Catena 147 (2016) 441–452

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Pedogenesis across a climatic gradient in tropical high mountains,

Cordillera Blanca — Peruvian Andes
Raquel de Castro Portes a,b,⁎, Diogo Noses Spinola b, João Santiago Reis a, João Carlos Ker a,
Liovando Marciano da Costa a, Elpídio Inácio Fernandes Filho a,
Peter Kühn b, Carlos Ernesto Gonçalves Reynaud Schaefer a
a
Department of Soil Science, Federal University of Viçosa, 36570-000 Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
b
Research Area Geography, Soil Science and Geomorphology, Department of Geosciences, Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, Rümelinstrasse, 19-23, 72070 Tübingen, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Studies in alpine environments have shown that chemical weathering and clay mineral formation are mainly
Received 11 January 2016 controlled by climate and vegetation. However, few studies have focused specifically on pedogenesis in tropical
Received in revised form 31 May 2016 high mountains. We evaluated pedogenic processes and weathering intensity by physical, chemical and miner-
Accepted 19 July 2016
alogical properties of soils under different vegetation types across a climatic gradient (east/west) in the Northern
Available online 3 August 2016
Cordillera Blanca, Peru. We established 2 catenas and sampled 10 pedons - 6 at Llanganuco valley (east-dry) and
Keywords:
4 at Portachuelo valley (west-wet). Pedons from both catenas are formed on colluvial deposits, gravelly and
Pedogenic processes weakly developed, showing a sequence of O, A, C and C/R horizons. Lithological discontinuities in all pedons re-
Soil weathering vealed sequences of buried A horizons. They also shared the same soil forming processes related to organic mat-
Mineralogy ter accumulation, such as humification, melanization and formation of organometallic complexes. The
Andean Cordillera uppermost horizons show high values of total organic carbon and are dark colored. In general, pedons are acidic
Huascarán National Park to slightly acidic, have a low base saturation, a high Al saturation and low effective and potential cation exchange
capacity. Seven pedons were classified as Umbrisols, one Fluvisol, one Leptosol and one Regosol. Their similarity
is attributed to environmental instability, not allowing sufficient time to develop further. However, pedons at
Portachuelo valley showed higher weathering intensity revealed by crystalline iron oxide formation and transfor-
mation of phyllosilicates minerals. Among them, pedon under Polylepis forest showed the highest weathering in-
tensity, which favored transformation of chlorite to mixed-layered minerals, suggesting that combined climate
and vegetation control chemical weathering and mineral transformation.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Weathering intensity and soil development in high mountain envi-
ronments are strongly constrained by macroclimatic factors, such as
temperature and precipitation (Bockheim et al., 2000; Dahlgren et al.,
1997; Egli et al., 2003; Mirabella and Egli, 2003). Although temperature
affects thermodynamic reactions (White et al., 1999), chemical
weathering is not strictly temperature-controlled but also strongly de-
pendent on soil moisture availability (Hall et al., 2002).
Vegetation also contributes significantly to base cation leaching and
mineral transformation due to the production of organic ligands and soil
acidification (Certini et al., 1998; Stumm and Wieland, 1990). Taking
into account that vegetation is controlled, among others, by tempera-
ture and precipitation, it is difficult to identify which factor is more
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Soil Science, Federal University of Viçosa,
36570-000 Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
E-mail address: raquelportesgeo@gmail.com (R.C. Portes).
important for chemical weathering (Birkeland, 1984; Egli et al., 2008).
Moreover, von Blanckenburg (2005) concluded that rates of chemical
weathering are primarily controlled by erosion rates than by tempera-
ture or precipitation.
Recent investigations have shown that chemical weathering and
clay mineral formation in soils of alpine environments are closely linked
with climate and vegetation. Soils under coniferous forest were found to
be the most weathered along an alpine toposequence. These soils depict
the highest amount of organic matter accumulation, highest element
leaching, smectite formation and very intense podzolization processes
(Egli et al., 2008, 2003; Mirabella and Sartori, 1998).
However, few studies so far have focused so far on evaluating
weathering intensity and pedogenic processes in tropical high moun-
tains. Overall, soils in the tropical Andean Cordillera are weakly devel-
oped. Most soil forming processes are related to high organic matter
accumulation. They have a dark colored topsoil, high acidity and low
base saturation (Alexander and Pichott, 1979; Storie, 1953). According
to Beek and Bramao (1968) the weak development is linked to high

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.027
0341-8162/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
442 R.C. Portes et al. / Catena 147 (2016) 441–452

rates of erosion and sedimentation due to geomorphologic activity. On
the other hand, soils located on stable slopes since the end of the Pleis-
tocene and early Holocene show Bw and Bt horizons (Miller and
Birkeland, 1992; Miller et al., 1993).
The Peruvian Andes Cordillera is affected by warm and humid east-
erly winds and dry and cold westerly winds that promote a considerable
precipitation difference between the east and west side (Kaser et al.,
1990). In this study, we test the hypothesis that soil development and
weathering intensity are more pronounced in the east than in the
west due to regional climate and vegetation.
The Cordillera Blanca, situated in Northern Peru, is suitable for such a
study because its west, dry side, is part of the Pacific basin, whereas the
east, wet side is part of the Amazon basin. Furthermore, there is a high
altitudinal range with different vegetative composition. Hence, our ob-
jective is to evaluate pedogenic processes and weathering intensity
based on physical, chemical and mineralogical properties along a cli-
mate transect (east/west) across the northern part of the Cordillera
Blanca, Peru.
2. Study area
The Cordillera Blanca is located in northern Peru, in Ancash state
(Fig. 1). It is the largest tropical mountain chain of the world, with a
latitudinal extent from 8 to 11°S and a longitudinal extent from 77 to
78°W. N30 peaks reach 6.000 m a.s.l.; the Huascarán peak is highest
with 6.768 m a.s.l. Since 1975, the Huascarán National Park protects
the Cordillera Blanca (INRENA, 2003).
The wet season is between October and April and the dry season be-
tween May and September. Precipitation volumes differ significantly at
the eastern and western faces, which are both affected by the
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The ITCZ reaches the Cordillera
Blanca through the east face, bringing warm-humid air masses from
the Amazon Basin. The west face is predominantly affected by dry-
cold air masses from an anticyclone system on the Pacific Ocean. Some
humidity from the warm-humid air masses from the east face may
cross the mountains, bringing humidity to the west face, mainly at
high elevations (Kaser et al., 1990).
Mean annual precipitation at higher elevations reaches 1.100 mm
and 600 mm at lower altitudes (INRENA, 2003). Mean annual tem-
perature is strongly related to altitude (Silverio, 2004): 2.400–
3.500 m a.s.l. = 13 °C; 3.500–4.000 m a.s.l. = 8 °C and 4.000–
4.800 m a.s.l. = 3 °C. The snow line is at 5.000 m a.s.l.
The lithology of the Cordillera Blanca is mainly composed of the Pli-
ocene/Miocene batholith of leucocratic granodiorite with 70–73% SiO2,
which is cut by basalt dykes (Petford et al., 1996). The main glaciers
and well pronounced glacial and periglacial landforms occur in the
northern part of the Cordillera Blanca with most peaks above
6.000 m a.s.l.: U-shaped valleys filled with glacial and fluvioglacial de-
posits, as well as Late Pleistocene/Holocene alluvial, periglacial and col-
luvial deposits are characteristic (Farber et al., 2005; Rodbell, 1992).
The Cordillera Blanca belongs to the Puna ecosystem (INRENA,
1990). Several main vegetation types are found at the Peruvian Puna:
The Matorral, a scrub vegetation type, is predominantly found at slopes
and in valleys between 2.400 and 3.800 m a.s.l. The Pajonal, dominated
by Calamagrostis and Javara, is found between 3.800 and 4.800 m a.s.l.
The Roquedal occurs between 4.800 and 5.000 m a.s.l, with
cryoturbated soils and Asteraceae, Poaceae and Brassicaceae as the pre-
dominant vegetation (Cano et al., 2010, 2005). The Polylepis forest (or
Queñuales) has Rosaceae as a predominant tree type. This forest can
be dense or sparse, with canopy heights ranging from 6 to 12 m
(Cuesta et al., 2009).
3. Methods
3.1. Selection of sampling sites and soil sampling
The northern part of the Cordillera Blanca was selected as a study
site due to its high environmental diversity and easy access, allowing
for sampling across the mountain slopes at the western (Llanganuco
valley – dry) and eastern (Portachuelo valley – wet) faces.
Representative sampling sites were identified in both valleys based
on topography and vegetation diversity. Two catenas were established
according to Milne (1936) and six pedons sampled at Llanganuco and
four at Portachuelo, covering an altitude range between 3.482 m a.s.l.
and 4.835 m a.s.l. (Fig. 1). Due to minor anthropogenic influence, only
sites inside the Huascarán National Park were sampled. Soil description
of all pedons was done according to FAO (2006) Guidelines for Soil De-
scription. Soil color was determined according to the Munsell Soil Color
Charts MSCC (2000).

