voltage under single phase to earth fault conditions will be
equal to the phase to neutral voltage at the fault location or a solid earth fault only.
Any line impedance between the fault point and the relay, or resistance in the fault
itself will tend to reduce the value of the voltage and it can be very small if the line
impedance between the fault point and the relaying point is large compared with the
source impedance behind the relay. With modern directional relays however, which
will operate down to 1% of normal voltage, no trouble should be experienced.
Current Polarised Earth Fault Relays
As already mentioned, current polarised relays may be polarised by a current

transformer connected in the power transformer neutral. Only certain types of power
transformers however, are suitable as sources of polarising current, as in some the
direction of the current in the neutral can reverse depending upon the fault position
and the ratio of system zero sequence impedances.
A star/star power transformer is not suitable for polarising relays even if both star
points are earthed. A current transformer in one neutral would not be suitable as the
current would reverse depending upon which side of the transformer the fault is on.
Paralleling two current transformers, one in each neutral connection, will not be
satisfactory as the resultant current would zero.
Three winding or two winding power transformers with one winding delta connected
are suitable for relay polarisation. Provided the star point is earthed, then a current
transformer in this neutral can be used to supply the relay. In the case of three
winding transformers, if two star connected windings have the star point earthed,
then current transformers in each neutral connected in parallel must be used having
ratios inversely proportional to the power transformers voltage ratio. An alternative to
this is to use one current transformer within the delta winding provided that no load is
taken from the delta. If load is taken from the delta winding it is necessary to use a
current transformer in each leg of the delta to prevent unbalanced load or fault
current producing incorrect polarising current.
Dual Polarised Earth Fault Relays
As the polarising current for current polarised earth fault relays is taken from a
current transformer in a local power transformer neutral, this may be lost if the
particular transformer is switched out of service and for this reason voltage
polarisation is in general more reliable. However, as pointed out, in solidly earthed
systems where the zero sequence source impedance is small the value of the
residual voltage can be very low and dual polarised relays, with both current and
voltage are used. It should be noted, however, that with modern relays the possibility
of voltage polarised relays failing to operate is very remote and that for all practical
conditions this possibility can in general be ignored.
© 2006
Page 4
INSULATED AND PETERSEN COIL EARTHED SYSTEMS
The operation of earth fault indication relays on systems earthed through a Petersen
Coil or totally insulated system is dependent on the capacitive current flowing in the
healthy feeders and when a Petersen Coil is used on the current due to the
suppression coil flowing in the faulty phase.
In the case of overhead lines the maj ority of earth faults are of a transient nature and
it is preferred that these faults shall not lead to automatic isolation of the faulty line. It
is desirable, however, that an indication should be given of sustained system faults in
order that the system may be supervised continuously and so that the faulty section
of the network is indicated.
For detection of a system earth fault, a sensitive directional relay or wattmetric relay
is used (Petersen Coil Systems)
Petersen Coil Earthed System
The diagram in Figure 4 shows a system of radial feeders, with a phase to ground
fault on the 'C' phase of one of the feeders. No current will flow in the 'C' phase of
the healthy feeders as they will be at earth potential. Capacative current will flow in
the healthy phases of all feeders to earth and back to the source via the fault. The
vector sum of the currents in the current coil of the relay on the faulty feeder Is is
proportional to :
Ica + Icb - 3Ic + IL = -2Ic + IL
Where :
Ica + Icb = Ic
The vector diagram of the currents in the sound phases shows that the total wattage
component of the currents in the restraining quadrant, hence the relays on the
healthy feeders will not operate. However, the current in the faulty feeder show that
the wattage component of the currents is in the operating quadrant and hence, the
relay in the faulty feeder will operate.
The current transformers are of a special design, class 02, having an exceptionally
low phase angle error and because of this cannot be balanced accurately for currents
greatly in excess of rated current. The relay is provided with 0q MTA.
Insulated System
The diagram in Figure 5 shows a system of radial feeders, with a phase to ground
fault on the 'C' phase of one of the feeders. The residual current flowing in the
current coil of the relay on the faulty feeder, neglecting the effect of magnetising
current, is proportional to the 2 Ic where IC is the vector sum of the currents in the
healthy phases Ica and Icb. Since the system is an insulated one, the fault has the
effect of raising the neutral point of the system by a voltage equivalent to the phase
voltage and the voltages of the healthy feeders by 3 .
The relay is provided with a 90q leading MTA.
© 2006
Page 5
G.S.
~ ~
2.1 2.1
6' 6
0.1 0.1
A 1' E
1
1.7 1.7
5' 5
X Y
2 FAULT 2'
0.5 0.5
4' 4
B D
1.3 1.3
3 3'
0.9 0.9
FIGURE 1
RING MAIN OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
© 2006
Page 6
R1 R1'
~ LOAD
R2 R2'
FIGURE 2
RING MAIN OVERCURRENT PROTECTION
© 2006
Page 7
Ia
Vb'c
Va
Vbc
Vc Vb
0ºLINE
UNITY P.F.
Ia RCA LINE
Vb'c
45º
135º
90ºLINE
ZERO P.F.
Vab
LAGGING
Va
Vc
Vca Vb
Vbc ZERO SENSITIVITY
LINE
FIGURE 3
90q CONNECTION 45q RCA
© 2006
Page 8
a b c
Ica
Icb
Ic
Ica
Source Icb
Ic
IL
Ica
Icb
IL 3Ic
Ic 2Ic
Location of CT's
IL
a b
Restrain Restrain
Icb Ica
3Ic
Ic
Ica Icb
IL Is
Operate Operate
VPO VPO
Faulty Feeder Healthy Feeders
FIGURE 4
© 2006
Page 9
a b c
Ica
Icb
Ic
Ica
Source Icb
Ic
Ica
Icb
3Ic 2Ic
Location CT's
Faulty Feeder
VRE
a b
Icb
-3Ic
Ic
Ica c Healthy Feeders
VRE VRE
Ic = Ica + Icb
-2Ic
RCA RCA
Restrain Operate Restrain Operate
VPO VPO
FIGURE 5
© 2006
Page 10
Distance Protection
Basics & Characteristics
1
Distance Protection
Distance protection is simple to apply
Fast in operation for faults located along the protected circuit.
Provide primary and remote back-up functions
Unit protection scheme with a signalling channel.
Suitable with high-speed autoreclosing, critical lines.

