PRIME COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

BUILDING SERVICES II ( AR 6511 )

V Semester

REGULATION 2013

Notes Prepared by

Er. A. BHUVANESHWARI.

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 AR6511 BUILDING SERVICES- II L T P/S C

20 2 3

OBJECTIVES:
• To inform the students of the laws and basics of electricity and wiring systems within domestic
and commercial buildings
• To expose the students to the fundamentals of lighting and lighting design
• To familiarize the students to the basic design principle systems of vertical distributions
systems within a building
• To expose the student with the NBC Code for all of the above building services
UNIT I - ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS:ELECTRICAL WIRING
SYSTEMS 10
Laws of electrical circuits: Ohms and Kichoffs Laws Basics of electricity – Single/Three phase
supply. Earthing for safety – types of earthing - ISI specifications Electrical wiring systems in
domestic and commercial buildings. Conduits, Types of wiring Diagram for connection. Bus
way, Bus Bars, lighting track and conduits (Aluminum metallic, non metallic) arrangements.
Power handling, equipment, switch board, panel boards. Lighting conductors : Purpose,
materials, fixing, earthing arrangements Electronic and Communication systems Communication
and data systems- communication spaces, pathways, cabling systems, voice and data,
communication, Electronic security systems, computer labs/server, Rooms etc. Electrical
Installations in Buildings. Main and distribution boards – transformers – switch gears–
substations –space requirement and Layout of the same in building types

UNIT II- FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING 12

Principles of light – Electromagnetic radiation, waves, nature of vision, measurement of lighting.
Principles of illumination: definitions, Visual tasks, Factors affecting visual tasks Units of light,
definitions of flux, solid angle, luminous intensity –utilization factor – depreciation factor-
MSCP – MHCP, brightness, glare.

UNIT III- ILLUMINATION AND LIGHTING 8

Electric light sources: brief description, characteristics and application of different types of
lamps, methods of mounting and lighting control Luminaries classification/ - Lumen method for
design – Room reflectance/ Glare – manufacturer’s data on luminaries / luminaries cost.

UNIT IV- LIGHTING DESIGN: INSTALLATION AND APPLICATION IN

BUILDINGS 18
Artificial light sources, spectral energy distribution, Luminous efficiency- color temperature –
color rendering, Additive, subtractive color and their application areas and outdoor lighting
Lighting for Office, Schools, Libraries, Residential, Hospital, Parking, Outdoor. Elementary
ideas of special features required and minimum level of illumination for the physically
handicapped and elderly in building types Solar energy systems for lighting – Photovoltaic
systems for Residential/Commercial buildings. Reducing electric loads, installation and
maintenance – LEED certification & energy efficient lighting, Lighting controls, Solar systems –
Case studies and exercises involving in the above

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UNIT V - CONVEYING SYSTEMS 12
Basic design Principles, criteria for planning sizing, selection and layout of vertical distribution
systems – ( lifts, Escalators and moving walkways) along with mechanical, dimensional details
Elevators- types of elevators - design criteria, capacity, frequency, car size, speed, number and
size of elevators, layout of banks of elevators, planning and locating service cores in buildings,
types of elevators – pit, machine room details – NBC code Escalators and Conveyors parallel and
criss cross escalators, horizontal belt conveyors, horizontal moving walkways – design criteria,
speed size, capacity, number Detailing for comfort, convenience of users- special features for
physically handicapped and elderly - Case studies and exercises involving in the above.
TOTAL: 60
PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
1. The students understand the basics of Electricity and wiring system
2. The students are exposed to Fundamentals of Lighting and Lighting design
3. An Understanding of Vertical transportation system in a building
REQUIRED READINGS:
1. E.P. Ambrose, “Electric Heating”, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1968.
2. Philips, “Lighting in Architectural Design”, McGraw Hill. New York, 1964.
3. R. G. Hopkenson & J. D. Kay, “The lighting of Buildings”, Faber & Faber, London, 1969.
4. Elevators, Escalators , “Moving Walkways”, Manufactures catalogues, John Wiley, 1967.
5. National Building Code of India, 2005 (NBC 2005)
REFERENCES:
Electrical Systems:
1. Handbook of building Engineers in metric systems, NBO(India), 1968
2. National Building Code of India, 2005 (NBC 2005

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UNIT 1 : ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS :
ELECTRICAL WIRING SYSTEMS
LAW’S OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS :

OHM’S LAW :

Electric current
The current is defined as the rate of flow of charges across any cross sectional area of a
conductor.

Drift velocity

It is defined as the velocity with which free electrons get drifted towards the positive terminal,
when an electric field is applied.

Ohm’s Law

At a constant temperature, the steady current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.

It is expressed in the form of an equation as

IαV
V = IR
Where ,
I = Current
V = Voltage
R = Resistance

The opposition that a material presents to the flow of electrical charges is called resistance. The
unit for electrical resistance is the ohm (Ώ).
An increase in voltage causes an increase in current. A decrease in voltage will cause a decrease
in current, if the resistance remains the same The current (I) drawn from a power source by a
conductor will depend on the voltage (V) of the power source, and on the properties of the
conductor. The ratio between V and I is called the resistance of that conductor. The SI unit of
resistance R is the ohm, whose symbol is Ώ

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 Where, I-Current R-Resistance V-Voltage
The intensity of the power source is called voltage, or the potential difference between
the electrodes

From the graph we finalized that voltage and current varies linearly.

By definition,

if the final energy of that one coulomb test charge is one joule. the voltage of the power source is
one volt. The letter that symbolizes volts is V. The voltage in volts is equal to the final energy in
joules of that one coulomb test charge.

Resistance and resistivity

 The value of the resistance R depends on the

 material of the conductor.
 on its geometry.
 slightly on its temperature.
 the resistance increases with temperature.

KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
KIRCHOFF’s first Law:

Also called Kirchhoff’s current law, states that” the algebraic sum of currents entering and
leaving any point in a circuit is equal to zero”. This is also called Point Law

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 a+d-c+b=0 a+d=c+b

KIRCHOFF’s Second Law:

The algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed loop equals zero SECOND LAW IS
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW also called Mesh Law
A loop is a path so a closed loop is a closed path or complete electronic circuit.
As current passes through a resistor then a voltage is produced.

SINGLE PHASE SUPPLY :

CURRENT:
The unit of current is the ampere (A). We note that
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
We normally refer to current as being either direct (dc) or alternating (ac).

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  Single Phase is really a one phase of three Phase Power
 Adequate for running motors upto 5 Horse Power Low
 Efficient for equipment designed to run 3 Phase

Normally we use single phase supply in Domestic Area it having 230 v and 50 Hz of
frequency. Also it having one phase of Voltage level.

Three Phase Supply

 Three Phase Supply having Three Phase of Voltage Level.
 Adequatr for Running motors more than 5 Horse Power
 Highly Efficient for equipment designed to run 3 Phase

A three-phase system is usually more economical than an equivalent single-phase or two-

phase system at the same voltage because it uses less conductor material to transmit
electrical power.

•The main advantage of 3 phase is that it is more efficient for running AC motors than one or
two phase.

Properties of three phase supply

Three-phase has properties that make it very desirable in electric power systems:

1) The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in the case of a linear
balanced load. This makes it possible to eliminate or reduce the size of the neutral
conductor; all the phase conductors carry the same current and so can be the same size,
for a balanced load.

2) Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant, which helps to reduce generator
and motor vibrations.

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 3) Three-phase systems can produce a magnetic field that rotates in a specified direction.

EARTHING SAFETY
provide an alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not endanger the user
•Ensure that all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential
•Maintain the voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value so as to prevent over
current or excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment.

Qualities Of Good Earthing

•Must be of low electrical resistance
•Must be of good corrosion resistance
•Must be able to dissipate high fault current repeatedly

Methods of Earthing
•Conventional Earthing
•Maintenance Free Earthing

CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF EARTHING

The Conventional system of Earthing calls for digging of a large pit into which a GI pipe or a
copper plate is positioned in the middle layers of charcoal and salt.
•It requires maintenance and pouring of water at regular interval.

1.GI plate Earthing

2.GI pipe Earthing

GI PLATE EARTHING

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 Plate Earthing
•In this method a copper plate of 60cm x 60cm x 3.18cm or a GI plate of the size 60cm x
60cm x 6.35cm is used for earthing.
•The plate is placed vertically down inside the ground at a depth of 3m and is embedded
in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15 cm.
• In addition, water is poured for keeping the earth electrode resistance value well below
a maximum of 5 ohms.
• The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate.
•A cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy regular maintenance.