200000 210000 220000 230000

Venezuela
Colombia
Ecuador

Pisco
Brazil
9000000

Peru
9000000

Huandoy
Bolivia P10 elo
P6 P7 hu
ac
Pacific Ocean P9 Port
Chile P5 P8
co

P4
nu
ga

Cordillera
an

Chopicalqui
Ll

Blanca P3
Sampling sites
Glacier P2
P1 Huascarán
River
8990000

Norte
8990000

Lake Huascarán Sur

6.768 m
UTM WGS 1984 18 S
Source: PNH, 2011.
2 1 0 2
Km

200000 210000 220000 230000

Fig. 1. Location of study area – Llanganuco and Portachuelo valleys.

 R.C. Portes et al. / Catena 147 (2016) 441–452 443

3.2. Soil analyses
The air-dried soil samples were crushed in an agate mortar and
sieved b 2 mm. The grain size distribution was determined by the
pipette method adapted by Ruiz (2005). The detection of lithological
discontinuities was based on the non-uniformity of the parent material.
We evaluated field and laboratory data in depth function as visual
estimation of rock fragments (≥ 2 mm), abrupt changes in color not
resulting from pedogenic processes (FAO, 2006) and difference in the
grain size using the Uniformity Value Index (UV) (Cremeens and
Mokma, 1986) (Equation 1). The UV index compares particle size data
from the horizon above. UV values exceeding ±0.6 indicates a litholog-
ical discontinuity.
½ðsilt þ very fine sandÞ=ðcoarse sand þ middle sandÞ for overlying horizon
UV ¼
½ðsilt þ very fine sandÞ=ðcoarse sand þ middle sandÞ for underlying horizon
−1
ð1Þ
We used a clay-free basis index (i.e. UV) because some pedogenic
processes may cause translocation of the clay fraction (Schaetzl, 1998).
The pH was determined by electric conductivity 1:2.5 soil/solution.
Exchangeable Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+ were extracted with 1 M KCL and
measured by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry – AAS. K and Na were ex-
tracted by Mehlich-1 (Embrapa, 1997) and measured by flame emis-
sion. These analyses were made to determinate some soil chemical
properties as base saturation (Ca2+, Mg2+, K and Na), Al3+ saturation,
effective and potential exchange capacity (CECeff and CTCpot). Total or-
ganic carbon was determined using a PerkinElmer 2400 Series II
CHNS/O.
To verify the amount of Fe and Al bound to organic matter, the meth-
od after McKeague (1967) was used with 0.1 M Na-pyrophosphate at
pH 10.0 (Fep and Alp). To extract the poorly crystalized Fe, Al, Si hydrox-
ides (Feo, Alo, Sio), a 0.2 M ammonium oxalate solution was used at
pH 3.0 following Schwertmann (1964). To estimate the amount of
allophanic minerals, the formula (Alo\\Alp/Sio) proposed by Parfitt
and Kimble (1989) was applied. For allophane identification, the
molar ratio Al/Si must range between 1 and 2 (Parfitt et al., 1980).
Pedogenic Fe and Al (Fed and Ald) were extracted with citrate-bicar-
bonate-dithionite (CBD) (Mehra and Jackson, 1960) and measured by
AAS. The proportion of ferrihydrite was determined using the Feo/Fed
ratio (Schwertmann, 1985). Possible andic properties were estimated
using Alo + 1⁄2 Feo after IUSS-Working Group WRB (2006).
To quantify the proportion of well crystallized iron oxides against
the total amount of iron in soils, we used the ((Fed\\Feo) / Fet) formula
after Arduino et al. (1984). The total amount of iron was determined by
alkaline fusion (soil b 2 mm) of all horizons (Sawhney and Stilwell,
1994). The extracts were measured by ICP OES.
Stones and boulders of the most representative rocks were hand-
picked from each pedon to determine the rocks that comprise the par-
ent material. Major elements were analyzed with a wavelength disper-
sive X-ray fluorescence device. Prior to preparation, the samples were
ground with an agate mill for 10 min. Loss on ignition was determined
at 1000 °C externally and is displayed as LOI. For the fused beads
1.5000 g of dried sample powder (at 105 °C) is mixed with 170
7.5000 g MERCK spectromelt A12 (mixture of 66% Li-tetraborate and
34% Limetaborate) and melted at 1200 °C to fused beads using an
Oxiflux system from CBR analytical service. XRF measurements were
done using a Bruker AXS S4 Pioneer XRF device (Rh-tube at 4 kW)
with 32 standardized samples. Total element content was calculated
from the related element oxides. The rocks were identified using ele-
mental 175 composition, after Nockolds (1954).
The separation of clay from the soil samples was performed by siev-
ing and sedimentation techniques (Embrapa, 1997). The mineral identi-
fication was performed by X-ray diffraction – XRD with Co α radiation
from 5° to 50° 2θ. Random-powder and oriented clay samples were
measured both. The oriented clay samples were analyzed after K satura-
tion, Mg saturation, Mg glycerol solvation, K saturation and heating at
350 °C and at 550 °C. The soils were classified according to IUSS-
Working Group WRB (2006).
4. Results
4.1. Morphological and physical characteristics
The pedons at Llanganuco and Portachuelo were formed from sedi-
mentary deposits as floodplain and mainly by talus (Table 1). They are
skeletic and reflect the coarse sedimentary nature of material (except
P4 at floodplain). In general, pedons in colluvial deposits at Llanganuco
and Portachuelo present 1–3 lithological discontinuities. They are weak-
ly developed with the formation of O, A, C and C/R horizons (Table 2,
Figs. 2 and 3).
Both valleys showed a trend to increasing soil depth with decreasing
altitude. The deepest pedons are located at the lowest positions of
Llanganuco, between 3.482 and 4.026 m. a.s.l., i.e. P1–P4 (Fig. 2,
Table 2). On the other hand, most pedons located at Portachuelo re-
ceived less colluvial material and are shallower.
Most of pedons have dark colored uppermost horizons (values and
chromas ≤3) (Table 2). Horizons with low soil organic matter content
are usually grayish. A horizons of all pedons present granular structure,
from moderately to weak and are neither plastic nor sticky.
In general, the pedons present loamy sand, sandy loam or loam tex-
ture (Table 2). The highest values of clay content were observed in P5
(foot slope) and P10 (back slope). In contrast, P8, located in a shoulder
position, presents the highest sand content.