Virtually independent of Fault Current Level (ZS/ZL ratios)
Fast Discriminative Protection:- Zone 1 or ‘Aided’ Distance
Scheme
Measures Z, X or R correctly irrespective of System
Conditions
2
Distance Protection
Directional
VT's Required
Fault Resistive Coverage Limited by Load Impedance and
Distance Characteristic
Affected by Power Swings, fuse failure
Additional Features can be incorporated:-

Directional E/F Protection
Power Swing Blocking
VT Supply Supervision
Fault Locators
Event Recording
Disturbance Recording
3
Advantages of Distance Protection
ZS = 10 Ω
ZL = 4 Ω
ZS = 10 Ω
IF1 F1
115kV 50
IF1 = 115kV/√3(5+4) = 7380A

∴ Is > 7380A
4
Advantages of Distance Protection
Consider with one source out of service:-
ZS = 10 Ω
F2
IF2
50
√3 x 10 = 6640A
IF2 = 115kV/√
∴ Is <6640A
>7380A - IMPRACTICAL
5
RELAY PERFORMANCE
6
RELAY PERFORMANCE
7
Simplified Line Diagram
L R L L L R
R R
C C C
L R
8
Basic Principle of Distance Protection
ZS ZL
IR
21 VR
9
Impedance Seen By Measuring Element
jX
ZL
10
ZS !"#
IR ZL
$
VS VR ZLOAD
%
VR
Impedance measured ZR = = Z L + Z LOAD
ΙR
11
ZL
ZS IR ZF
VS VR ZLOAD Fault
&$ ' % ( ) %* + ,I *
-' .* / * 01 *
& + 1 2.. ∴+ %
+
& I 1 -' 2..
12
Plain Impedance Characteristic
&$ ' % 3 4
( )
)
" &! 3"45 2
13
Impedance Characteristic Generation
jIX
IF zF
IZ
V2 V1
VF V3
IR
Trip TRIP STABLE
Spring
Restrain + +
Operate
) I
' &$ ' % *
Ampere Turns : VF IZ
" ' % 36 / 37
Trip Conditions : VF < IFZ
01 37 *≈*
I*
36 + ≈*
14
I1/I2 ZP
IR
V1
21 VR VFP
V2
8 % % 1$
VFP x V2 /V 1 VFP Ι1/ Ι 2

Z R = VR/ ΙR = = x
ΙFP x Ι 2 / Ι1 ΙFP V1/V 2
C.T. RATIO
ZR = Z P x
V.T. RATIO
15
Example
Ω; V1/V2 = 115kV/115V; I1/I2 = 600/5A

ZP = 4Ω
#"# 4"&-
* *! 9
+#"# 4"&-
Ω -5A Relay
ZR(5) = 4 x 600/5 x 115/115x103 = 0.48Ω
ZR(1) = 2.4 Ω - 1A Relay
16
Input Quantities for ∅-∅ Faults
FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

A-B VA - VB I A - IB
B-C VB - VC IB - IC
C-A VC - VA IC - I A
VRESTRAINT & IOPERATE are selected inside the relay

No setting adjustments are required apart from
Z1 = Phase Replica Impedance
17
Input Quantities for Phase to Earth Faults
FAULT VRESTRAINT IOPERATE

A-E VA ? IA ?
B-E
C-E
18
Neutral Impedance Replica Vectorial Compensation
I 4 *7
&*
*7
*7
I
I
I *
19
Neutral Impedance Compensation
For a single phase to ground fault the total earth

loop impedance is given by :- (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 = ZT
ZT = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 = Z1 + ZN
ZN = (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)/3 - Z1
= (2Z1 + Z0)/3 - Z1
= - Z1 + Z0
: :
= KN Z1
where KN = (Z0 - Z1)

:*7
20
Neutral Impedance Vectorial Replica Compensation
";
4
*! I4*!
5
*! I5*!
*! I *!
* I *
3 * ! *7
3 * * * 7
:
< ) ∠* ∠ *! . - ;
21
Neutral Impedance Replica Compensation
! ∠ " ≠∠
∴ #$% & ' %& ( $ ) '& ( * ) +$ * )$,
- " -  ∠∅
22
Characteristics
23
Distance Characteristics
*
* * *
( - - 32"
* *
&( !2 4 2 ( -
-33
!- 4 &32
( -
* *
*
2 "& < 4 = <4 & 4"2 4 !- > -
24
Self Polarised Mho Relays
Very popular characteristic

Simple
23" 4&
Less sensitive to power swings
Inherently directional
Operates for F1, but not for F2 -!2 4"2
Mho = 1/OHM
ϕ
3
* 1 /
ϕ 1
25
Neutral Impedance Replica Vectorial Compensation
Vectorial compensation allows for ∠ZN ≠ ∠ZPH which is

especially important for cable distance protection
where ∠ZN < ∠ZPH and ∠ZN is sometimes negative.
*!
*
*2 $ $
0 ∅ 0
!
26
Offset Mho Characteristic
$ ) %
8 ?)' '
-' .
.) )' . )
$
1
% %
% $ @
27
Mho Relays
Directional circular characteristic obtained by

introducing VPOLARISING
VF → self polarised
VSOUND PHASE → fully cross-polarised
VF + xVS.F. → partially cross-polarised
VPRE-FAULT → ‘memory’ polarised
Purpose for this is to ensure operation for close up

faults where measured fault voltage collapses
28
Quadrilateral Characteristic
*
*7 %
29
Lenticular Load Avoidance Characteristic
I
Lenticular
characteristic created
from two offset Mho
comparators
Aspect ratio = a/b