GI PIPE EARTHING
Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized) iron pipe of 38mm in diameter and length of
2m (depending on the current) with 12mm holes on the surface is placed upright at a
depth of 4.75m in a permanently wet ground.

•To keep the value of the earth resistance at the desired level, the area (15 cms) surrounding the
GI pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and coal.
• The efficiency of the earthing system is improved by pouring water through the funnel
periodically.
•The GI earth wires of sufficient cross- sectional area are run through a 12.7mm diameter pipe
(at 60cms below) from the 19mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at the top.

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SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION

1. TT systems

2 . TN-S system

3 . TN-C-S system

4 . TN-C system

5 . IT system

The first letter indicates the type of supply earthing. T -indicates that one or more points of the
Supply are directly earthed (for example, the earthed neutral at the transformer).

I -indicates either that the supply system is not earthed at all, or that the earthing includes a
deliberately-inserted impedance, the purpose of which is to limit fault current. This method is not
used for public supplies in the UK. The second letter indicates the earthing arrangement in the
installation.

T - all exposed conductive metalwork is connected directly to earth.

N - all exposed conductive metalwork is connected directly to an earthed supply conductor

provided by the Electricity Supply Company. The third and fourth letters indicate the
arrangement of the earthed supply conductor system.

S - neutral and earth conductor systems are quite separate.

C - neutral and earth are combined into a single conductor.

In a TT earthing system, the protective earth connection of the consumer is provided by a local
connection to earth, independent of any earth connection at the generator.
The big advantage of the TT earthing system is the fact that it is clear of high and low frequency
noises that come through the neutral wire from various electrical equipment connected to it. This
is why TT has always been preferable for special applications like telecommunication sites that
benefit from the interference-free earthing. Also, TT does not have the risk of a broken neutral.
In a TN earthing system, one of the points in the generator or transformer is connected with
earth, usually the star point in a three-phase system. The body of the electrical device is
connected with earth via this earth connection at the transformer.
The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of the consumer is called protective earth
three-phase system

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TN−S PE and N are separate conductors that are connected together only near the power source.
This arrangement is the current standard for most residential and industrial electric systems in
North America and Europe. 3-TN−C A combined PEN conductor fulfills the functions of both a
PE and an N conductor. Rarely used
Protective multiple earthing (PME), because of the practice of connecting the combined neutral-
and-earth conductor to real earth at many locations, to reduce the risk of broken neutrals - with a
similar system in Australia being designated as multiple earthed neutral (MEN).
TYPES OF EARTHING SYSTEM:
In industrial installations, where both electrical and instrumentation equipment
are incorporated and installed, three types of earthing system

1. Electrical earthing systems

2. Instrument earthing systems

3. Lightning earthing system

ELECTRICAL EARTHING SYSTEMS

The earthing system, which is designed, installed and connected to all electrical machineries and
equipment as well as the plant’s bulk equipment is called the “Electrical earthing system” or
“Electrical earthing network”..
1. The overall earthing resistance of the electrical earthing system should not be greater than 4
OHM, no matter which point of the grid is put under measurement.
2. In earthing systems, where bare conductors of the earthing grid is buried directly underground,
each section of the underground grid actually acts as an individual earth well, parallel to the
existing earth wells, thus contributing in reduction and improvement of the overall earthing
resistance.

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3. Earthing connections made to the marshalling earth buses, equipment’s earth bosses etc.
should be carried out with such skill and workmanship to prevent any possible misconnections,
which could lead to added earth resistance other than established and required.
Instrument Earthing Systems
In an industrial installation with sophisticated power and electronic equipment, protective
measures should be taken to safeguard the instrumentation and the relevant control panels
against the sudden high voltages which might hit the earthing system in the event of a fault
(short-circuit) in the power circuit of the installation….

1.Sufficient distance should be maintained between the instrument earth wells and the electrical
earth wells. Standard distance is at least twice that of the greatest length of the earth rod driven in
either the instrument or the electrical well. 2. Separate earthing marshalling points (Marshalling
buses) is defined and installed to be used for independent connections to instrument devices. 3.
Instrument earth buses are generally installed inside the control building where the
instrumentation control are installed and centralized. 4. The metal clad body of the instrument
panels, particularly those which accommodate the power supply line, should be connected to the
electrical earth system. 5. Instrumentations installed inside the plant, shall be connected to the
instrument earthing system via the shield wires of the corresponding instrument cables. 6.
Instrument earth wells are installed adjacent to the control building
Lighting Earthing Or Lighting Conductor

A Lighting Conductor is a metal rod or Metallic Object Mounted on top of an Elevated Structure , Such
as a Building , A Ship , Or Even a Tree , Electrically boned Using a Wire or Electrical Conductor to
interface with ground or earth through as Electrode.

A lightning rod or lightning conductor is a metal rod or metallic object mounted on top of an
elevated structure, such as a building, a ship, or even a tree, electrically bonded using a wire
or electrical conductor to interface with ground or "earth" through an electrode, engineered to
protect the structure in the event of lightning strike. If lightning hits the structure, it will
preferentially strike the rod and be conducted to ground through the wire, instead of passing
through the structure, where it could start a fire or cause electrocution. Lightning rods are also
called finials, air terminals or strike termination devices.
In a lightning protection system, a lightning rod is a single component of the system. The
lightning rod requires a connection to earth to perform its protective function. Lightning rods
come in many different forms, including hollow, solid, pointed, rounded, flat strips or even
bristle brush-like. The main attribute common to all lightning rods is that they are all made of
conductive materials, such as copper and aluminum. Copper and its alloys are the most common
materials used in lightning protection.

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ISI SPECIFICATIONS ELECTRICAL WITING SYSTEMS IN DOMESTIC AND
COMMERCIAL BUIDINGS:

These rules have been framed by a competent authority to ensure satisfactory operation of
equipment and also to safeguard the concumers from electric shock. Some of the significant rules
are mentioned heres.

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Rule : 29

All Electric supply lines and equipments should be sufficient in power size and mechanical
strength to make it work perfectly and should allow to be constructed installed and Protected
worked and maintain in accordance with electricity rules.

The home you have constructed should be electric shock proof. To achieve this, lots
of precautions are required to be taken during wiring. Therefore we advise to follow the best
practices of the industry and follow the wiring rules laid down by Bureau of Indian Standards.
Few of them are listed below for your guidance.
1. Carry out wiring on distribution system
The wiring should be carried out on distribution systems with main and branch distribution
boards to convenient centers. It is without isolated fuses. As far as possible all conductors should
run along the walls and ceilings so that they are easily accessible for thorough inspection.
2. Don’t allow wiring to run above ceiling
In any case, the wiring should not run above ceiling. The circuit on opposite side of three wire
systems or on different phases of three phase system is kept as far apart as possible in all cases
and the minimum distance between two circuits should be 7 feet. Medium pressure wiring and all
associated apparatus should comply with ISI specifications.
3. Don’t exceed the load on circuit
The number of points in light circuits should not exceed 10 or the total load on circuit should not
exceed 800 watts. One circuit can be explained as one connection from electrical meter or from
main fuse circuit. For power wiring circuit the number of points in a circuit should not be more
than 2 and the size of wire should be 1.5 mm square for copper and 2 mm square for aluminum.
4. Fix switch boards at proper height
Switch boards should be fitted at a height of 1.5 meter. Horizontal run of wiring should be at a
height of 3 meter.
5. Use earth wire of proper gauge
Earth wire should be 14 SWG in case of copper and 4 mm square in case of aluminum. Fuse wire
should be connected to phase wire only and neutral link should be connected to neutral wire.
Connect all switches in phase wire. Minimum size of earth wire for light circuit is 1 mm square
for copper and 1.5 mm square for aluminum.
6. Make use of copper conductors
All conductors should be made of copper. They should have a cross section less than 0.0020 sq.
inches, nominal area (3/0.029 inches) and every conductor should be stranded.
7. Never utilize damaged wiring or elements
Burnt element, cut/ broken wiring, loose/open connection and rusted points should never be used
to avoid open circuit fault. Never make use of damaged insulation wiring to avoid short circuit
fault. Damaged and loose connection should never be done in any appliance to avoid earth fault.
Provide earthing to enhance voltage and protect human beings from sudden electric shock. You
must fix lightening wire earth into the ground to protect building from cloud lightening.