Table 1
Characteristics of investigated sites in Llanganuco and Portachuelo valleys.

Pedon Location Geomorphologic unit Slope position1 Elevation Aspect Slope Vegetation2

X/Y-UTM 18S m a.s.l. °N %

Llanganuco
P1 205498/8992600 Talus Foot slope 3.482 144 - Southeast 15 Matorral
P2 206383/8993646 Talus Back slope 3.580 145 - Southeast 80 Matorral
P3 208464/8995449 Talus Foot slope 3.830 169 - South 20 Polylepis forest
P4 209866/8996499 Floodplain Toe slope 3.836 200 - South 2 Matorral
P5 213763/8998698 Talus Foot slope 4.026 257 - West 15 Polylepis forest
P6 214455/8998801 Talus Back slope 4.363 146 - Southeast 40 Matorral

Portachuelo
P7 215217/8998923 Talus Summit 4.835 145 - Southeast 5 Roquedal
P8 215315/8998709 Talus Shoulder 4.705 106 - East 60 Pajonal de Puna
P9 215895/8999109 Talus Back slope 4.493 48 - Northeast 15 Pajonal with Lupinus sp.
P10 216777/8999676 Talus Back slope 4.448 160 - South 25 Polylepis forest
1
Slope positions are from: FAO, 2006; Ruhe, 1960. bClassification system according to: Cano et al., 2005; Cano et al., 2010.
444 R.C. Portes et al. / Catena 147 (2016) 441–452

Table 2
Morphological and physical data.

Pedon Horizon Depth Munsell color moist C, MS1 FS2 Silt3 Clay4 Textural classes5 UV index6
cm
g/kg

Llanganuco

P1 - Haplic Umbrisol (Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 0–10 2.5Y3/2 200 230 470 100 L 1.04
2Ahb1 10–40 2.5Y2.5/1 320 260 290 130 SL 0.07
2Ahb2 40–70/80 10YR2/1 310 230 270 190 SCL 1.42
3C1 70/80–90/95 5Y3/2 570 220 160 50 LS 0.05
4C2 90/95–200+ 5Y5/2 600 220 160 20 LS –

P2 - Haplic Umbrisol (Alumic, Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 0–30/40 5Y2.5/1 460 200 230 110 SL −0.09
Ah2 30/40–120/140 5Y2.5/1 440 230 220 110 SL 0.19
2C 120/140–150–170 10YR4/2 500 170 260 70 LS –

P3 - Haplic Umbrisol (Alumic, Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 0–10 2.5Y2.5/1 510 200 190 100 LS 0.46
Ah2 10–35 2.5Y3/2 610 200 120 70 LS 0.08
Ah3 35–45 2.5Y2.5/1 620 170 130 80 LS −0.06
2Ahb1 45–70 2.5Y3/2 640 200 130 30 LS 0.11
2C 70–160 2.5Y3/3 670 160 150 20 LS −0.10
3Ahb2 160–180 2.5Y2.5/1 620 170 150 60 LS 0.43
3C 180–200 2.5Y3/3 720 150 110 20 S –

P4 - Endogleyic Endostagnic Fluvisol (Humic, Orthodystric)

Ah 0–3 2.5Y2.5/1 120 360 340 180 L 0.23
Ah2 3–7 2.5Y3/2 150 400 310 140 SL 0.38
Ah3 7–15 2.5Y3/3 210 420 300 70 SL 0.77
2C1 15–30 2.5Y4/2 330 460 180 30 LS −0.64
3C2 30–40 5Y3/2 150 390 410 50 SL 1.00
4C3 40–55 5Y4/2 240 240 400 120 L −0.53
4C4 55–60 5Y4/1 130 140 600 130 SiL 3.45
5Cg1 60–75 5Y5/1 430 420 130 20 LS 0.07
5Cg2 75–110 5Y5/1 450 390 150 10 LS −0.93
6Cg3 110–180+ 5Y5/1 50 220 620 110 SiL –

P5 - Haplic Umbrisol (Hyperhumic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 0–30 10YR2/1 280 150 300 270 L 0.78
2Ahb1 30–50/70 2.5Y2.5/1 410 120 250 220 SCL 0.65
3Ahb2 50/70–90/100 10YR2/2 620 200 140 40 LS −0.34
3C 90/100–120+ 2.5Y4/2 530 220 220 30 LS –

P6 - Haplic Regosol (Hyperhumic, Eutric, Skeletic)

Oi 0–3 2.5Y2.5/1 50 110 500 340 SiCL 3.92
Ah 3–15 2.5Y2.5/1 230 150 420 200 L 1.37
2Ahb 15–72 2.5Y4/2 450 270 200 80 LS –

Portachuelo
P7 - Haplic Leptosol (Humic, Dystric, Skeletic)
Ah 0–3 2.5Y3/1 480 100 290 130 SL −0.66
2Ahb1 3–10/20 2.5Y3/1 250 110 480 160 L 1.31
3Ahb2 10/20–25 5Y2.5/2 420 90 340 150 L 0.27
4Ahb3 25–40 2.5Y3/1 470 90 290 150 SL –

P8 - Haplic Umbrisol (Hyperdystric, Humic, Skeletic)

Ah 0–5 2.5Y3/2 650 100 200 50 LS 0.05
A/C 5–15 2.5Y3/2 660 120 170 50 LS 0.05
2Ahb1 15–60 2.5Y3/2 670 80 200 50 LS −0.19
2Ahb2 60–80 2.5Y3/3 600 120 190 90 LS –

P9 - Haplic Umbrisol (Endodystric, Humic, Skeletic)

Ah 0–10 5Y2.5/1 250 210 370 170 L 0.84
2Ahb1 10–20 2.5Y2.5/1 380 250 230 140 SL 0.41
2Ahb2 20–55 5Y3/2 470 220 200 110 SL 0.45
2Ahb3 55–80 5Y4/1 550 170 170 110 SL −0.51
3C/R 80–195 5Y4/2 370 190 280 160 SL –

P10 - Folic Umbrisol (Hyperhumic, Orthodistric, Skeletic)

Oi 0–10 10YR2/1 270 40 380 310 CL 0.14
Ah 10–20 10YR2/1 330 110 340 220 L 0.15
Ah2 20–40 10YR2/1 370 140 300 190 L 0.16
2Ahb1 40–70 2.5Y2.5/1 410 150 270 170 SL −0.05
2Ahb2 70–90+ 2.5Y2.5/1 400 140 290 170 SL –
1
Corse sand + middle sand 2.000–200 μm 2Fine Sand 200–50 μm 350–2 μm 4 b 2 μm. 5Textural classes according to FAO (2006). S = Sand; LS = Loamy sand; SL = Sandy loam; SCL =
Sandy clay loam; SiL = Silt loam; SiCL = Silty clay loam; CL = Clay loam; L = Loam. 6 UV index = Uniformity value index.
 (SW) (NE) (N) (ENE)

[masl] P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
4 800

4 600

4 400

4 200

4 000

3 800

3 600

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14[km]