8
30
Lenticular Characteristic
4 ' ,8
*:
#A7
#BC
7#
8
% $' %
*: @
31
Forward Offset Characteristic
*:
*6
0 %8 %
*7
Enhanced resistive coverage for remote faults
32
Zones of Protection
33
Zones of Protection
"$
*:4 *:
":
*64 *6
"6
*74 *7
4 *75 5
"6
*65
*74 D E .*45
*64 76 E .*45
*:4 - 4 76 E .F*45 G * H
34
Zones of Protection
*:4
*64
5
*74
35
Zone 1
FAST OPERATION
Trips circuit breaker without delay as soon as
fault within Zone 1 reach is detected.
REACH SETTING
Cannot be set to 100% of protected line or may
overreach into next section.
Overreach caused by possible errors in :-
CTs
VTs
ZLINE information
Relay Measurement
36
Zone 1
! 8
-@ 1
*- 2 7 *
Possible incorrect tripping for fault at ‘F’
∴ Zone 1 set to ∼ 0.8ZL
*- 2 7 #D*
37
Zone 1 Settings for Teed Feeders
*7 #D*4
4
*74 #D*45
*75 #D*54
*7
*74
*75
38
Zone 1 Settings for Direct Intertrip Schemes
*74
4 *
*75 5
*74
3 % @
" ' I5;
*75
@ 3 %
39
Zone 1 Settings for Direct Intertrip Schemes
Effective Zone 1 reaches at A and B must overlap.

Otherwise :- No trip for fault at ‘F’
*74
4
*75 5
∴ Effective Z1A and Z1B must be > 0.5ZL
Settings for Zone 1 > 0.8ZL are o.k.
40
Minimum Zone 1 Reach Setting
Dictated by :-
Minimum relay voltage for fault at Zone 1

reach point to ensure accurate measurement.
Minimum voltage depends on relay design typically

1 → 3 volts.
41
System Impedance Ratio :- SIR
SIR = ZS/Zn
where :- ZS = Source impedance behind relay

Zn = Reach setting
VRPA = Minimum voltage for reach point accuracy
Can be expressed in terms of an equivalent value

of SIRMAX
SIRMAX = ZS MAX
Zn MIN
∴ Zn MIN ≡ ZS MAX
SIRMAX
42
Zone 2
Covers last 20% of line not covered by Zone 1.

Provides back-up protection for remote busbars.
*6
"&( 2
*7 *7
To allow for errors :-

Z2G > 1.2 ZGH
Zone 2 is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 1 on

next section for faults in first 20% of next section.
43
Zone 2
Zone 2 on adjacent line sections are not normally time
graded with each other
*6 *6
*7 *7
I ; I ;
Overlap only occurs for faults in first 20% of following line.

Faults at ‘F’ should result in operation of Z1H and tripping of circuit breaker ‘H’.
If ‘H’ fails to trip possible causes are :-
Z1H operates but trip relays fail.
Z2H may operate but will not trip if followed by the same trip relays.
Fault must be cleared at ‘G’ by Z2G.
Z1H and trip relays operate but circuit breaker fails to trip.
44
Zone 2
No advantage in time grading Z2G with

Z2H
Unless Z2H + trip relays energise a 2nd circuit

breaker trip coil.
45
Zone 2
*7 . ' #
) 8 0 8 ? I ; % I ; .*6 % *6
1 @ 1 $ $ #
8 @ $ 8 $ % *6 0 1 *6 #
*6
*6
*7 *7
I ; I ;
! 8 $ 0 1 1
* 6 $ % ) $ 0 1 @
0 8 #
2 % .) 1 . % ) ' 0 8
%@ 0 #
46
Maximum Allowable Zone 2 Reach to Allow for
Equal Zone 2 Time Settings
*64 2 (4
*75 2 (&
* 7 * 6
4 5
Z2A must not reach beyond Z1B
i.e. Z2A(EFF) MAX must not reach further than Z1B(EFF) MIN
Z1BSETTING = 0.8ZL2
Z1B(EFF) MIN = 0.8 x 0.8ZL2 = 0.64ZL2
∴ Z2A(EFF) MAX < ZL1 + 0.64ZL2
∴ 1.2 Z2ASETTING < ZL1 + 0.64ZL2
Z2ASETTING < 0.83ZL1 + 0.53ZL2
47
Zone 2 Time Settings on Long Line Followed by
Several Short Lines
*6
*:
*:J
*6
*6J
*7 *7 *7J
I ; I ; IJ;
*6 1 :% #
" $ $ 8 ? )' . .) I ;K
1 $ .*6 $ ) % $ 0 1 *: #
48
Zone 3
Provides back-up for next adjacent line.

Provides back-up protection for busbars (reverse offset).
Actual Zone 3 settings will be scheme specified, i.e.
permissive or blocking schemes.
Many modern relays have more than 3 Zones to allow the use
of three forward and an independent reverse zone.
Z3G
REV Z3G FWD
Z2G
Time Z1G Z1H
G H K
Typical settings : Z3FWD > 1.2 x (ZGH + ZHK)

Z3REV 0.1 to 0.25 of Z1G
49
Zone Time Coordination - Ideal Situation
Zone 1 :- tZ1 = instantaneous (typically 15 - 35mS)
Zone 2 :- tZ2 = tZ1(down) + CB(down) + Z2(reset) + Margin

e.g. tZ2 = 35 + 100 + 40 + 100 = 275mS
Zone 3 :- tZ3 = tZ2(down) + CB(down) + Z3(reset) + Margin

e.g. tZ3 = 275 + 100 + 40 + 100 = 515mS
Note: Where upper and lower zones overlap, e.g.

Zone 2 up sees beyond Zone 1 down, the
upper and lower zone time delays will need to
be coordinated, e.g. tZ2(up) to exceed
tZ2(down).
50
Under / Overreach
51
Under-Reach
Impedance presented > apparent impedance
%age Underreach = ZR - ZF x 100%

ZR
where ZR = Reach setting

ZF = Effective reach
52
Underreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between
Relay and Fault
*4 *5
I4 I4GI5
I5
+ I4*4 G I4 G I5 *5
I I4
* *4 G *5 G I5 # *5
I4
53
Underreaching Due to Busbar Infeed between
Relay and Fault
∴ Relay with setting ZA + ZB will underreach with

infeed.
Relay with setting ZA + ZB + IB . ZB will measure

IA
correctly with infeed present but if infeed is removed
the relay will overreach.
Maximum allowable setting dictated by load

impedance
54
Under-Reach
I!
*L
I GI!
*
I
2 4>
What relay reach setting is required to ensure fault at F is at

boundary of operation ?
Impedance seen for fault at F
= ZG + IG + IP . ZK
IG
Limit of operation is when Impedance Seen = Reach Setting
∴ Reach setting required
= ZG + IG + IP . ZK
IG
55
Over-Reach
Impedance seen < apparent impedance
%age Overreach = ZF - ZR x 100%