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Electrical Wiring System
There are mainly 6 types of wires are there
1. Vulcanised Indian rubber wire (V.I.R)
2. Tough rubber sheathed wire (T.R.S)
3. Poly vinyl chloride wire (P.V.C.)
4. Lead alloy sheathed wire
5. Weather proof wires
6. Flexible wire
V.I.R (Vulcanised Indian Rubber) wires

1. VIR wire mainly consists of a tinned conductor having rubber coating.

2. Tinning of conductor prevents the sticking of rubber to the conductor.

3. Thickness of rubber mainly depends on the operating voltage to which wire is designed.

4. A cotton bradding is done over the rubber insulations to protect the conductor against the
moisture.

5. Finally the wire is finished with wax for cleanliness.

6. Nowadays these wires are not used since a better quality wires are available at a cheaper
rate.
T.R.S. (Tough Rubber Sheathed) wires

1. This type of wire is a modification of V.I.R. wire. It consist of the ordinary rubber coated
conductors with an additional sheath of tough rubber.

2. This layer provides better protection against moisture and wear and tear. Also it provides
an extra insulation.

3. These wires are generally available in single conductor, two conductors or three
conductors.
P.V.C. (Poly Vinyl Chloride) wires.

This is the most commonly used wire for wiring purpose.

Conductor is insulated by poly vinyl chloride (insulating material).
P.V.S. has following properties:

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1. Moisture proof.

2.Tough.

3.Durable.

4.Chemically inert.

But it softens at high temperatures therefore not suitable for connection to heating appliances.

Lead alloy sheathed wires.

1. The ordinary wires can be used only at dry places but for damp places these wires are
covered with continuous lead sheaths.

2. The layer of lead covering is very thin like 0.12 cm thick.

3. These wires provides little mechanical protections to the wires.

Weather proof wires.

1. These types of wires are used outdoor i.e. providing a service connection from overhead
line to building etc.

2. In this type of wire the conductor is not tinned and the conductor is covered with three
braids of fibrous yarn and saturated with water proof compound.
Flexible wires.

1. These wires consists of number of strands instead of a single conductor. (Strand is a very
thin conductor).

2. The conductor is insulated with P.V.C. material.

3. These wires are very useful for household portable appliances where flexibility of wire is
more important.

4. Typical specifications 55/.01mm(55 strands of 0.1mm diameter), maximum current 6A,

used for household purposes.
Distribution board
A distribution board (or panel board) is a component of an electricity supply system which
divides an electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits, while providing a protective fuse or
circuit breaker for each circuit, in a common enclosure. Distribution Inside Large Buildings
•In large buildings the type of distribution depends on the building type, dimension, the
length of supply cables, and the loads.
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•The distribution system can be divided in to:
The vertical supply system (rising mains).
The horizontal supply (distribution at each floor level).

Main board

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Switch Board
The U.S (NEC) defines a switchboard as "a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels on
which are mounted, on the face, back, or both, switches, over-current and other protective
devices, buses, and usually instruments". The role of a switchboard is to allow the division of the
current supplied to the switchboard into smaller currents for further distribution and to provide
switching, current protection and (possibly) metering for those various currents. In general,
switchboards may distribute power to transformers, panelboards, control equipment, and,
ultimately, to individual system loads.

Inside a switchboard there will be one or more busbars. These are flat strips of copper or
aluminum, to which the switchgear is connected. Busbars carry large currents through the
switchboard, and are supported by insulators. Bare busbars are common, but many types are now
manufactured with an insulating cover on the bars, leaving only connection points exposed.
The operator is protected from electrocution by safety switches and fuses. There may also be
controls for the supply of electricity to the switchboard, coming from a generator or bank
of electrical generators, especially frequency control of AC power and load sharing controls, plus
gauges showing frequency and perhaps a synchroscope. The amount of power going into a
switchboard must always equal to the power going out to the loads.
Modern industrial switchboards are metal enclosed and of "dead front" construction; no
energized parts are accessible when the covers and panels are closed. Previously, open
switchboards were made with switches and other devices were mounted on panels made of slate,
granite, or ebony asbestos board. The metal enclosure of the switchboard is bonded to earth
ground for protection of personnel. Large switchboards may be free-standing floor-mounted
enclosures with provision for incoming connections at either the top or bottom of the enclosure.
A switchboard may have incoming bus bars or bus duct for the source connection, and also for
large circuits fed from the board. A switchboard may include a metering or control compartment
separated from the power distribution conductors.

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ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

CABLING SYSTEM

A power cable is an assembly of two or more electrical conductors, usually held together with an
overall sheath. The assembly is used for transmission of electrical power. Power cables may be
installed as permanent wiring within buildings, buried in the ground, run overhead, or exposed.

Flexible power cables are used for portable devices, mobile tools and machinery.

1. Conductor or Core.

2. Insulation.

3. Metallic Sheath.

4. Bedding.

5. Armouring.

6.Serving.

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20
 LT control Cables Belted Cables

LT CABLES
The types of cables basically decided based on the voltage level for which it is manufactured
and material used for the insulation such as paper,cotton,rubber etc. the classification of cables
according to the voltage levels is,

Low Tension Cables (L.T. Cables).

Medium and High tension Cables (H.T. Cables).

BELTED CABLES

These cables are used for the voltage level up to 11 kV. The construction of belted cable is is
shown in fig.

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 1. The cores are not in circular shape.

2. The cores are insulated from each other by use of impregnated paper.

3. The gaps are filled with fibrous material like jute.

4. The belt is covered with lead sheath.

OIL FILLED CABLES

In case of oil filled cables, the channels or ducts are provided within or adjacent to the cores,
through which oil under pressure is circulated.

It consists of concentric standard conductor but built around a hallow cylindrical steel spiral
core, which acts as a channel for oil.

Electronic Security System

Electronic security relates to leveraging innovation in defensive holding by anticipating

unapproved access to individuals and property. The government is a universal and major
customer of such security administrations and business sections also utilizes the security systems
for their workers for giving security. These days, one can witness their usage in range like
domestic application and small stores moreover.

The electronic security systems extensively comprises of alarms, access controls and CCTVs
(close-circuit televisions), which are prominently and broadly utilized. CCTVs have picked up
additional significance from all of these products.

Importance of Electronic Security System:

The electronic security systems are broadly utilized within corporate work places, commercial
places, shopping centers and etc. These systems are also used in railway stations, public places

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and etc. The systems have profoundly welcomed, since it might be worked from a remote zone.
And these systems are also utilized as access control systems, fire recognition and avoidance
systems and attendance record systems. As we are know that the crime rates are increasing day
by day so most of the people are usually not feeling comfort until they provide a sure for their
security either it may be at office or home. So we should choose a better electronic system for
securing purpose.

Classification of Electronic Security System:

Classification of security system can be done in different ways based on functioning and
technology usage, conditions of necessity accordingly. Based on functioning
categorizing electronic security system as follows:

 CCTV Surveillance Security System

 Fire Detection/Alarming System
 Access Control/Attendance System

CCTV Surveillance Systems:
It is the process of watching over a facility which is under suspicion or area to be secured; main
part of the surveillance electronic security system consists of camera or CCTV cameras which
forms as eyes to surveillance system. System consists of different kinds of equipment which
helps in visualizing and saving of recorded surveillance data. The close-circuits IP cameras and
CCTVS transfers image information to a remote access place. The main feature of this system is
that, it can use any place where we watch the human being actions. Some of the CCTV
surveillance systems are cameras, network equipments, IP cameras and monitors. In this system,
we can detect the crime through the camera, the alarm rings after receiving the signal from the
cameras which are connected CCTV system; to concern on the detection of interruption or
suspicion occurrence on a protected area or capability, the complete operation is based on the
CCTV surveillance system through internet. The figure below is representing the
CCTV Surveillance Systems.

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IP Surveillance System:
The IP-Surveillance system is designed for security purpose, which gives clients capability to
control and record video/audio using an IP PC system/network, for instance, a LAN or the
internet. In a simple way, the IP-Surveillance system includes the utilization of a system Polaroid
system switch, a computer for review, supervising and saving video/audio, which shown in
figure below.

In an IP-Surveillance system, a digitized video/audio streams might be sent to any area even as
far and wide as possible if wanted by means of a wired or remote IP system, empowering video
controlling and recording from anyplace with system/network access.

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Fire Detection and Alarming Systems:

It can also referred as a detection and alarming system as it gives an alarming alert to concern on
detection of interruption or suspicion happening on a protected area or facility. System generally
consists of detector using a sensor followed by an alarm or an alerting circuit. The main function
of this system is to rapidly extinguish an advancing fire and alarm tenants preceding impressive
harm happens by filling the secured zone with a gas or concoction smothering operator. Different
types of sensors are available for detection but usage of sensor is purely based on application
requirement, like home automation, ware house fire detection, intrusion alert etc.