Matorales Polylepis forest Pasonal Pasonal with Lupinus Roquedal

R.C. Portes et al. / Catena 147 (2016) 441–452

[Depth in m]
0,20

Leaf
0 Ah Oi Ah Ah litter
Ah2 LD1 Ah Oi
Ah Ah A/C
Ah3 Ah 2Ahb1 LD1
Leaf Ah
LD1 Ah LD1 LD LD 2Ahb
litter LD2
0,20
2Ahb1 Ah2 2C1 3Ahb2
LD3 Ah2
LD2
3C2 4Ahb3 2Ahb1 2B/Ab1
0,40 LD3 Ah LD
Ah3 4C3 2Ahb
2B/Ab2
2Ahb2 LD1 4C4
LD4 LD1 LD2 2Ahb1
0,60 2Ahb1
5Cg1 2Ahb2
2Ahb C/R
LD2 Ah2
0,80 2Ahb2
3C1
LD3 5Cg2 LD2

1,00 2A/Bb
LD5
2C 3C
1,20
4C2 3C/R
1,40 6Cg3

2C
1,60 LD2
3Ahb2

1,80
3C

2,00

O horizon A horizon A/B horizon B/A horizon A/C horizon C horizon C/R horizon Coarse material <2mm Roots LD Lithological discontinuity

Fig. 2. Topographic profile illustrating the soil profiles, related vegetation type and their location across a climatic gradient (west-east) in the Northern Cordillera Blanca, Peru.

445
446 R.C. Portes et al. / Catena 147 (2016) 441–452

a b

P3

P1
Ah

Ah Fine and medium gravels Ah2

LD1 Ah3
UV = ≥0.60
LD1
2Ahb1
2Ahb1

Stones and boulders

2Ahb2

LD2
UV = ≥0.60 Stones and boulders
3C1
Fine and medium gravels
LD3 2C

Stones and boulders

3C2

LD2
Abrupt change in color not resulting
from pedogenic processes
3Ahb2

3C

Fig. 3. Representative pedons to illustrate the distribution of lithological discontinuities. a) P1 - Haplic Umbrisol (Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic). b) P3 - Haplic Umbrisol (Alumic, Humic,
Hyperdystric, Skeletic). Dashed lines represent the bounderies of lithological discontinuities.

4.2. Chemical characteristics
Most pedons at Llanganuco are acidic or slightly acidic with pH rag-
ing between 4.46 and 6.30. They have low base saturation, high Al3+
saturation and low effective and potential cation exchange capacity
(CEC). Base saturation values in superficial horizons are higher than in
other horizons. Only P6 has a near-neutral pH, ranging from 6.54 to
6.74. In addition, P6 presents the highest values of exchangeable Ca2+
in the Oi and Ah horizons with 13 cmolc/dm3 and 10.2 cmolc/dm3,
respectively. P6 also presents the highest base sum and effective CEC.
Therefore, it depicts the highest base saturation and Al3+ saturation is
absent. The pedons of Portachuelo have very similar chemical proper-
ties, with acidic to slightly acidic pH, low base saturation, a high Al3+
saturation and low effective and potential CEC.
All pedons have high total organic carbon (TOC) contents, especially
in the uppermost horizons (Table 3). TOC contents corresponds to or-
ganic C because of the absence of any carbonates in the soils. At
Llanganuco, the highest TOC contents can be found in the Polylepis
 R.C. Portes et al. / Catena 147 (2016) 441–452 447

Table 3
Chemical data of the fine earth (b2 mm).

Pedon pH K1 Na1 Ca2+ 1 Mg2+ 1 Al3+ 1 H + Al2pot CEC3eff CEC4pot PBS5 Al sat6 TOC7

H2O % g/kg

Llanganuco

P1 - Haplic Umbrisol (Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 5.65 0.11 0.02 2.89 0.3 0.3 6.6 3.62 9.92 33.5 8.3 37.7
2Ahb1 5.56 0.06 0.01 1.73 0.09 0.9 13.4 2.79 15.3 12.4 32.3 46.3
2Ahb2 5.57 0.03 0.02 2.18 0.03 0.9 14.5 3.16 16.8 13.5 28.5 48.5
3C1 5.79 0.02 0.01 0.41 0.02 0.4 4.9 0.86 5.36 8.6 46.5 10.2
4C2 5.83 0.04 0.02 0.18 0.03 0 1.8 0.27 2.07 13 0 13.5

P2 - Haplic Umbrisol (Alumic, Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 5.7 0.22 0.01 4.55 0.48 0.4 14.5 5.65 19.8 26.6 7.1 53.4
Ah2 5.52 0.08 0.03 1.26 0.18 1.9 16.5 3.45 18.1 8.6 55.1 42.1
2C 5.88 0.02 0.07 0.22 0.03 0.4 4.6 0.74 4.94 6.9 54.1 7.5

P3 - Haplic Umbrisol (Alumic, Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 5.19 0.19 0.02 2.27 0.41 0.1 10.7 2.99 13.6 21.3 3.3 91.4
Ah2 5.25 0.05 0.01 2.01 0.19 0.7 8.1 2.96 10.4 21.8 23.6 19.1
Ah3 4.47 0.1 0.01 2.21 0.25 1.9 18.5 4.47 21.1 12.2 42.5 58.7
2Ahb1 4.72 0.07 0.01 0.85 0.13 1.1 7.9 2.16 9 11.8 50.9 9.8
2C 5.72 0.06 0.02 0.66 0.1 0.4 4 1.24 4.84 17.4 32.3 4.6
3Ahb2 5.53 0.07 0.01 1.27 0.27 0.9 11.1 2.52 12.7 12.7 35.7 3.64
3C 5.59 0.03 0.01 0.3 0.06 0.6 3.5 1 3.9 10.3 60 6.2

P4 - Endogleyic Endostagnic Fluvisol (Humic, Orthodystric)

Ah 6 0.51 0.03 9.3 1.3 0 6.3 11.1 17.4 63.9 0 127
Ah2 5.38 0.45 0.02 2.76 0.35 0.5 10.4 4.08 14 25.6 12.3 49.1
Ah3 5.56 0.33 0.04 0.71 0.08 0.4 5.6 1.56 6.76 17.2 25.6 17.5
2C1 5.92 0.29 0.02 0.51 0.06 0.4 3.3 1.28 4.18 21.1 31.3 7.4
3C2 5.69 0.29 0.02 0.48 0.05 0.1 2.5 0.94 3.34 25.1 10.6 10.9
4C3 5.36 0.51 0.03 0.52 0.06 0.2 4.1 1.32 5.22 21.5 15.2 7.7
4C4 5.49 0.27 0.06 0.71 0.06 0.3 2.8 1.4 3.9 28.2 21.4 13.3
5Cg1 6.27 0.19 0.03 0.39 0.04 0 1.2 0.65 1.85 35.1 0 5.8
5Cg2 6.3 0.16 0.02 0.39 0.03 0 1 0.6 1.6 37.5 0 1.56
6Cg3 6.28 0.38 0.03 0.84 0.08 0 1.7 1.33 2.93 45.4 0 8.9

P5 - Haplic Umbrisol (Hyperhumic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Leaf litter 5.98 0.43 0.04 3.65 0.93 0.1 5.4 5.14 10.4 48.3 1.9 142
Ah 5.11 0.47 0.01 6.69 2 0.9 26.6 10.1 35.8 25.6 8.9 175
2Ahb1 4.98 0.48 0.05 3.54 1.12 2.7 35.3 7.89 40.5 12.8 34.2 135
3Ahb2 5.45 0.13 0.01 0.63 0.13 0.6 9.7 1.5 10.6 8.5 40 18.6
3C 5.94 0.14 0.01 0.32 0.05 0.3 4.1 0.82 4.62 11.3 36.6 8.3