ZR
where ZR = Reach setting

ZF = Effective reach
56
Ancilliary Functions
57
Switch on to Fault (SOTF)
Fast tripping for faults on line

energisation, even where line VTs
provide no prefault voltage memory
58
Voltage Transformer Supervision
A VT fault and subsequent operation of VT fuses

or MCB’s results in misrepresentation of primary
voltages
Relay will remain stable as the current phase
selector will not pick up
Subsequent system fault may cause unwanted /
incorrect tripping
VTS operating from presence of V0 with no I0 or
V2 with no I2 is used to block relay if required
59
VT Supervision
Under load conditions

Loss of 1 or 2 phase voltages
Loss of all 3 phase voltages
Upon line energisation

Loss of 1 or 2 phase voltages
Loss of all 3 phase voltages
Digital input to monitor MCB
Set to block voltage dependent functions
60
Zone 1 Mho Relay
L Will not operate for load

*3 or stable power swing
Ø1, Ø2, Ø3, = Angles
between system
voltages at ‘K’ and ‘L’
*7
M: Ø increases as power
J M6 swing
- approaches relay at G
M7 4 ‘J’ is point where power
*3 swing enters relay
characteristic
At ‘J’ the angle between
! 0 30 )
voltages at ‘G’ & ‘H’ is
90°
Normal limit of angle
between voltages at ‘G’
& ‘H’ for load is of the
order of 30°
61
Comparison between Stability of Mho and Quadrilateral
Impedance Elements during a Power Swing
! 0
30
)
62
Illustration of Basic Power Swing
Blocking System
! 0
30 )
*!
*:
63
A power swing will result in continuous change of

current
Continuous output from the relay superimposed

current element can be used to block for a power
swing
Using this method the relay is able to operate for

faults occurring during a power swing
64
Distance relays
∆X
Out Of Step
X lim
Ζ3
∆R
-R lim R lim
Ζ4 -X lim
Stable swing
65
Directional Earth Fault Protection (DEF)
High resistance ground faults

Instantaneous or time delayed
IEC and IEEE curves
Single or shared signalling channel
66
Transformer Feeders
67
Transformer Feeders
*"
*
67
Zone 1 = ZL + 0.5ZT
T1 = Instantaneous
Zone 2 = 1.2 (ZL +ZT)

T2 = Co-ordinate with downstream protection
Zone 3
- Back-up use as appropriate
T3
68
Zero Sequence Mutual Induction
in Double Circuit Lines
1 1
Mutual Induction
•Performance of distance relays on double circuit lines are

affected by the fault current flow in the parallel line.
•The zero sequence current flowing in the parallel line will

introduce an error in the phase to ground impedance
measured by the relay on the protected line.
•The error could be either positive or negative depending on

the relative direction of fault current flow in the parallel line
with respect to the protected line. This results in the distance
relay under-reaching or over-reaching for faults involving
ground.
•Amount and direction of fault currents would depend on the

location of fault, type of fault and status of the lines.
2 2
Cause of Zero Sequence Mutual Induction
•The current flow in the parallel line will induce voltage in the
protected line due to mutual induction.
•The amount of voltage induced would depend on the distance

between the two lines on the tower.
• Since +ve and -ve sequence currents are balanced (+ve and –
ve cancel each other as in opposite direction), their net resultant
flux that links with the protected line to induce voltage would be
very less and is generally ignored.
• Zero sequence currents of all the three phases are in phase,

they will have substantial net resultant flux to link with the
protected line and induce voltage in it.
3 3
Cause of Zero Sequence Mutual Induction
• Only zero sequence current flowing in the parallel line will

induce voltage in the protected line.
•Thus the fault voltage measured by the relay on the protected

line would include this induced voltage, which causes the
impedance measured by the relay to be higher or lower
(depending on the polarity of the induced voltage) than the
actual value.
4 4
Review of mutual induction fundamentals
•When current flows in a conductor it produces a magnetic

field around it. The magnetic field forms closed flux lines. The
direction of the magnetic flux can be explained using the
“Maxwell’s right hand screw rule.
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
• Generally the positive and negative sequence mutual
impedances are as low as 1/12th of the self positive and
negative sequence impedances.
• On the contrary the zero sequence mutual impedance can be

as high as 2/3rd of the self zero sequence impedance which is
a considerably high value and can affect the impedance
measured by the relay on the protected line.
9 9
1. Parallel line in service and current flowing in the same
direction as in the protected line.
2. Parallel line out of service and grounded at both ends by

earth switches.
3. Parallel line in service and current flowing in the

opposite direction.
4. Parallel line is looped-in-looped-out on the way.
10 10
Parallel line in service and fault at remote bus Y
•Consider an “A” phase to “Ground” fault on bus Y of the

system and calculate the impedance measured by the relay.
•The parallel line “Line 2XY” is in service .
•Since the fault is at the bus “Y”, the fault impedance

measured by the relay R should be equal to “Z1XY1” (the
positive sequence impedance of the line between the relay and
fault location).
11 11
12 12
The impedance measured by the “AN” element of relay can be
calculated using the expression,
Where, K is Earth fault compensation
The “A” phase and “Neutral” currents at the relay

location can be expressed as;
13 13
The positive and negative sequence impedances are equal, i.e.,
Z1XY1= Z1XY2. Applying this knowledge and also adding and
subtracting the term (IR0 x Z1XY1), we can re-write the expression
for the fault voltage as,
14 14
15 15
The actual fault impedance is,
16 16
Parallel line out of service and grounded at
both ends with fault at remote bus Y
17 17
1. The parallel line’s positive and negative sequence
impedances are left open and thus will not have any
influence on the fault current.
2. The zero sequence impedance of the parallel line is

connected to ground potential at both ends.
3. Only zero sequence current flows in the parallel line.
4. The zero sequence induced voltage in the parallel line