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Attendance and Access Control Systems:
System which provides a secured access to a facility or another system to enter or control it can
be called as an access control system. It can also act as attendance providing system which can
play a dual role. According to user credentials and possessions access control system is
classified, what a user uses for access makes system different, user can provide different types
like pin credentials, biometrics or smart card. System can even use all possessions from user for
a multiple access controls involved. Some of the attendance and access control systems are:

Applications of Electronic Security System:

Electronic security system extends its applications in various fields like home automation,
Residential (homes and apartments), commercial (offices, banks lockers), industrial, medical,
and transportations. Some of the applications using electronic security system are electronic
security system for railway compartment, electronic eye with security, electronic voting system
are the most commonly used electronic security system.

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One of the examples related to electronic security system:

From the block diagram, the system is mainly designed based on Electronic eye (LDR sensor);
we use this kind of systems in bank lockers, jewelry shops. When the cash box is closed, the
neither buzzer nor the binary counter/divider indicates that box is closed. If anyone tries to open
the locker door then automatically a light falls on the LDR sensor then the resistance decreases
slowly this cause buzzer to alert the customer. This process continues until the box is closed.

VOICE AND DATA COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION:

Telephone network was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876.The entire network, which
is referred to as the plain old telephone system (POTS).It was completely analog system.
Telephone networks use circuit switching.Telecommunication: Telecommunication is the
transmission of messages, over significant distances, for the purpose of communication.
THE SUBSCRIBER LOOP:
A pair of wires connecting a subscriber to the nearest telephone office is called “the subscriber
loop” . Local subscriber loop (or simply local loop) is the simplest & most straight forward form
of telephone service is called plain old telephone services (POTS), which involves subscribers
accessing the public telephone network through pair of wires.A local loop is simply an
Unshielded twisted - pair transmission line (cable pair), consisting of two insulated conductors
twisted together.
Micro Phone Switch Hook
The subscriber loop provides the means to connect a telephone set at a subscriber location to the
closest telephone office, which iscommonly called an end office, locale change office, or central
office.Once in the central office, the subscriber loop is connected to an electronic switching
system (ESS), which enables the subscriber toaccess the telephone network.

27
Phone plugs & jacks RJ-11 and a matching plastic receptacle shown in figure.
STANDARD TELEPHONE SET:

A telephone is defined as an apparatus for reproducing sound, especially that of the human voice
(speech) at a great distance, by means of electricity, consisting of transmitting and receiving
instruments connected by a line or wire which conveys the electric current.
FUNCTIONS OF THE TELEPHONE
SET: 1
Notifying the Subscriber:
It is an incoming call with an audible signal, as a bell, or with a visible signal, such as a flashing
light.These signals are purposely made annoying enough to make people want to answer the
telephone as soon as possible.
SET: 2
Provide a Signal to the Telephone:
It provides a signal to the telephone network verifying when the incoming call has
beenacknowledged and answered (i.e. , the receiver is lifted off hook).
SET: 3
Speech Conversion:
It converts acoustical energy to electrical energy in the transmitter & vice versa in the receiver.
Actually, themicrophone converts the acoustical energy to mechanical energy, which is then
converted to electrical energy. The speaker performsthe opposite conversions.RJ-11(registered
jacks) is the most common telephone jack in usetoday & can have up to six
conductors. RJ( registered jacks) & issometimes described as RJ-XX. RJ is a series of
telephoneconnection interfaces (receptacle & plug).
Central OfficeSwitchingMachine
Telephone Set
Ground (tip)

28
COMPUTER LABS AND SERVER
1. A server room is a room, usually air-conditioned, devoted to the continuous operation
of computer servers. An entire building or station devoted to this purpose is a data center.
2. The computers in a server rooms are usually headless systems that can be operated
remotely via KVM switch or remote administration software, such as Secure
Shell (ssh), VNC, and remote desktop.
3. Climate is one of the factors that affects the energy consumption and environmental
impact of a server room. In areas where climate favors cooling and an abundance of
renewable electricity, the environmental effects will be more moderate. Thus countries
with favorable conditions, such as: Canada, Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland, are trying
to attract more companies to site their server rooms there.
Location
Computer or server room location is the first consideration, even before considering the layout of
the room’s contents. Most designers agree that, where possible, the computer room should not be
built where one of its walls is an exterior wall of the building. Exterior walls can often be quite
damp and can contain water pipes that could burst and drench the equipment. Avoiding exterior
windows means avoiding a security risk, and breakages. Avoiding both the top floors and
basements means avoiding flooding, and leaks in the case of roofs. If a centralized computer
room is not feasible, server closets on each floor may be an option. This is where computer,
network and phone equipment are housed in closets and each closet is stacked above each other
on the floor that they service.
In addition to the hazards of exterior walls, designers need to evaluate any potential sources
of interference in proximity to the computer room. Designing such a room means keeping clear
or radio transmitters, and electrical interference from power plants or lift rooms, etc.
Other physical design considerations range from room size, door sizes and access ramps (to get
equipment in and out) to cable organization, physical security and maintenance access.
Air conditioning
Computer equipment generates heat, and is sensitive to heat, humidity, and dust, but also the
need for very high resilience and failover requirements. Maintaining a stable temperature and
humidity within tight tolerances is critical to IT system reliability. Server room temperature has
to be between 18-27°C or 64-80°F; humidity should be between 40%-60% rH.
In most server rooms "close control air conditioning" systems, also known as PAC (precision air
conditioning) systems, are installed. These systems control temperature, humidity and
particle filtration within tight tolerances 24 hours a day and can be remotely monitored. They can
have built-in automatic alerts when conditions within the server room move outside defined
tolerances.
Air conditioning designs for most computer or server rooms will vary depending on various
design considerations, but they are generally one of two types: "up-flow" and "down-flow"
configurations.

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Up-flow air conditioning
This type of air conditioning draws air into the front of the air handler unit (AHU), cools the air
over the heat exchanger, then distributes the cooled air out through the top or through duct work.
This air conditioning configuration is well suited to retro-fitted computer rooms when raised
floors are either of inadequate depth or do not exist at all.
Down-flow air conditioning
Typically, this type of air conditioning unit draws the air into the top of the air handling unit,
cools the air over the heat exchanger, then distributes the air out of the bottom into the floor void.
This conditioned air is then discharged into the server room via strategically placed floor grilles
and onwards to equipment racks. These systems are well suited to new office buildings where the
design can encompass raised floors suitable for ducting to computer racks.
Fire protection
The fire protection system's main goal should be to detect and alert of fire in the early stages,
then bring fire under control without disrupting the flow of business and without threatening the
personnel in the facility. Server room fire suppression technology has been around for as long as
there have been server rooms. Traditionally, most computer rooms used Halon gas, but this has
been shown to be environmentally unfriendly (ozone depleting) and unsafe for humans. Modern
computer rooms use combinations of inert gases such as Nitrogen, Argon and CO2. Other
solutions include clean chemical agents such as FM200 and also hypoxic air solutions that keep
oxygen levels down. To prevent fires from spreading due to data cable and cord heat generation,
organizations have also used those that are coated with FEP tubing. This plastic reduces heat
generation and safeguards material metal efficiently.
Future-proofing
The demands of server rooms are constantly changing as organizations evolve and grow and as
technology changes. An essential part of computer room design is future proofing so that new
requirements can be accommodated with minimal effort. As computing requirements grow, so
will a server room's power and cooling requirements. As a rough guide, for every additional
100 kW of equipment installed, a further 30 kW of energy is required to cool it. As a result, air
conditioning designs will need to have scalability designed in from the outset.
The choice of racks in a server room is usually the prime factor when determining space. Many
organisations use telco racks or enclosed cabinets to make the most of the space they have.
Today, with servers that are one-rack-unit (1U) high and new blade servers, a single 19- or 23-
inch rack can accommodate anywhere from 42 to hundreds of servers.
Redundancy
If the computer systems in a server room are mission critical, removing single points of failure
and common-mode failures may be of high importance. The level of desired redundancy is
determined by factors such as whether the organisation can tolerate interruption whilst failover
systems are activated, or must they be seamless without any business impacts. Other than
computer hardware redundancy, the main consideration here is the provisioning of failover
power supplies and cooling.