P6 - Haplic Regosol (Hyperhumic, Eutric, Skeletic)

Oi 6.54 0.4 0.04 13.4 1.41 0 4.6 15.2 19.8 76.8 0 307
Ah 6.74 0.37 0.06 10.2 0.88 0 3 11.5 14.5 79.3 0 72.5
2Ahb 6.7 0.33 0.04 3.55 0.27 0 2.5 4.18 6.68 62.6 0 12.9

Portachuelo
P7 - Haplic Leptosol (Humic, Dystric, Skeletic)
Ah 5.43 0.14 0 0.32 0.09 0.7 5.8 1.25 6.35 8.7 56 34.9
2Ahb1 5.56 0.04 0.02 0.12 0.04 0.2 5.3 0.42 5.52 4 47.6 25.7
3Ahb2 5.48 0.01 0 0.1 0.28 0.3 6.4 0.69 6.79 5.7 43.5 30.8
4Ahb3 5.5 0.01 0 0.1 0.03 0.7 5.8 0.84 5.94 2.4 83.3 9.3

P8 - Haplic Umbrisol (Hyperdystric, Humic, Skeletic)

Ah 5.57 0.5 0.03 1.45 0.22 0.4 5.3 2.6 7.5 29.3 15.4 17
A/C 5.5 0.13 0.03 1.15 0.18 0.5 4.6 1.99 6.09 24.5 25.1 13
2Ahb1 5.6 0.13 0.05 0.57 0.11 0.4 5.3 1.26 6.16 14 31.7 20
2Ahb2 nd 0.1 0.04 0.44 0.07 0.4 3.3 1.05 3.95 16.5 38.1 14.8

P9 - Haplic Umbrisol (Endodystric, Humic, Skeletic)

Ah 5.23 0.31 0.01 5.33 0.54 0.8 18 6.99 24.2 25.6 11.4 98.6
2Ahb1 5.5 0.18 0.01 2.58 0.24 0.9 10.4 3.91 13.4 22.4 23 31.7
2Ahb2 5.79 0.19 0.02 1.63 0.12 0.9 5.1 2.86 7.06 27.8 31.5 15.2
2Ahb3 5.99 0.11 0.04 1.26 0.1 0.4 4 1.91 5.51 27.4 20.9 15.5
3C/R 6.02 0.27 0.09 2.85 0.27 0.4 2.8 3.88 6.28 55.4 10.3 8.3

P10 - Folic Umbrisol (Hyperhumic, Orthodistric, Skeletic)

Oi 4.28 0.53 0.02 6.95 0.86 0.9 22.4 9.25 30.8 27.2 9.7 411
Ah 4.1 0.21 0.02 5.8 0.63 3 31.4 9.66 38 17.5 31.1 183
Ah2 4.99 0.09 0.03 7.02 1.96 4.3 19.3 13.4 28.4 32 32.1 41.2
2Ahb1 5.15 0.05 0.03 5.06 1.72 4.9 27.2 11.8 34.1 20.1 41.7 25.6
2Ahb2 5.6 0.06 0.04 5.32 2.02 1 12.4 8.44 19.8 37.5 11.8 34.9
1
Exchangeable cations; 2Potential acidity; 3Effective cation exchange capacity 4Potential cation exchange capacity; 5Percentage base saturation; 6Al saturation; 7Total organic carbon. nd =
No data available.
448 R.C. Portes et al. / Catena 147 (2016) 441–452

Table 4
Extractions of Al, Fe and Si from pedogenic oxides and Fe total content of fine earth (b2 mm).

Pedon Fe1p Al1p Fe2o Al2o Si2o Fe3d Al3d Fe4t Alo + ½ Feo Alo\
\Alp/Sio Fep/Feo Alp/Alo Feo/Fed Alo/Ald Fed\
\Feo/Fet

Llanganuco

P1 - Haplic Umbrisol (Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 0.09 0.26 0.13 0.26 0.07 0.28 0.26 1.43 0.33 0.00 0.69 1.00 0.46 1.00 0.11
2Ahb1 0.27 0.71 0.28 0.77 0.16 0.48 0.84 1.49 0.91 0.38 0.96 0.92 0.58 0.92 0.13
2Ahb2 0.46 1.10 0.37 1.07 0.25 0.66 1.02 1.62 1.26 −0.12 1.24 1.03 0.56 1.05 0.18
3C1 0.07 0.27 0.09 0.50 0.16 0.12 0.29 1.32 0.55 1.44 0.78 0.54 0.75 1.72 0.02
4C2 0.02 0.10 0.06 0.28 0.07 0.07 0.10 1.41 0.31 2.57 0.30 0.36 0.86 2.80 0.00

P2 - Haplic Umbrisol (Alumic, Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 0.14 0.38 0.17 0.44 0.03 0.25 0.54 0.95 0.52 2.00 0.82 0.86 0.68 0.81 0.08
Ah2 0.13 0.45 0.16 0.51 0.05 0.19 0.54 0.95 0.59 1.20 0.81 0.88 0.84 0.94 0.03
2C 0.09 0.22 0.09 0.21 0.04 0.19 0.26 1.08 0.26 −0.25 1.00 1.04 0.47 0.81 0.09

P3 - Haplic Umbrisol (Alumic, Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 0.10 0.05 0.09 0.00 0.04 0.11 0.09 0.79 0.05 −1.25 1.11 0.00 0.82 0.00 0.03
Ah2 0.17 0.05 0.16 0.11 0.00 0.26 0.14 0.81 0.19 0.00 1.06 0.45 0.62 0.76 0.12
Ah3 0.12 0.08 0.09 0.03 0.04 0.13 0.15 0.85 0.08 −1.25 1.33 2.67 0.70 0.20 0.05
2Ahb1 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.07 0.10 0.90 0.07 0.00 2.67 1.00 0.43 0.50 0.04
2C 0.08 0.13 0.06 0.07 0.01 0.10 0.07 0.93 0.10 −6.00 1.33 1.86 0.60 1.00 0.04
3Ahb2 0.15 0.30 0.14 0.28 0.06 0.28 0.57 1.02 0.35 −0.33 1.07 1.07 0.50 0.49 0.14
3C 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.14 0.01 0.10 0.14 0.98 0.20 2.00 0.91 0.86 1.00 1.40 0.03

P4 - Endogleyic Endostagnic Fluvisol (Humic, Orthodystric)

Ah 0.12 0.10 0.15 0.08 0.03 0.38 0.12 2.10 0.16 −0.60 0.80 1.25 0.40 0.67 0.10
Ah2 0.15 0.13 0.24 0.14 0.06 0.36 0.27 2.40 0.26 0.17 0.63 0.93 0.67 0.52 0.05
Ah3 0.09 0.14 0.29 0.17 0.08 0.30 0.28 2.64 0.32 0.38 0.31 0.82 0.97 0.61 0.00

P5 - Haplic Umbrisol (Hyperhumic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)

Ah 0.32 0.37 0.40 0.44 0.07 0.57 0.64 1.86 0.64 1.00 0.80 0.84 0.70 0.69 0.09
2Ahb1 0.66 0.96 0.62 0.76 0.02 0.98 1.03 2.10 1.07 −10.0 1.06 1.26 0.63 0.74 0.17
3Ahb2 0.11 0.54 0.15 0.59 0.11 0.16 0.75 1.72 0.66 0.46 0.73 0.92 0.94 0.79 0.01
3C 0.06 0.28 0.07 0.25 0.05 0.13 0.23 1.80 0.29 −0.60 0.85 1.12 0.54 1.09 0.03

P6 - Haplic Regosol (Hyperhumic, Eutric, Skeletic)