(V1M0) which is due to the zero sequence current flow in
the protected line (IR0), is the cause for the zero
sequence current flow in the parallel line (IP0).
18 18
19 19
20 20
21 21
In this case the measured impedance is less than the actual
impedance (Z1XY1). This will cause the distance relay to
over-reach. The percentage over-reach is given by
22 22
Distance Protection Schemes
1
Basic Distance Scheme
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z3
Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
2
Basic Distance Scheme - Disadvantages
Zone 1 set to 80% leaves 2 end zones

Faults in end zone results in instantaneous
tripping at one end and time delayed at the other
Time delay may lead to system stability problems
Sequential clearance leaves no dead time for high
speed A/R cycle (transient fault becomes
permanent)
Longer clearance times - More damage
3
Zone 1 Extension Scheme
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z1X
Z1X
Z1
Z2
Z3
A/R A/R
& &
Z1X Z1X
Z1 1 1 Trip Trip 1 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
4
Zone 1 Extension - Advantages
No signalling channel required (may be used as

temporary replacement for carrier aided scheme
when comms. channel out of service)
Provides fast fault clearance at both ends for a

transient fault anywhere along the line length
Allows the use of high speed A/R cycle
5
Zone 1 Extension Scheme - Disadvantages
Tripping can occur for external faults (but will be

followed by an autoreclose)
Basic distance scheme logic applies following

reclose (i.e. potential for time delayed clearance for
permanent faults)
Only suitable to systems where autoreclose is used

(for example can not be used on cable circuits)
6
Loss of Load Accelerated Trip
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z3
T1 = 40ms (allows for slowest pickup of Zone 2)
T2 = 18ms (prevents LOL trip for external fault with
CB pole scatter)
LDA
LDB &
LDC . . T2
0
. & Trip
T1 0 Z2
&
1 .
. .
.
7
Loss of Load Scheme
Fast fault clearance without the need for a

signalling channel
Only applicable where 3 phase tripping is used
Only operates for unbalanced faults
Load current (above the current detector settings)

must exist prior to the fault to ‘arm’ the scheme
Can be used as back up to signal aided scheme
8
Channel Dependant Schemes
9
Unit Protection Schemes
Provide high speed clearance for all faults on line

(for example current differential)
Do not provide inherent back-up protection

Solution is to provide distance protection for
back-up protection of adjacent lines with an aided
tripping scheme for high speed protection of
whole line
Requires the use of an ON/OFF signalling channel

between line ends (i.e. HF/VF/Fibre Optic/Radio)
10
Types of Aided Tripping Schemes
Acceleration
Transfer tripping
Direct
Permissive
Underreach
Permissive Overreach
Blocking
11
Direct Transfer Trip
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z3 Tx Tx
Rx Rx
Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
12
Direct Transfer Trip - Advantages
All faults anywhere along the protected line can

be cleared instantaneously at both line ends
Scheme can be advantageous for protecting 3

terminal lines due to ease of application
13
Direct Transfer Trip - Disadvantages
A very secure signalling channel is required :-

incorrect operation leads to false tripping
Circuit breakers at both line ends must be closed and

contribute fault current to obtain high speed fault
clearance
If the channel fails only the Basic scheme logic will

be provided
14
Acceleration Scheme (for Reach Stepped Relay)
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z3 Tx Tx
Rx Rx
Z1/Z2 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1/Z2
Z3 T3 . . T3 Z3
1 Change 1
Z1 T2
T2 . .
reach
15
Permissive Underreach Scheme
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z3
Tx Tx
0 Rx Rx 0
100 100
& &
Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
16
Permissive Underreach Scheme
Race between relay at D

A B
picking up and signal
send from relay at C
C D
resetting, following
opening of breaker at C
Fault
21 21
Send Rx + Z2
If signal send from C
A B
resets before relay D
operates then aided
tripping will not occur
C D
To prevent this a 100ms
Fault
21 21 delay on drop off of the
Rx + Z2 signal send is used in
the scheme logic
17
Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip -
Advantages
Only a simplex signalling channel required
Scheme is very secure as signalling channel only

keyed for internal fault (Zone 1 initiation)
18
Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip -
Disadvantages
If one terminal of the line is open then only Basic
scheme logic will apply
If there is a weak infeed at one terminal then only

Basic scheme logic will apply
If signalling channel fails then only Basic scheme

logic will apply
Resistive coverage is governed by Zone 1 setting

(may be limited on short lines)
19
Permissive Overreach Scheme Internal Fault
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z3
Rx Rx
Tx Tx
& &
Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
20
Permissive Overreach Scheme External Fault
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z3
Rx Rx
Tx Tx
& &
Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
21
Permissive Overreach Scheme (CB Echo Logic)
Z3
Z2
Z1
Z1
Z2
Z3
CB open & & CB open

Rx Rx
Tx Tx
1 1
& &
Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
22
Permissive Overreach Scheme (WI Echo Logic)
Z4
Z2
Z1
Z1
Z2
!
Z4
CB open & & CB open

Rx Rx
Z4 & Tx Tx & Z4
1 1
& &
Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
23
Permissive Overreach Weak Infeed Trip Scheme
Z4
Z2
Z1
Z1
!
Z2
! " # $
Z4
CB open & & CB open

Rx Rx
Z4 & Tx Tx & Z4
1 1
LDOV & & LDOV
& &
Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
24
Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip - Advantages
Provides better resistive coverage, especially on

short lines, where MHO measuring elements are
used
For cases where one line terminal is open, open

breaker echo logic can be used
For cases of weak or zero infeed at one line

terminal weak infeed logic can be used (reverse
looking zone required)
25
Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip - Disadvantages
Duplex signalling channel required
Scheme is theoretically less secure then PUR as

signalling channel is keyed for external faults

logic will apply
26
Blocking Scheme - Internal Fault
Z3
Z2
Z1
Send Logic : Z3 + Z2
Z1 Trip Logic : Rx + Z2
Z2
Z3
& &
Rx Rx
Tx Tx
& &
Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
27
Blocking Scheme - External Fault
Z3
Z2
Z1
Send Logic : Z3 + Z2
Z1 Trip Logic : Rx + Z2
Z2
Z3
& &
Rx Rx
Tx Tx
& &
Z1 1 Trip Trip 1 Z1
Z2 T2 . . T2 Z2
Z3 T3 T3 Z3
28
Blocking Scheme - Advantages
Only simplex signalling channel required
Provides better resistive coverage than PUR on short