30
 Server room operators have many concerns that they must deal with throughout the average day -
issues like ensuring that equipment is always running and that ideal humidity conditions are
maintained - but perhaps the biggest worry is computer room temperature. Nothing can derail a
data center quite like equipment overheating. So, it is vitally important for managers to do
everything they can to make sure the server room stays at the right temperature all the time.
A wide number of variables need to be considered by data center and server room operators
when figuring out what the optimal computer room temperature would be. Some of these
external considerations include the type of computer equipment used, the setup and configuration
of the server room and the output needs of the location. However, experts recommend keeping
the temperature between 68 and 71 degrees Fahrenheit, with 50 degrees being the coldest and 82
degrees F being the peak.
How operators can maintain the right computer room temperature
One of the main reasons why it can be difficult to make sure the computer room temperature
does not fluctuate is that the machines generate the heat that can ruin the equipment. The
temperature in the server room rises as the equipment workload increases, but operators also
need to make sure that the server room does not become so cold that the machines cannot run
effectively. There are many ways in which managers can make sure operations are always
running smoothly though.

 By using a central heating and air conditioning unit, managers can more accurately regulate a
location's temperature.
 With remote monitoring equipment, operations will have peace of mind knowing that they will
be alerted if temperatures spike unexpectedly.
 Other ways data center managers can ensure that excess heat does not build up is by using vents
to channel heat away or to use cold water pipes to lower temperatures.

The only way operators can know with absolute certainty that the temperature inside a computer
room is ideal is by using remote monitors, and ITWatchDogs has all the monitoring equipment
and accessories to meet any facility's unique needs.
Definition of Transformer
Electrical power transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy from one
circuit to another without any direct electrical connection and with the help of mutual
induction between two windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without
changing its frequency but may be in different voltage level. This is a very short and
simple definition of transformer, as we will go through this portion of tutorial related
to electrical power transformer, we will understand more clearly and deeply "what is
transformer ?" and basic theory of transformer.
Working Principle of Transformer
The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction between two or more winding is
responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.

31
Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
According to these Faraday's laws, "Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is
directly proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor or coil".

Basic Theory of Transformer

Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical source. The
alternating current through the winding produces a continually changing flux or alternating flux
that surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to the previous one, obviously
some portion of this flux will link with the second. As this flux is continually changing in its
amplitude and direction, there must be a change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil.
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, there must be an EMF induced in the
second. If the circuit of the later winding is closed, there must be an current flowing through it.
This is the simplest form of electrical power transformer and this is the most basic of working
principle of transformer. For better understanding, we are trying to repeat the above
explanation in a more brief way here. Whenever we apply alternating current to an electric coil,
there will be an alternating flux surrounding that coil. Now if we bring another coil near the first
one, there will be an alternating flux linkage with that second coil. As the flux is alternating,
there will be obviously a rate of change in flux linkage with respect to time in the second coil.
Naturally emf will be induced in it as per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This is the
most basic concept of the theory of transformer.

The winding which takes electrical power from the source, is generally known as primary
winding of transformer. Here in our above example it is first winding.

The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual induction in the transformer,
is commonly known as secondary winding of transformer. Here in our example it is second
winding.

32
33
The above mentioned form of transformer is theoretically possible but not practically, because in
open air very tiny portion of the flux of the first winding will link with second; so the current that
flows through the closed circuit of later, will be so small in amount that it will be difficult to
measure. The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of linked flux with the
second winding. So, it is desired to be linked to almost all flux of primary winding to the
secondary winding. This is effectively and efficiently done by placing one low reluctance path
common to both of the winding. This low reluctance path is core of transformer, through which
maximum number of flux produced by the primary is passed through and linked with the
secondary winding. This is the most basic theory of transformer.

Main Constructional Parts of Transformer

The three main parts of a transformer are,

Primary Winding of Transformer- which produces magnetic flux when it is connected to

electrical source.
Magnetic Core of Transformer- the magnetic flux produced by the primary winding, that will
pass through this low reluctance path linked with secondary winding and create a
closed magnetic circuit.
Secondary Winding of Transformer- the flux, produced by primary winding, passes through
the core, will link with the secondary winding. This winding also wounds on the same core and
gives the desired output of the transformer.

34
 Building Services II

Important University Question

Unit : 1 Elecrical and Electrnoic Systems : Electrical Wiring Systems

2 Marks

1. List the type of Earthing? ( Apr / May 2014)

1. Wire or Strip Earthing
2. Rod Earthing
3. Pipe Earthing
4. Plate Earthing
2. What do you understand by three Phase Supply? ( Apr / May 2014)
One Voltage Cycle of a three Phase System Labled 0 to 360 along the time axis. The Plotted
line represent the variation of instantaneous voltage with respect to time. This cycle repeats with a
frequency that depends on the power System.

3. Define : Ohm’s Law ( May / June 2013)

Ohm’s Law states that in a closed circuit the strength of the current flowing through a solid
conductor at constant temperature is directly proportional to the voltage across the conductor and
inversely proportional to its resistance.
It is expressed in the form of an equation as
IαV
V = IR
Where ,
I = Current
V = Voltage
R = Resistance
4. What is Panel Board? ( May / June 2013)
A Distribution board also known as Panel Board and Breaker Panel and Electric Panel.
This is a Component Of an Electricity Supply System that Divides an Electrical Power Feed into
subsidiary Circuits , While Providing a Protective fuse or Circuit breaker for each circuit in a
common Enclosure.

5. State Kirchoff ’s First Law? Or Point Law ( May / June 2014)

The Law states that the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a mode of a network is
Zero.

35
6. State Kirchoff ‘ s Second Law? Or Mesh Law ( May / June 2014)
This law states that in any closed circuit of the network, the algebraic sum of the products of
the resistance and currents of each resistance is equal to the emf acting in that path. This law also
known as the voltage law.

7. What is the Difference between single and three Phase Supply? ( May / June 2014)
Single Phase Supply Three Phase Supply
Single Phase is really a one phase of Three Phase Supply having Three
three Phase Power Phase of Voltage Level
Adequate for running motors upto 5 Adequatr for Running motors more
Horse Power than 5 Horse Power

Low Efficient for equipment designed to Highly Efficient for equipment

run Single Phase designed to run 3 Phase

8. What is Distribution board? ( May / June 2014)

A Distribution board also known as Panel Board and Breaker Panel and Electric Panel.
This is a Component Of an Electricity Supply System that Divides an Electrical Power Feed into
subsidiary Circuits , While Providing a Protective fuse or Circuit breaker for each circuit in a
common Enclosure.
9. What is Lighting Conductor? ( May / June 2014 )
A Lighting Conductor is a metal rod or Metallic Object Mounted on top of an Elevated
Structure , Such as a Building , A Ship , Or Even a Tree , Electrically boned Using a Wire or
Electrical Conductor to interface with ground or earth through as Electrode.

10. Classification of Wiring system?

1. Cleat wiring System
2. Wooden – casing – Capping Wiring System
3. PVC or CTS or TRS Wiring System
4. Lead Sheathed Wiring System
5. Conduit Wiring System
11. What is Switch Gear?
It is a genral term which refers to a suitable combination of switching devices intended for use
in connection with generation, Transmission, Distribution and conversion of Electrical Energy.
12. Define Transformer
A Transformer is an electric device coupled eith magnetism, which is used to transforms the
electric energy from one circuit to the other without any alternating in the frequency.
Application:
1. Transmission and distribution of electric Power
2. Radio and television and Telephone Circuits
3. Step up and Step Down Requirements
4. Measuring a current using current transformers and measuring voltage using voltage
transformers.

36
 5. Special applications like furnace transformers and welding transformers.

16 Marks :

1. Briefly Discuss the different types of earthing System and it Advantages and Disadvantages.
( May / June 2014)
2. Explain the basics of Electrical installation for the multi Storey Building With Appropriate
Diagrams ( May / June 2014)
3. Discuss in Detail about Efficient Planning of Electrical Wiring System and Electrical
Installations in Commercial Buildings ( May / June 2013)

4. Discuss in Detail About ( May / June 2013)

(1) Lighting Conductors
(2) Electronic Installations in Buildings.
5. Describe the electrical wiring systems in commercial building with Sketch( May / June 2013)
6. Explain different types of Electronic Security Systems and Its application In Buildings
( May / June 2013)

7. Explain different types of Connection with Sketches ( Apr / May 2015).

8. Write Short Note on ( Apr / May 2015)
(1) Bus Bars
(2) Switch Boards
(3) Panel Boards
(4) SubStations

37
 Unit 2 : Fundamental of Lighting

Principles of light:
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation which is visible to the human eye. It is closely
associated with other forms of radiations such as radio waves, infrared microwaves, x-rays and
ultraviolet rays.

Wavelength and color:

1. The only difference between the several forms of radiation is their wavelength.

2. Radiation with a wavelength between 380 and 780nm (nanometers) forms the visible part
of the electromagnetic spectrum which is the light.

3. The eye can see the different wavelength within this range (380-780 nanometers) as
colors moving from red, orange, green, blue to violet.