2Ahb1 0.16 0.13 0.39 0.20 0.10 nd nd 4.70 0.39 0.70 0.41 0.65 nd nd nd
3Ahb2 0.12 0.07 0.22 0.08 0.06 0.23 0.15 4.88 0.19 0.17 0.55 0.88 0.96 0.53 0.00

Portachuelo
P7 - Haplic Leptosol (Humic, Dystric, Skeletic)
Ah 0.11 0.28 0.71 0.42 0.08 0.79 0.45 7.31 0.78 1.75 0.16 0.67 0.90 0.93 0.01
2Ahb1 0.09 0.38 0.78 0.70 0.14 3.95 1.07 7.02 1.09 2.29 0.12 0.54 0.20 0.65 0.45
3Ahb2 0.21 0.59 0.84 0.84 0.15 1.70 0.94 6.67 1.26 1.67 0.25 0.70 0.49 0.89 0.13
4Ahb3 0.19 0.61 0.61 0.65 0.09 1.64 0.67 6.70 0.31 0.44 0.31 0.94 0.37 0.97 0.15

P8 - Haplic Umbrisol (Hyperdystric, Humic, Skeletic)

Ah 0.04 0.09 0.26 0.10 0.03 0.49 0.20 3.32 0.23 0.33 0.15 0.90 0.53 0.50 0.07
A/C 0.07 0.14 0.17 0.12 0.00 0.63 0.20 3.40 0.21 0.00 0.40 1.17 0.27 0.60 0.13
2Ahb1 0.19 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.07 0.50 0.37 3.22 0.39 0.00 0.63 1.00 0.60 0.68 0.06
2Ahb2 0.13 0.28 0.20 0.28 0.06 0.31 0.35 2.80 0.38 0.00 0.65 1.00 0.65 0.80 0.04

P9 - Haplic Umbrisol (Endodystric, Humic, Skeletic)

Ah 0.41 0.41 0.70 0.58 0.06 0.70 0.62 4.14 0.93 2.83 0.59 0.71 1.00 0.94 0.00
2Ahb1 0.39 0.70 0.42 0.74 0.13 0.65 0.59 5.63 0.95 0.31 0.93 0.95 0.65 1.25 0.04
2Ahb2 0.14 0.24 0.22 0.44 0.14 0.30 0.37 5.82 0.55 1.43 0.63 0.54 0.73 1.19 0.01
2Ahb3 0.13 0.26 0.22 0.47 0.11 0.30 0.26 5.55 0.58 1.90 0.59 0.55 0.73 1.80 0.01
3C/R 0.08 0.13 0.24 0.12 0.00 0.56 0.12 5.49 0.24 0.00 0.33 1.08 0.43 1.00 0.06

P10 - Folic Umbrisol (Hyperhumic, Orthodistric, Skeletic)

Ah 0.45 0.19 0.44 0.18 0.04 0.63 0.31 2.16 0.40 −0.25 1.02 1.06 0.70 0.58 0.08
Ah2 0.72 0.49 0.85 0.40 0.04 1.36 0.45 4.64 0.83 −2.25 0.85 1.23 0.63 0.89 0.11
2Ahb1 0.32 0.35 0.54 0.30 0.08 0.82 0.46 4.57 0.58 −0.63 0.59 1.17 0.66 0.67 0.06
2Ahb2 0.46 0.39 0.72 0.42 0.07 0.90 0.59 5.46 0.78 0.42 0.64 0.93 0.80 0.71 0.03
1
Pyrophosphate 2Acid oxalate 3Citrate-Bicarbonate-Dithionite 4Elemental analyses (total). nd = No data available.

Table 5
Major elemental composition of parent material (N2 mm).

Rock SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO1 Na2O K2O P2O5 LOI2

Felsic granodiorite 74.1 0.11 14.4 0.90 0.12 0.24 1.24 4.44 3.42 0.04 0.47
Biotite tonalite 69.6 0.97 16.0 5.73 0.07 1.23 0.27 0.47 1.89 0.09 2.43
Diorite 50.7 1.31 20.2 8.82 0.13 3.73 5.60 4.12 1.93 0.26 2.48
1
Silicate-bound CaO. 2Loss on ignition.
 R.C. Portes et al. / Catena 147 (2016) 441–452 449

Table 6 TOC contents under Polylepis forest. P10 showed 411.0 g/kg in the
Parent material and qualitative data of minerals in the clay fraction. Oi horizon and 183.0 g/kg in the Ah horizon. Pedons under Pajonal
Pedon Parent material1 Minerals2 de Puna (P8) and Roquedal (P7) have the lowest TOC contents in
Llanganuco
this catena. The TOC contents decrease with depth in most of the
pedons, except in P1, P3, P7 and P10 because of the buried horizons
P1 - Haplic Umbrisol (Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic)
with high TOC contents, thus not following this general trend.
Ah FG Q, A, KF, IM
2Ahb1 FG Q, A, KF, IM Most pedons showed a Fep/Feo ratio just below 1 (Table 4). The
2Ahb2 FG Q, A, KF, IM Alp /Alo ratio is between 1 and 0.5 in most horizons. Values higher
3C1 FG Q, A, KF, IM than 1 for Fep /Feo and Alp /Alo were observed in some horizons of
4C2 FG Q, A, KF, IM some pedons. As a result, the horizons with Al p/Alo N 1 presented
P2 - Haplic Umbrisol (Alumic, Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic) negative values of Alo\\Alp /Sio. Values of Alo + ½Feo smaller than
Ah FG Q, A, KF, IM 2% were found. Values higher than 0.5 of Feo/Fed and Alo/Ald close
Ah2 FG Q, A, KF, IM to 1 were observed in most pedons. Also, values of Al o/Ald high
2C FG Q, A, KF, IM
than 1 were observed in some pedons. Values of Fed\\Feo/Fet for all
P3 - Haplic Umbrisol (Alumic, Humic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic) pedons varied from 0 to 0.17.
Ah FG Q, A, KF, IM However, pedon P7 at the summit of Portachuelo contrasts with
Ah2 FG Q, A, KF, IM
Ah3 FG Q, A, KF, IM
the others, showing the lowest values of Fep/Feo (b 0.31) in all hori-
2Ahb1 FG Q, A, KF, IM zons. Furthermore, the 2Ahb1 horizon showed Fe o/Fe d values of
2C FG Q, A, KF, IM 0.20. The highest Fed\\Feo/Fet value found was 0.45.
3Ahb2 FG Q, A, KF, IM
3C FG Q, A, KF, IM