lines where MHO elements are used
Fast tripping will still be possible at closed end of

line for all fault positions with remote breaker open
Fast tripping will still be possible at strong infeed

terminal for all fault positions where remote terminal
has no or weak infeed
29
Blocking Scheme - Disadvantages
Only 2 forward zones of protection available (unless
relay has >3 Zones)

logic will apply
Current sensitivity is lower as tripping elements (Z2)

are controlled by high set current level detectors (to
ensure blocking elements (Z3/Z4) are more sensitive
than tripping elements)
30
Permissive Schemes vs Blocking Schemes
Permissive less reliable - require a signal from

remote relay plus local operation to trip
Blocking less secure - require a signal from remote

relay to prevent a trip
Permissive schemes are marginally faster and more

sensitive (timer plus high set current elements on
Blocking scheme)
31
Directional Earth Fault (DEF)
32
Directional Earth Fault Schemes
DEF schemes are identical to Distance schemes

DEF Forward replaces Zone 2, DEF Reverse
replaces Zone 3/4 Reverse
No equivalent to Zone 1 as the DEF elements can
not have a defined reach, hence no schemes using
Zone 1 can be replicated (Z1 ext, PUR)
33
% %&
*
$
'() '()
Independent signalling channels allows the use of

different schemes for the distance and DEF elements,
for example PUR distance with POR DEF
34
% %&
*
Shared Channel
'() '()
Shared signalling channels limits the use of

schemes for the distance and DEF elements.
Both use the same scheme logic.
35
DISTANCE PROTECTION SCHEMES
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the main disadvantages of conventional time-stepped distance protection, as

illustrated in Figure 1, is the fact that the instantaneous Zone 1 of the protection at each
end of the protected line cannot be set to cover the whole of the feeder length and is
usually set to about 80%. This leaves two 'end zones’, each being about 20% of the
protected feeder length, in which faults are cleared instantaneously (Zone 1 time) by the
protection at one end of the feeder but in Zone 2 time (0.3 to 0.4 seconds typically) by the
protection at the other end of the feeder.
In some applications this situation cannot be tolerated, for two main reasons :
a. Faults remaining on the feeder for Zone 2 may cause the system to become
unstable.
b. Where high speed auto-reclosing is used, the non-simultaneous opening of the

circuit breakers at both ends of the faulted section results in no ‘dead time’ during
the auto-reclose cycle for the fault to be extinguished and for ionized gases to clear.
This results in the possibility that a transient fault will cause permanent lockout of
the circuit breakers at each end of the line section.
Unit schemes of protection which compare the conditions at the two ends of the protected
feeder simultaneously can positively identify whether the fault is internal or external to the
protected section, and are capable of providing high speed protection for the whole feeder
length. This advantage is balanced by the fact that the unit scheme does not provide the
back up protection to adjacent feeders given by a distance scheme.
The most desirable scheme is obviously one which combines the best features of both
arrangements, that is, instantaneous tripping over the whole feeder length plus back-up
protection to adjacent feeders. This can be achieved by interconnecting the distance
protections at each end of the protected feeder by a signalling channel. The signalling
channel may be high frequency (hf) operating over the overhead line conductors, voice
frequency (vf) using either pilots or a power line carrier communications channel, a radio
link, microwave channel or a fibre optic link. These communication techniques are
described in detail in Chapter 8.
The purpose of the signalling channel is to transmit information about the system
conditions from one end of the protected line to the other; it can also be arranged to
initiate or prevent tripping of the remote circuit breaker. The former arrangement is
generally referred to as a ‘transfer trip scheme’ while the latter is known as a ‘blocking
scheme’.
When carrier or signalling equipment is not available, fast tripping for all line faults can be
achieved by extending the Zone 1 reach of distance relays under control of an associated
auto-reclose scheme. The resulting distance scheme is referred to as a ‘Zone 1
Extension Scheme’ and its application is normally limited to distribution systems or to
interconnected power systems when carrier is temporarily taken out of service.
Figure 1 Conventional Distance Scheme
2. ZONE 1 EXTENSION SCHEME
Page 1
The scheme is intended for use with an auto-reclose relay. The Zone 1 units of the
distance relay have two setting controls; one, as in the basic distance scheme, is set to
cover 80% of the protected line length and the other, known as ‘Extended Zone 1’, is set
to cover 120% of the protected line. The Zone 1 reach is normally controlled by the
extended Zone 1 setting and is reset to the basic value when a command from the auto-
reclose relay is received.
On occurrence of a fault at any point within the extended Zone 1 reach, the relay operates
in Zone 1 time, trips the circuit breaker and initiates auto-reclosure. A contact from the
auto-reclose relay is used to reset the Zone 1 reach of the distance relay to the basic
value of 80%. The auto-reclose contact used for this purpose operates before the closing
pulse is applied to the breaker and resets only at the end of the reclaim time. The contact
should also operate when the auto-reclose facility is out of service.
If the fault is transient, the tripped circuit breakers will reclose successfully but, if
permanent, further tripping during the reclaim time is subject to the discrimination
obtained with normal Zone 1 and Zone 2 settings. The scheme is shown in Figure 2.
The disadvantage of the Zone 1 extension scheme is that external faults, between the far
end of the line and the first 20% of the next line, result in the tripping of the circuit
breakers external to the faulted section, increasing the amount of breaker maintenance
needed. This is illustrated in Figure 3(a) for a single circuit line where three circuit
breakers operate and in Figure 3(b) for a double circuit line, where five circuit breakers
operate.
Since the use of signalling equipment is not necessary, this scheme is often used as a
temporary replacement for carrier aided schemes when the signalling equipment is out of
service.
Figure 3 Performance of distance relays fitted with Zone 1 extension when used with auto-
reclose relays on single and double circuit lines
3. TRANSFER TRIP SCHEMES
3.1 Direct Transfer Trip (under-reaching) Scheme
The simplest way of speeding up fault clearance at the terminal which clears an end
zone fault in Zone 2 time is to adopt a direct transfer trip or intertrip technique as
shown in Figure 4. A Zone 1 contact is arranged to send a signal to the remote end
and a receive relay contact at that end is connected in the tripping circuit. The
scheme in which the Zone 1 relay is used to send a signal to the remote end of the
feeder in this manner is termed a ‘transfer trip under-reaching scheme’.
Considering now a fault F in the end zone at end H in Figure 1(a), operation of the
Zone 1 relay at end H initiates carrier transmission as well as tripping at that end.
The receipt of a signal at end G initiates tripping immediately because the receive
relay contact is connected directly to the trip relay. The disadvantage of this
scheme is the possibility of undesired tripping by accidental operation or
maloperation of signalling equipment.
Page 2
3.2 Permissive Under-reach Transfer Trip Scheme
The direct transfer trip scheme is made more secure by supervising the received
signal with the instantaneous Zone 2 operation before allowing tripping, as shown in
Figure 5. The scheme is then known as a ‘permissive under-reach transfer trip
scheme’.
Time delayed resetting of the ‘Signal Received’ element is required to ensure that
the relays at both ends of a single-end fed faulted line of a parallel feeder circuit
have time to trip when the fault is close to one end.
The need for the time delayed resetting may be explained by considering a fault ‘F’
in a double circuit line as shown in Figure 6. The fault is close to terminal G, so
there is negligible infeed from terminal H when the fault at F occurs. The protection
at H detects a Zone 2 fault only after the breaker at G has tripped. It is possible for
the ‘signal received’ element at H to reset before the Zone 2 unit at end H operates.
It is therefore necessary to delay the resetting of the ‘signal received’ element to
ensure high speed tripping at end H.
This scheme requires only a single signalling channel for two way signalling
between line ends as the channel is keyed by the under-reaching Zone 1 units.
When the circuit breaker at one end is open, instantaneous clearance cannot be
achieved for end-zone faults near the ‘breaker open’ terminal.
Figure 4 Direct Transfer Trip (under-reaching) Scheme
Figure 5 Permissive Under-reach Transfer Trip Scheme
3.3 Permissive Over-reach Transfer Tripping Scheme
In this scheme a relay set to reach beyond the far end of the protected line is used
to send an intertripping signal to the remote end. In this case, however, it is
essential that the receive relay contact is monitored by a directional relay contact to
ensure that tripping does not take place unless the fault is within the protected
section; see Figure 7. The instantaneous contacts of the Zone 2 unit are arranged
to send the signal, and the received signal, supervised by Zone 2 protection, is used
to energize the trip circuit. The scheme is then known as a ‘permissive over-reach
transfer trip scheme’ or ‘directional comparison scheme’.
Since the signalling channel is keyed by over-reaching Zone 2 units, the scheme
requires duplex signalling channels – one frequency for each direction of signalling.
Page 3
If distance relays with mho characteristics are used the scheme is better suited than
the permissive under-reaching scheme for protecting short lines, because the
resistive coverage of the Zone 2 unit is greater than that of Zone 1.
To prevent operation under current reversal conditions, in a parallel feeder circuit, it