4. Near the red color infrared radiation which is invisible to human eye in present.

5. The infrared radiation is detected as heat.

6. Near the violet color in the electromagnetic spectrum there is ultraviolet radiation. This is
also invisible to the human eye.

7. If the ultraviolet rays are exposed to human eye it can damage the eyes. It also causes
skin cancer.

8. White light is the mixture of all the colors present in the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Light and color:

1. We see light as color and brightness

2. Electrons move around the nucleus in orbits.

3. Electrons gets kicked into different orbits.

4. If you add energy to the atom the electros will jump to bigger orbits.

5. When atoms loses the energy electrons jump back to original orbits.

6. As they jump back emits one photon of light.

38
The color of the light depends on how big the jump was between the orbits.

 The bigger the jump, the higher the energy.

 The energy determines the color, a blue photon has more energy than the red.

 The light color concept is shown in figure. The red color has the small energy gap
between the excited state and ground state.

 The violet color has the large energy gap between the exited state and ground state.

 With all colors together white light is produced.

39
Mixing light of difference colors:

1. The three basic light colors are red, green and blue.

2. These are called primary colors and additive mixing of these colors will produce all other
light colors including white.

So,
Red + green = yellow
Red + blue = magenta
Green + blue = cyan
Red + green + Blue = white
The colors yellow, magenta, cyan are called as secondary or complementary colors as they are
made of combinations of primary colors.

Electromagnetic spectrum:
The electromagnetic spectrum is the complete range of electromagnetic radiations placed in the order
of increasing frequency. The electromagnetic radiations are,

(i) Radio waves:

1. Radio waves have the largest wavelength of all the electromagnetic waves.

2. Radio waves are often used to transmit data and have been used for applications
including radio satellites, radar and computer networks.

(ii) Microwaves:

1. Microwaves have the shorter wavelengths than the radio waves.

2. Microwaves are used in radar that helps to predict the weather conditions, microwaves is
also used to cook food.

3. Microwave are also used in communication because they can penetrate clouds and
smoke.

40
(iii)Infrared rays:

1. Between microwaves and visible light are infrared waves. Infrared rays are classified into
near infrared and for infrared rays.

2. The near infrared are closer to the visible light in wavelength and far infrared are further
away from the visible light in wavelength.

(iv) Visible light:

1. The visible light covers the wavelength that can be seen by the human eye (380nm –
780nm)

(v) Ultraviolet rays:

2. Ultraviolet rays have the wavelength lesser than the visible light.

3. The ultraviolet rays from the sun causes skin cancer and we are protected from the sun’s
ultraviolet rays by the ozone layer.

(vi) X-Rays:

1. X-Rays have the shorter wavelength then the ultraviolet rays. They can penetrate the soft
tissue like skin and muscles and are used to take X-Ray pictures of bones in medicine.

(vii) Gamma Rays:

1. The Gamma rays has the shorter wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum
2. Radioactive materials emits Gamma rays.

NATURE OF VISION
As already mentioned eye acquires > 80% information acquired by human. We look at the
structure and function of eye here. An Eye comprises of Iris, Focusing Lens and Retina. It
Resembles – a Camera in general structure and action.

Eye Camera
Iris Shutter
Lens Lens
Retina Film

41
Iris
A diaphragm that regulates amount of light by expanding contracting also know as
(Pupil), lens that focuses under the control of ciliary muscles forms image on to the
retina. The lens is crystalline in nature. Lastly there is a screen like structure called
retina that is holding a lot of - optic nerves – that communicate with the brain. The
central region has the greatest sensitivity and is called Fovea. Fovea is the most acute
spot of vision where fine details are formed. Rest of the retina is responsible for orientation. The
eye communicates through optic nerves located on the retina. They are a system of double nerves
called Rods and Cones. Rods are responsible for Dim light / Night vision and Cones are mainly
concentrated around or at Fovea and are responsible for form/color sensitivity.
As a result vision is of two types;
(i) Photopic and
(ii) (ii) Scotopic
Photopic vision involving cone cells and is used for discrimination of fine details for critical
observation. They are densely packed and transmits sharp images. The cone cells have low
sensitivity below 0.01 ft lamberts and cease to function < 0.001 ft lamberts. It must be mentioned
that by definition 211 lambert is candles / mπ and 211 ft lambert is candles / ftπ
Scotopic vision involving Rods takes over when brightness < 0.01 ft lambert. This vision has no
color discrimination ability. Most images have gray appearance and are viewed as silhouettes
lacking sharp details. Eyes have good ability to change from one to other. This shift in
Luminosity and ability of eye to adjust is known as Purkinjee effect. Upon increase of intensity
of illumination by a decrease in Pupil size producing clearer images with greater and fine details.
Pupil diameter varies in the range of 1.2 – 2 mm. Eyes are error free and accommodate very
well. So eye functions under varying illumination levels by a change in pupil size together with
change in Retinal Nerve System (i.e. cones/ rods) as shown in Table II.

Pupil Size or Opening Light Received

Large Dim Light
Small High Illumination

Eye is Unconscious to variations in natural light. Thus human eye is A chromatic with a dispersive
power little greater than water. Hence for near vision eyes easily focus for blue and tires to focus for
red. On the other hand for far vision eye easily focus for Red and strains to focus blue.
Table III shows the relationship of Eye opening to lens size, distance of object & color of focus.

42
Pupil Opening Lens Shape Object Focus
Large Flattest Distant Red
Small Convex Near Blue

43
Principles of illumination:

Illumination is defined as the intensity of light per unit area. The unit for measurement of
illumination is flux.
Laws of illumination:
Inverse Square Law
Intensity of Illumination produced by a point source varies inversely as square of the distance
from the source. It is given by the equation

E= I/d2

44
Lambert’s Cosine Law of Incidence
This tells us the variation of Illuminance on arbitrary surface inclined at an angle of α
E= I COS α
D2

Luminous Flux:

1. The amount of light given off by a particular source in all directions is called luminous
flux.

2. It is measured in lumens.

3. Lumens is used for comparing the brightness of a light source (i.e. 60W incandescent
bulb is about 850 lumens)

Luminous intensity:

1. The amount of light that travels in a certain directions from the source is called luminous
intensity.

2. It is measured in candelas

3. A candle emits about one candela in all directions (this candle would emit a total of 12.6
lumens)

Illuminance:

The amount of light falling on a surface is illuminance. It is measured in lux

(lux = lumens/m2)
1 foot candle = 10.8 lux

This is the measurement you’ll work with the most for optimizing visual comforts because
building regulations and standards use illuminance to specify the minimum light levels for
specific tasks and environments.

1. The illuminance value depends on the color and reflectance of the surfaces that surround
it.Luminance:

2. Luminance is the light reflected off from the surface. It is measured in candelas per
square meter (cd/m2)

3. The quality and intensity of the light depends on the material properties of the surfaces
(color, reflectance)

45
DESIGNING A VERY GOOD LIGHTING SCHEME
Quantity of illumination:

(i) Provide adequate illumination

(ii) Uniformity of illumination

Quality of illumination:

(iii)Color of light

(iv) Avoid glare and shadows

(i) Adequate illumination level:

1. As a designer your job is to make sure that the occupants of your building have the right
level of light for their activity and try to get as much as that light as possible from natural
day light.

2. Some areas can be too dim and some areas can be too bright and these levels depend on
the task.

3. For example the illumination or brightness required to make jewelry or assemble

electronic components is more than the illumination required for parking.

4. Illumination level required, as per ISI, in various parts of the building given below.

VISUAL TASK :

Visual task are the tasks that are carried out with the help of vision. It does denotes the Size and
shape and colour and nearness of the object to be worked. In the modern world the visual tasks
Performed are Broadly Categorized in to two types.
(i) Paper based Tasks
(ii) Computer Based Tasks
For Paper based tasks the worker , Normally tends to look downwards and the light from the
lamp fixed overhead may be an ideal one wheresas in the computer related tasks the worker
tends to look straight to see the monitor for which overhead lighting may not be Suitable.
FACTORS AFFECTING VISUAL TASKS
The ability to perform a visual tasks depends upon on how well eyes perceive the details of the
task. Factors determining the visibility of the task details include size and luminance and contrast
and Glare. These Factors are interrelated.
(A) Size
The visibility of the object depends upon the size of the object and its nearness to the
eye small objects need to be placed closer to the eyes then large objects Obviously
less light is required to work with large objects and vive versa.