P4 - Endogleyic Endostagnic Fluvisol (Humic, Orthodystric) 4.3. Parent material and X-ray diffraction analyses
Ah FG Q, A, KF, IM
Ah2 FG Q, A, KF, IM
The soil parent material is heterogeneous due to the nature of the
Ah3 FG Q, A, KF, IM
sedimentary deposits (i.e. colluvial and alluvial deposits). Accordingly,
P5 - Haplic Umbrisol (Hyperhumic, Hyperdystric, Skeletic) we present the potential rocks types that comprise the soil parent mate-
Ah FG Q, A, KF, IM
rial. Rock fragments samples were identified as felsic granodiorite, bio-
2Ahb1 FG Q, A, KF, IM
3Ahb2 FG Q, A, KF, IM tite tonalite and diorite (Table 5). In the Llanganuco pedons (P1 – P5),
3C FG Q, A, KF, IM felsic granodiorite was the only rock type found, while a mixture of
felsic granodiorite and diorite was found in the P6. In the Portachuelos
P6 - Haplic Regosol (Hyperhumic, Eutric, Skeletic)
Ah FG + D Q, A, KF, AN, AM, IM, C pedons (P8 – P10), felsic granodiorite, diorite and biotite tonatile were
2Ahb FG + D Q, A, KF, AN, AM, IM, C found, while biotite tonalite and doriote (Table 6) prevailed in P7.
Portachuelo In all pedons, primary minerals were identified in the clay fraction
P7 - Haplic Leptosol (Humic, Dystric, Skeletic) (Table 6). The Llanganuco pedons P1–P5 show the same mineralogical
Ah BT + FG Q, A, KF, IM, C composition, containing quartz, albite, K-feldspar and interstratified il-
2Ahb1 BT + FG Q, A, KF, IM, C lite-mica. P6 is more heterogeneous, containing also anorthite, amphi-
3Ahb2 BT + FG Q, A, KF, IM, C bole and chlorite. At Portachuelo, the most common minerals among
4Ahb3 BT + FG Q, A, KF, IM, C
all pedons are quartz, albite and K-feldspar. In addition to these min-
P8 - Haplic Umbrisol (Hyperdystric, Humic, Skeletic) erals, P7 has chlorite, while P8 and P9 contain anorthite and chlorite.
Ah FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN, IM, C The presence of chlorite was inferred because the peaks 1.4 nm and
2Ahb1 FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN, IM, C
0.7 nm showed no alteration after treatment, despite a small increase
2Ahb2 FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN, IM, C
in intensity in the 1.4 nm peak. P10 was the only pedon without chlorite.
P9 - Haplic Umbrisol (Endodystric, Humic, Skeletic) However, a mixed layer mineral was detected, being the only secondary
Ah FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN, IM, C
mineral found in all samples. The 1.46 nm peak in natural slide change
2Ahb1 FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN, IM, C
2Ahb2 FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN, IM, C its d-space and appears with shoulder in all treatments showing behav-
2Ahb3 FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN, IM, C ior of hydroxy-interlayered smectite (HIS) and smectite.
P10 - Folic Umbrisol (Hyperhumic, Orthodistric, Skeletic)
Ah FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN,IM, HIS-S
Ah2 FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN,IM, HIS-S 4.4. Soil classification
2Ahb1 FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN,IM, HIS-S
2Ahb2 FG + BT + D Q, A, KF, AN,IM, HIS-S
Most pedons of both catenas (P1, P2, P3, P5, P8, P9, and P10) were
1
FG = Granodiorite; BT = Biotite tonalite; D = Diorite. 2Q = Quartz, A = Albite, KF = K classified as Umbrisols in the first level (Reference Soil Group – RSG) be-
Feldspar, AN = Anorthite, AM = Amphibole, IM = Illite-Muscovite, C = Chlorite, HIS-S = cause they present Umbric diagnostic horizon (Tables 2, and 3). The
Hydroxy-interlayered smectite.
pedons showed ≥ 20 cm depth, dark-colored horizons (values and
chromas ≤ 3), surface horizons with base saturation ≤ 50% and
TOC N 0.6%.
The P6 pedon under Matorral was classified as a Haplic Regosol
(Hyperhumic, Eutric, Skeletic). It fits neither to the properties of an
Forest pedons, i.e. P3 and P5, with 91.4 g/kg and 175.0 g/kg. The pedons Umbric horizon because it is eutrophic, nor to a Mollic horizon because
under Matorral, i.e., P1 and P2, have the lowest contents, with 37.7 g/kg of its weak structure. Additionally, this pedon cannot be classified as a
e 53.4 g/kg, respectively. The exception is P6 - despite being located in Leptosol because it is not extremely gravelly.
the Matorral as well, it has TOC levels comparable to the Polylepis Forest P4 formed in alluvial deposits was classified as Endogleyic
pedons, with 307 g/kg in the organic horizon Oi (0–3 cm depth) and Endostagnic Fluvisol (Humic, Orthodystric). It presented stratification
72.5 g/kg in the Ah horizon. with C horizons sequence. P7 was classified as Haplic Leptosol (Humic,
In general, the pedons of Portachuelo have higher TOC contents Dystric, Skeletic) because it is very shallow (40 cm depth) over contin-
than those of Llanganuco. They also show the same trend of higher uous rock and extremely gravelly.
450 R.C. Portes et al. / Catena 147 (2016) 441–452
5. Discussion
5.1. Pedogenic processes
Soil development in all pedons investigated here is quite similar re-
gardless of their location in the west (dry) or east (wet) side of the Cor-
dillera Blanca. Soils are weakly developed and share the same pedogenic
processes (humification, melanization and formation of organometallic
complexes) possibly due to the high slope instability. Our results pro-
vide an evidence of the intense erosion/sedimentation processes by
the presence of lithological discontinuities (LD) in all colluvial pedons.
LD detected reveal a sequence of buried A horizons, indicating many ep-
isodes of material deposition over the soil surface. Therefore, pedogen-
esis was possible between depositional events that led to promoted
short soil-forming intervals.
Periods with relative stability (non-deposition) allowed for A hori-
zon formation with high organic matter accumulation due to cold cli-
mate conditions. The TOC contents (from 9.3 to 183 g/kg) found in
these A horizons reveal high organic matter accumulation and are com-
parable to other well drained soils of Peruvian Puna (Eash and Sandor,
1995; Miller and Birkeland, 1992; Wilcox et al., 1988).
Our results indicate that soil forming processes in all pedons are as-
sociated with organic matter accumulation. The results of high TOC con-
tents combined with dark colored uppermost horizons (values and
chromas ≤ 3 wet) demonstrate the occurrence of pedogenic processes
such as humufication and melanization. These processes together fa-
vored the formation of Umbric horizons in most of pedons (P1, P2, P3,
P5, P8, P9, and P10), which is the diagnostic horizon for Umbrisols. Ac-
cording to IUSS-Working Group WRB (2006), Umbrisols are common
soils in mountains range of Peru with little or no soil moisture deficit.
However, P6 has high base saturation and consequently lacks an Umbric
horizon. The high values found for exchangeable Ca2+ in this pedons
could be attributed to a higher proportion of mafic rock (diorite) in
the parent material since diorite has 5.6% of CaO in its composition
(Table 5).
The results of the analyses of Fep/Feo and Alp/Alo ratios close to 1 in
all pedons of both catenas (except P7) indicate that organometallic
complexes predominate over other non-crystalline forms of pedogenic
oxides and hydroxides. The high results of Feo/Fed and Alo/Ald also sug-
gest that organometallic complexes predominate over other forms of
crystalline and non-crystalline pedogenic oxides. Therefore, we infer
that chelation is the dominant process of Fe and Al stabilization of the
soil solution investigated here. According to Schwertmann (1985), the
formation of organometallic complexes compete for Fe and Al and
may inhibit the formation of well crystallized and poor crystallized ox-
ides. In the chelation process, cations released by mineral weathering
are mobilized by combining with organic acids (Buurman and van
Reeuwijk, 1984; Schaetzl and Anderson, 2005).
Pedon P7 differs from the others due to lowest values of Fep/Feo
(b 0.31) within all horizons, which may indicate the predominance of
ferrihydrite, a short-range-order Fe hydroxide mineral (Schwertmann,
1985). The same pedon also has the lowest values of Feo/Fed, indicating
higher amounts of crystalline iron oxides rather than ferrihydrite.
Therefore, the results suggest that part of the poorly crystalline Fe was
converted into crystalline forms.
The high values of Fep/Feo and Alp/Alo (N1) observed in some hori-