is necessary to use a time delayed unit in the permissive trip circuit. This current
reversal guard is necessary only when the Zone 2 reach is set greater than 150% of
the protected line impedance.
Figure 6 Single End Fed Close-up Fault on Double Circuit Line
Figure 7 Permissive Over-reach Transfer Trip Scheme
The need for such a time delayed unit is best explained by the parallel feeder
arrangement shown in Figure 8. If a fault occurs near circuit breaker K of feeder
JK, the protection at K will clear the fault faster than the protection at J. As soon as
breaker K opens, the direction of current flow down the healthy feeder reverses.
The Zone 2 units at end G, which operated and sent the signal to end H when the
fault at K started, reset when breaker K opens.
The Zone 2 units at end H, which restrained when the fault at K started, operate
when breaker K opens. If the Zone 2 units at end H operate before Zone 2 at end
G resets, tripping of the breakers at G and H may take place.
To avoid this possible maloperation, a time delayed unit is used to block the
permissive trip and signal send circuits as shown in Figure 9. The time delayed unit
is energized if a signal is received and there is no operation of Zone 2 units. The
time delayed unit has an adjustable delay on pick up (tp) and is usually set to allow
instantaneous tripping to take place for any internal faults, taking into account a
possible slower operation of Zone 2. The time delayed unit will have operated and
blocked the permissive trip and signal send circuit by the time the current reversal
described above takes place.
The time delayed unit is de-energized if the Zone 2 units operate or the ‘signal
received’ element resets. The reset time delay (td) of the time delay unit is set to
cover any overlap in time caused by Zone 2 units operating and the signal resetting
at end H, when the current in the healthy feeder reverses. Using a time delay unit
in this manner, that is with a time delay on pick up and resetting, means that no
extra time delay is added in the permissive trip circuit for an internal fault.
In the standard permissive over-reach scheme, as with the permissive under-reach