46
 (B) LUMINANCE
A task to be performed well requires sufficient lighting lesslighting leads to dull
environment where as bright lighting leads to glare.
(C) CONTRAST
Luminace Variation or Contrast distinguishing a visual task from its surrounding for
example a good readability to perceive visual information needed for task
performance.
(D) GLARE
Bright light which interfers with visusal perception is called glare. A Bright are In the
fields of vision reduces the ability to perceive visual information needed for task
performance.
Luminous Flux
It is denoted by φ. It is the light energy radiated per second from a source in the form
luminous light waves It is measured in Lumen. Since it is a rate of flow of energy it is sort of

Power. Approximate relation between unit of luminous flux and the unit of Power is give by

1Lumen = 0.0016 Watt ( approx. )

Solid Angle

It is Denoted by ω. It is defined as an angle subtended at the center of the Sphere between

the lines joining the opposite edges of a segment of Sphere with the center.

ω=A
r2

LUMINOUS INTENSITY ( I )

This is defined as the flux of light in a certain direction the unit of luminous intensity is the
candela

Luminous defined as the Luminous intensity of any source is measured in Candela. It is Defined
as 1/ 60 th of the Luminous intensity per cm2 of a black body radiator at a temperature of 2045
K. A source of one candela emits one lumen per Steradian. Hence total flux emitted by it all
round is 4π * 1 = 4π Lumen.

Utilization factor

It is the ratio of the Lumens received by a Particular Surface to the Total Lumens Emitted by the
Light Sources.

η = Lumens Received by a Particular Surface

Lumens emitted by the light Source

47
Depreciation factor

The effectice Candle Power of all Lamps and other Luminous sources deteriorates over a Period
of time either due to blacketing or accumulation of dust on the surface or both. Similarly walls
and Ceiling having dirt do not reflect as much light as when they are Clean.

Illumination under actual Conditions

𝜌 =
Illumination when every thing is perfectly clean
MSCP ( Mean Spherical Candle Power )
The Candle power of Source is different in different directions. The average candle power of a
source is the average value of its candle power in all directions which is called a MSCP
MSCP = Total Flux in Lumens in all direction

4π
MHCP ( Mean HemiSpherical Candle Power )
If the average of the candle Power is taken over a Hemisphere instead of a Sphere like in MSCP
then it is called as mean hemispherical candle power which is abbreviated as MHSCP.

MSCP = Flux Emitted in a

Hemisphere

4π

Brightness
The quality of light or state of giving out or reflecting light
The quality of being intelligent and quick witted
The quality of being cheerful or lively
The quality in slund of being Clear , Vibrant and typically high Pitched.

48
 Building Services II

Important University Question

Unit 2: Fundamentals of Lighting

2 Marks:

1. How light is Conducted ? ( May / June 2014)

Cornea Pupil lens posterior compartment retina
Lens retina Pupil Posterior compartment Cornea
2. What is Utilization factor ? ( May / June 2014)
It is the ratio of the Lumens received by a Particular Surface to the Total Lumens
Emitted by the Light Sources.
η = Lumens Received by a Particular Surface
Lumens emitted by the light Source
3. Differentiate between MSCP and MHCP ( Apr / May 2015)

MSCP MHCP
( Mean Spherical Candle Power ) ( Mean HemiSpherical Candle
Power )

The Candle power of Source is different in
different directions. The average candle power
of a source is the average value of its candle
power in all directions which is called as
MSCP
MSCP = Total Flux in Lumens in all
direction
4π
If the average of the candle Power is
taken over a Hemisphere instead of a
Sphere like in MSCP then it is called
as mean hemispherical candle power
which is abbreviated as MHSCP
MSCP = Flux Emitted in a
Hemisphere
4π

4. What is Glare? ( Apr / May 2015)

Bright Light which interfers with visual perception is called Glare. A bright area in the of
vision reduces the ability to perceive visual information needed for task performance.
Glare is a serious undesirable Phenomenon in the working Environment. When Suitable
Precautions are not taken against glare then it may lead to Physical illness such as Eye strain
Etc.
5. Define : Depreciation factor ( Apr / May 2015)
The effectice Candle Power of all Lamps and other Luminous sources deteriorates over a
Period of time either due to blacketing or accumulation of dust on the surface or both.
Similarly walls and Ceiling having dirt do not reflect as much light as when they are Clean.
\

𝜌 = Illumination under actual Conditions

Illumination when every thing is perfectly clean

49
 6. Write the effects of Electro magnetic radiation? ( Apr / May 2015)
While the most acute exposure to harmful levels of electromagnetic radiation area
immediately realized as burns the health effects dueto chronic or occupationa exposure may
not manifest effects for months or years.
7. Define : Flux ( May / June 2011 )
The flux is define as the total number of Lines of force passing through the unit area of a
surface held Perpendicularly.
8. Define : Luminous Flux
It is denoted by φ. It is the light energy radiated per second from a source in the form
luminous light waves It is measured in Lumen. Since it is a rate of flow of energy it
is sort of Power. Approximate relation between unit of luminous flux and the unit of
Power is give by
1Lumen = 0.0016 Watt ( approx. )
9. Define : Solid Angle
It is Denoted by ω. It is defined as an angle subtended at the center of the Sphere
between the lines joining the opposite edges of a segment of Sphere with the center.
ω=A
r2
10. Define : Candela
Luminous defined as the Luminous intensity of any source is measured in Candela. It is
Defined as 1/ 60 th of the Luminous intensity per cm2 of a black body radiator at a
temperature of 2045 K. A source of one candela emits one lumen per Steradian. Hence total
flux emitted by it all round is 4π * 1 = 4π Lumen.

16 Marks

1. Briefly explain on the principles of Light and Nature of vision( May / June 2014)
2. Write about the following ( May / June 2014 )
i. Utilization factor
ii. Depreciation Factor
iii. Principles of illumination
3. explain the principles of light with sketches. ( May / June 2014
4. Explain the Principles of Illumination
5. Principles of Illumination and Discuss the Factors affecting the Visual Tasks. ( Apr / May
2015)
6. Explain the Visual Task? How to Improve the utilaization factors using Principles of
Illumination( Apr / May 2015)
7. What are the Basice Priniciples of Light Design? Explain ( Apr / May 2015)

50
 UNIT 3: ILLUMINATION AND LIGHTING

Electric light Sources:

According to the principle of operation the lamp can be classified as follows

1. Incandescent lamps

2. Gaseous discharge lamps

TYPES OF LAMPS:

INCANDESCENT LAMPS:
1. When an electric current is passed through a thin metallic wire, heat is produced and the
temperature of the wire increases.

2. As the temperature of wire increases it radiates heat as well as light energy.

3. The higher the temperature of the wire higher is the amount of light energy radiated.
Construction:

1. incandescent lamp consists of an outer glass bulb.

2. Inside the glass bulb a thin wire known as filament is present. Inside the bulb inert gas is
present.

51
 3. The materials used for manufacture of filament must posses the properties of high
melting point, high resistivity, and low temperature coefficient.
Advantages:

1. No effect on surrounding air temperature.

2. Available in various shapes and different watts.

3. High color Rendering Index (100)

4. Immediate off and on

Disadvantages:
Low efficiency

HALOGEN LAMP:

1. A halogen lamp also uses a tungsten filament but it is encased inside a quartz envelope.

2. The gas inside the quartz envelop is also different. It consists of a gas from halogen
group.

1. These gases combine with the tungsten vapour

2. When the supply is given the temperature increases and the halogen gas will combine
with tungsten atoms when they evaporate and redeposit them on the filament.

52
3. Since the filament is very close to the quartz envelope it is extremely hot compared to
normal light bulb.

FLUORESCENT LAMP:

1. Fluorescent lamp is one of the gas discharge lamp

2. When electricity flows into the electrodes, electrons are emitted.

3. These electrons collide with the atoms of the mercury present inside the tube.

4. This collision gives the mercury atoms some energy so their electrons jumps to higher
energy levels.

5. But this makes the mercury atoms unstable so the electrons quickly return to their ground
states.

6. When the electrons return they give off photons of invisible ultraviolet light.

7. The thin glass of fluorescent light are covered with white colored chemicals called
phosphor

8. When the ultraviolet rays strikes atoms of the phosphor it excites the electrons of
phosphor.

9. This makes the phosphor atoms unstable so they give off their energy as photon which is
known a light and it is visible to the human eye.

Use of Ballast:

In fluorescent lighting system, the ballast regulates the current to the lamps and provides
sufficient voltage to start the lamps.
53
 If there is no ballast the lamp uncontrollably increase its current drawn, so in order to
limit the current during starting to a safe value ballast is used.