zons of some pedons indicate the limitation of the method used to esti-
mate pedogenic oxides forms. In theory, higher concentration of Fep and
Alp than Feo and Alo is not possible because of the results of Feo and Alo
already include the concentration of Fep and Alp. Loveland and Bullock
(1976) reported that ammonium oxalate is not efficient in extracting
those Fe and Al forms associated with humic acids because, at a pH
around 3, this fraction of organic matter is only slightly soluble. Similar-
ly, Birkeland et al. (1989) and Mahaney et al. (2009) also report values
higher than 1 for Alo/Ald. The extraction of crystalline forms of Al by so-
dium dithionite is not efficient either (Childs et al., 1983). For this
reason, this method probably does not represent the total pedogenetic
Al (Wada, 1977).
Some pedons with Alo\\Alp/Sio values between 1 and 2 do not have
short-range-order aluminosilicates because of low Sio concentrations.
According to Childs et al. (1983) and Dahlgren et al. (1997), all extracted
Si by oxalate are from noncrystalline aluminosilicates, such as allophane
and imogolite. Furthermore, the values obtained by the Alo + ½Feo
equation are smaller than 2%, which is the minimum amount required
to indicate andic properties (IUSS-Working Group WRB, 2006).
However, contrary to our results (weakly developed soils and only
pedogenic processes related to A horizons formation), previous studies
have described soils in the Peruvian Andes with a higher degree of de-
velopment related to differentiated soil horizons. This difference may
well be due to slope stability, which favored a larger soil-forming inter-
val and consequently allowed for pedogenic processes to form B hori-
zons. Rodbell (1993) reported that the degree of soil development on
moraines in the southwest part of the Cordillera Blanca increase with
moraine age. Soils developed on Holocene moraines showed A/Cox/Cu
horizons and soils developed on Pleistocene moraines showed A/Bw/
Cox/Cu horizons. Moreover, colluvial soils on stable slopes have
shown B horizons enriched with illuvial clay: Miller and Birkeland
(1992) and Miller et al. (1993) described Bt horizons in soils in the Cor-
dillera Oriental, Northern Peru (7–8°S), in slopes that have been stable
for at least 8 to 12 ka. Likewise, Wilcox et al. (1988) found Bt horizons
in soils located in Corpacancha, Northern Peru (11°S).
5.2. Weathering intensity
The results of X-ray diffraction reveal primary minerals in the clay
fraction of all pedons and indicate a strong influence of physical and
cryogenic weathering. The presence of clay-sized primary minerals
may well be associated with mechanical disintegration caused by the
combination of diurnal variations in soil temperature and daily freeze-
thaw cycle in high elevations. Diurnal variations in soil temperature
promote thermal expansion and contraction of rocks and minerals and
daily freeze-thaw cycle promote ice formation in micro-cracks and con-
sequently produce volume widening and breaks (French, 2007;
Schaetzl and Anderson, 2005). Our findings are supported by the litera-
ture. Studies in areas which are subject to cryogenic weathering, such as
high alpine and Antarctic ice-free areas, have reported the presence of
primary minerals in the clay fraction (Blume and Bölter, 2015; Böhlert
et al., 2011; Pereira et al., 2013). According to Blume and Bölter
(2015), the occurence of quartz and easily weatherable primary min-
erals in the clay fraction indicate that the physical desintegration is
not exclusive for sand and silt fractions. Furthermore, Böhlert et al.
(2011) provide information about mineral evolution over time in soils
developed on granitic moraines in the Swiss Alps. Based on semi-quan-
titative mineralogical data from the parent material (C and BC hori-
zons), they demonstrate that easily weatherable minerals such as
plagioclase, epidote and chlorite can be found in the clay fraction and
that their proportions decrease with time.
Despite those similarities previously discussed (same soil foming
processes and physical and cryogenic weathering), chemical
weathering is distinct for the climatic gradient between west/dry and
east/humid valleys. Primary mineral alteration into secondary minerals
(iron oxides and phyllosilicate clays) suggest more intense chemical
weathering acting in some pedons at Portachuelo, the east/humid
valley.
The results of the ratio (Fed\\Feo)/Fet used to evaluate the degree of
iron crystallinity reveal the highest values for P7. This result indicates
that almost half (0.45) of the amount of Fe of primary minerals was con-
verted to crystalline pedogenic forms in the 2Ahb1 horizon. The highest
value is likely related to weathering of biotite, which is an abundant
mineral in biotite-tonalite. According to field observations and rock
analyses, biotite-tonalite constitutes a major proportion of parent mate-
rial in P7 and is, therefore, the major source of Fe for this pedon.
 R.C. Portes et al. / Catena 147 (2016) 441–452
However, X-ray diffraction analyses point out the occurrence of
geogenic chlorite in all horizons of P7, which is an easily weatherable
mineral (Allen and Hajek, 1989). On the other hand, chlorite was not
identified in P10 under Polylepis forest. Instead, P10 showed a sec-
ondary mixed-layered mineral. Taking into account that primary
mineral alteration into secondary phyllosilicates also indicates
weathering intensity, and biotite is more easily weathered than chlo-
rite (Allen and Hajek, 1989), chemical weathering is more intense in
P10 than in P7. Therefore, the use of pedogenic iron oxide concentra-
tion alone in order to evaluate chemical weathering intensity, while
disregarding clay mineralogy, could be misleading in this study.
The mixed-layered minerals founded in P10, possibly HIS and
smectite, may be a by-product of chlorite alteration, since chlorite
is present in all pedons with similar parent material. The acidity re-
leased by organic acids might prevent the formation of aluminum
hydroxy-interlayered minerals. Egli et al. (2008, 2001) pointed out
that soil development and acid production may increase the dissolu-
tion of Al-containing minerals, promoting the weathering of chlorite
to HIV-HIS and after smectite.
Take into account that all pedons in Portachuelo receive more
precipitation than the pedons in Llanganuco, P10 shows to be the
maximum expression of chemical weathering due to its capacity to
sustain a Polylepis forest, to store water and, consequently, accumu-
late organic matter. Its location in the back slope of a convergent
slope causes P10 to receive more water. Furthermore, associated
with vegetation, the canopy, understory, litter and O horizon con-
tributed to facilitate water infiltration, thus favoring conditions for
weathering and leaching.
6. Conclusions
The pedons of Llaganuco and Portachuelo show the same soil
forming processes related to organic matter accumulation, such as
humification, melanization and formation of organometallic com-
plexes. They are young and weakly developed with sequences of bur-
ied A horizons. Landscape instability does not allow for greater soil
development, where colluviation processes were favored over soil
forming processes.
Our results suggest that the weathering intensity of the investi-
gated soils is controlled by regional climate and vegetation. The for-
mation of crystalline iron oxides and transformation of phyllosilicate
minerals revealed a higher weathering intensity for some pedons lo-
cated at Portachuelo (wet valley). Among them, a pedon under
Polylepis forest showed the highest weathering intensity with
mixed-layered minerals, which demonstrates the strong influence
of vegetation on chemical weathering and mineral transformation.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by CNPq (MCT/CNPq - 23/2009) and
CAPES (Brazil). We thank M. Aspicueta, R. Villanueva and M. Salvador
from SERNANP and INRENA (Peru) for logistical support and permission
to conduct research in Huascarán National Park. We also thank Rosa and
Chino for hospitality in Yungay, E. Senra, B. Mendonça and T. Moura for
invaluable assistance in the field, Ann-Kathrin Schatz for comments and
proofreading of the manuscript and two unknown reviewers for their
helpful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.
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