scheme, instantaneous clearance cannot be achieved for end zone faults near the
‘breaker open’ terminal. However, to achieve fast clearance for these faults,
additional circuitry can be included in the scheme to echo the ‘received signal’ to the
remote terminal, as shown in Figure 10. An auxiliary contact of the local circuit
breaker is connected to the distance protection scheme to show when the circuit
breaker is open or closed. When a signal is received and the breaker is in the open
position, the received signal is echoed back.
Page 4
A time delay (T1) is required in the echo circuit to prevent tripping of the remote end
breaker when the local breaker is tripped by the busbar protection or breaker fail
protection associated with other feeders connected to the busbar. The time delay
ensures that the remote end Zone 2 unit will reset by the time the echoed signal is
received at that end.
Signal transmission can take place even after the remote end breaker has tripped,
so to avoid continuous transmission due to lock-up of both signals, the time delay
circuit (T2) is used. After the time delay (T2) ‘signal send’ is blocked.
Figs. 8, 9 & 10
3.4 Acceleration Scheme
This scheme is similar to the permissive under-reach transfer trip scheme in its
principle of operation, but it is applicable only to zone switched distance relays
which share the same measuring units for both Zone 1 and Zone 2. In these relays
the reach of the measuring units is extended from Zone 1 to Zone 2 by means of a
range change relay, after Zone 2 time.
In this scheme, the under-reaching Zone 1 unit is arranged to send a signal to the
remote end of the feeder in addition to tripping the local circuit breaker. The receive
relay contact is arranged to operate the range change relay which extends the
reach of the measuring unit from Zone 1 to Zone 2 immediately instead of at the
end of Zone 2 time delay. This accelerates the fault clearance at the remote end.
The scheme is shown in Figure 11.
The scheme is not quite as fast in operation as the permissive intertrip schemes,
since time is required for the distance measuring unit to operate after the reach has
been changed from Zone 1 to Zone 2. It may be argued, though, that the slightly
slower operation will result in increased security from maloperation.
Figure 11 Acceleration Scheme
4. BLOCKING SCHEME
The alternative arrangements so far described have used the signalling channel to
transmit a tripping instruction. If the signalling channel fails or there is no infeed from one
end, end-of-zone faults will take longer to be cleared.
The blocking scheme uses inverse logic. Signalling is initiated only for external faults and
signalling transmission takes place over healthy line sections. Fast fault clearance occurs
when no signal is received and the over-reaching distance measuring units (Z2) looking
into the line operate. The signalling channel is keyed by reverse looking distance units
(Z3). An ideal blocking scheme is shown in Figure 12.
The signalling channel used need only be of the single frequency type that operates both
local and remote receive relays when a block signal is initiated at any end of the protected
section.
Page 5
A blocking instruction has to be sent by the reverse looking Zone 3 units to prevent
instantaneous tripping of the remote relay for Zone 2 faults external to the protected
section. To achieve this, the reverse looking Zone 3 units and the signalling channel
must operate faster than the forward looking Zone 2 units. In practice this is seldom the
case and to ensure discrimination a short time delay is generally introduced into the
blocking mode trip circuit, as illustrated in Figure 13.
The faults shown at R, S and T in Figure 12 are now considered.
A fault at R is seen by the Zone 1 relays at both ends G and end H; as a result, the fault
is cleared instantaneously at both ends of the protected line. Signalling is controlled by
the Zone 3 units looking away from the protected section, so no transmission takes place
thus giving fast back-up tripping via the forward looking Zone 2 units.
A fault at S is seen by the forward looking Zone 2 units at ends G and H and by the Zone
1 units at end H. No signal transmission takes place, since the fault is internal and the
fault is cleared in Zone 1 time at end H and after the short time lag (STL) at end G.
A fault at T is seen by the reverse looking Zone 3 units at end H and the forward looking
Zone 2 units at end G. The fault at T would normally be cleared by the Zone 1 units
associated with line section HJ. To prevent the Zone 2 units at end G from tripping, the
reverse looking Zone 3 units at end H send a blocking signal to end G. If the fault is not
cleared instantaneously by the protections on line section HJ, the trip signal will be given
at end G after the normal Zone 2 time lapse.
The setting of the reverse looking Zone 3 units must be greater than that of Zone 2 units
at the remote end of the feeder, otherwise there is the possibility of Zone 2 units initiating
tripping and the reverse looking Zone 3 units failing to see an external fault. This would
When the signalling channel is used for a stabilizing signal, as in the above case,
transmission takes place over a healthy line section. The signalling channel should then
be more reliable when used in the blocking mode, especially if the channel is power line
carrier. It is essential that the operating times of the varioius relays be skillfully co-
ordinated for all system conditions, so that sufficient time is always allowed for the receipt
of result in instantaneous tripping for an external fault.
Page 6

1 T0 8

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 T0 8

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CONTENTS:

1. Non Directional Over current & Earth fault Protection - Presentation

2. Notes on Non Directional Over current & Earth fault Protection

3. Directional Over current & Earth fault Protection - Presentation

4. Notes on Directional Over current & Earth fault Protection

5. Distance Protection Basic Principles-Presentation

6. Distance Protection Mutual Compensation Principles-Presentation

7. Distance Protection Schemes- Presentation

8. Notes on Distance Protection Schemes

9. Notes on Distance Protection

10. Additional Notes on Distance Protection

11. Sample setting Calculation notes on Distance Protection

12. Numerical relay- The MiCOM Technology- Presentation

13. MiCOM Px40 – An introduction- Presentation

14. Numerical Distance Protection Relay-MiCOM P442- Presentation

15. Documentation on functional testing workshop - MiCOM P440 series relays

16. MiCOM P442 series relays Test formats – Practical session

17. Application Check on Instrument Transformer for Distance Protection

18. Transformer Protection - Presentation

19. Notes on Transformer Protection

20. Notes on Transformer relays setting Tutorial

21. MiCOM Px30 Platform & Hardware Introduction

22. MiCOM S1 – Px30 Series

24. Documentation on functional testing - MiCOM P630 series relays

25. MiCOM P630 series relays Test formats – Practical session

26. Commissioning & Maintenance of Protective Relaying Equipment

27. Maintenance & Equipment Failures - MiCOM

28. Notes on Commissioning

IFA approx 2 x IFB

Requires secure DC auxiliary

Current settings chosen so that relay closest to fault

Operating time is independent of current

Inverse Definite Minimum Time characteristic

Current setting via plug bridge

0.1 0.05 0.05

Electronic, multi characteristic

Multiple characteristics and stages

Relay closest to fault must

IS2 IS1 Maximum I

Relay operating times can be calculated %%%

Set just above full load current

e.g for numerical relay, Is = 1.1 x IFL/0.95

Operating time difference between two devices to ensure

Op time of Downstream Relay t = 0.5s

Grading Margin = 0.4Tf + 0.15s over whole characteristic

1.175Tr + 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.6Tf

Used to adjust the operating

Calculate relay operating time required, Treq

TMS = Treq /T1

Calculate required operating current

Grading curves should be drawn to a common voltage

I % & I % & ' !( $ % &)$

Grade relay B with relay A

I % & I % & ' !( $ % &)$

Relay B is set to 200A primary, 5A secondary

I % & I % & ' !( $ % &)$

Relay B Op time = 0.13 + grading margin = 0.13 + 0.4 = 0.53s

Fast clearance of faults

Earth fault current may be limited

Combined with OC relays Economise using 2x OC relays

Independent of neutral current

Solid earth Resistance earth

impedance earth networks

Need to take care with core

t' = 025 + 025 secs where t = normal operating time of

t' = 025 + 025 secs