Starter:

1. For ionization of gas in the tubes it requires high voltage near to 1100 or 1200r across its
terminals.

2. The starter helps the ballast to generate this much of voltage for a short time.

COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMP (CFL):

1. The working of compact fluorescent lamp is same as that of fluorescent tube.

2. The supply is given to the input terminals.

3. Small electronic circuit containing a transformer that boosts the voltage of incoming
electricity.

54
 1. The circuit is connected to a couple of electrical contacts called electrodes.

2. When electricity flows through the electrodes electrons are emitted.

3. The electrons collide with the atoms of the mercury. This makes the mercury atoms gain
some energy so their electrons jump to higher levels. But this means that mercury atom is
unstable, so the electrons quickly return to their original state. When they return they give
off photons of invisible ultraviolet light.

4. The thin glass tube of CFL are covered with white colored chemicals called phosphor

5. When the ultraviolet light strikes the atom of phosphor its electrons gain some energy and
moves to higher levels. This makes the phosphor atom unstable. So when the electrons of
phosphor return to their original state they give off photons.

6. These photons are the light which is visible to the human eye.

SODIUM VAPOUR LAMP:

The sodium vapour lamp is of two types:

a. Low pressure sodium vapour lamp

b. High pressure sodium vapour lamp

55
Low pressure sodium vapour lamp

1. The low pressure sodium vapour lamp have a borosilicate glass gas discharge tube (Arc
tube) containing solid sodium, a small amount of mixture of neon and argon gas to start
the gas discharge.

2. The discharge tube may be linear or U-shaped

3. When the lamp is turned on, it emits a dim red/pink light to warm the sodium metal.

4. Within a few minutes it turns into the common bright yellow as the sodium metal
vapourizes.

High pressure sodium vapour lamp:

1. High pressure sodium lamps are smaller and contain additional elements such as
mercury.

2. Initially when the lamp is turned on it produces a dark pink glow, after sometime it
produces bluish white light.

3. They are used in street lighting and used as flood light.

56
MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP:

The mercury vapour lamp consists of a discharge tube (Arc tube) with a tungsten electrode present at
either end.

1. The discharge tube is made up of quartz and inside the discharge tube a few milligrams of
mercury and argon gas is present to carry the discharge while the lamp warms up.

2. A starting electrode is placed next to one of the main electrode to start the initial
discharge.

3. When the lamp is given supply the full voltage is applied across the discharge tube.

4. Since the distance between the main electrodes is large it is not high enough to cause
ionization of the gas filling.

5. At the same time the same voltage is applied across a starting electrode. Since the
distance between the stating electrode and main electrode is less the discharge begins.

6. Once the discharge begins after sometime the discharge happens between the main
electrodes and the mercury is fully vaporized.

7. The lamp emits invisible ultraviolet radiations which is invisible to human eyes

8. This ultraviolet radiation is converted to visible light by means of a chemical coating

called phosphor.

57
 9. Outside the Arc tube or discharge tube argon gas is present to prevent oxidation.

METAL HALIDE LAMP:

The metal halide lamp has the same construction as that of mercury vapour lamp.

1. The color and efficiency of the lamp depends on various factors such as the type
of gases (Xenon, Argon, Neon, etc.) and metals (Mercury, Sodium, etc.)

2. To improve the color of the lamp other metal salts can also be used inside the
tube.
Construction of metal halide lamp:

1. The metal halide lamp consists of a small arc tube made up of quartz

2. Inside the arc tube mercury metal halide and neon gas is present.

3. The discharge tube is enclosed inside a larger bulb made from glass that helps to keep
more heat inside the bulb and used to block ultraviolet radiation inside the lamp
4. When the discharge begins the lamp is very dim when the lamp heats up, the mercury
slowly starts to vaporize making the lamp glow brighter.

5. When enough heat is generated inside the arc tube various halide salts starts to vaporize
too producing a different color from white to green and yellow.

6. If the combination with the blue color of mercury and various color of halide salts, the
lamp color can be made white.
7. The time taken for mercury and halide salts to fully vaporize and the lamp to produce full
brightness is called warm-up period.

LED (Light Emitting Diode):

1. LED is basically a small light producing device that comes under active semiconductor
electronic components.

2. The two terminals (Anode and Cathode) of a LED when connected to a voltage source in
correct polarity may produce lights of different colours as per the semiconductor material
used inside it.

3. The material used in LED is basically Aluminium- Gallium Arsenide (AlGaAs)

4. In its original state the atoms of this material is strongly bonded without free electrons
conduction of electricity is impossible.

5. By adding impurity which is known as doping extra atoms are introduced effectively
disturbing the balance of the material.

58
6. These impurities in the form of additional atoms are able to provide free electrons (N-type)

7. In response to the P-type doping electrons in LED move by falling from higher orbitals to
the lower ones releasing energy in the form of photons i.e. light.

8. The farther these orbitals the intensity of light emitted will be higher.

9. If the distance between the orbits the electrons travel is less, then the intensity of light is
also low.

59
 10. The electrons from the conduction band move to the valence band and recombine with
the holes, releasing energy in the form of photons.

METHODS OF MOUNTING AND LIGHTING CONTROL LUMINARIES:

METHODS OF MOUNTING LIGHT
Architectural light:

1. Cove lighting:

 Cove lighting is mounted in a ledge, shelf or recess high upon a wall and the light is
reflected towards the ceiling.

 In bed room the cove lighting illuminates the ceiling above the bed.

2. Soffit lighting:

 Soffit lighting radiates downwards washing the wall with light.

 In bedroom soffit lighting adds interesting dimension behind the bed.

3. Valance lighting:

 Valance lighting is located in a wood, metal or glass valance which is mounted above a
window or high on the wall and the light bounces both upward and downwards.

Recessed lighting:

 This light is mounted above the ceiling and has an opening that is flush with the ceiling.
 Recessed lighting sends a relatively narrow band of light in one direction. So it can
provide ambient and task lighting.

Under cabinet lighting:

 Mounted under kitchen cabinets. This type of lighting is extremely popular as task
lighting in a kitchen.

 The under cabinet lighting in kitchen brightens up the room and enhances the clean feel
of the space.

Floor lamp, desk and table lamps:

 Floor lamps are portable and come in various size and shapes.

 Table lamps are used as task lighting for reading.

60
Pendants:

 Pendants are suspended from the ceiling. A pendant light directs its light downward
typically over a table or kitchen.
 Pendant can enhance the decorative style of the room.

 Pendants can provide ambient and task lighting.

Track lighting:

 Tract lighting is mounted or suspended from the ceiling on a linear unit that contains
several light heads, which can be positioned anywhere along the track.
 The direction of heads of the light source can be adjusted.

 The track lighting can be used to highlight the artwork.

Wall sconces:

 Wall sconces are mounted on the surface of the wall. They can direct light upward or
downward.

 Wall sconces can add stylish look to a room and can provide ambient and task lighting.
Chandeliers:

 Suspended from ceiling, chandeliers direct their light upward typically over a table.

 They can enhance the decorative style of the room.

 Chandeliers provide ambient lighting.

Ceiling lights:

 This type of fixture is mounted directly to the ceiling and has a glass or plastic shade
concealing the light bulb

 Ceiling fixtures have been common in homes for nearly a hundred years.

LIGHTING CONTROLS:

 Lighting controls are devices for turning on and off or dimming them.

 Photocells turns light on and off in response to neutral daylight levels.

 Photocell switches the light on when dark and switches the light off under bright
condition.

61
  Dimmers reduce the wattage and output of incandescent and fluorescent lamp.

 Dimmers also increase the service life of the lamps.

 Control is also done in order to conserve the energy.

TYPES OF LIGHTING CONTROLS:

Toggle dimmers:

 Toggle dimmers vary the intensity of the lighting with a small slider positioned next to
the toggle switch.

 Toggle allows you to turn on and off whole the slider allows you to change the intensity
of light.

 The light intensity value can be preset and the setting will deliver the preset intensity
each time you switch on the light.

Touch dimmer:

 Touch dimmer allows you to vary the intensity of lighting while pressing a button.

 These system permits one touch recall of the previous lighting level.

 Some are equipped with indicator lights that provide the readings of the light intensity
and delay features that allow the operator to exit the room before the light turns off.

Integrated dimming systems:

 Using integrated dimming systems multiple preset light scenes within a room can be
created.

 The light can also be controlled by using remote controls.

Lumen Method Calculations

The lumen method is based on fundamental lighting calculations. The lumen method formula is
easiest to appreciate in the following form.

(1)

where E = average illuminance over the horizontal working plane

62
 n = number of lamps in each luminaire

N = number of luminaire

F = lighting design lumens per lamp, i.e. initial bare lamp luminous

flux

UF = utilisation factor for the horizontal working plane

LLF = light loss factor

A = area of the horizontal working plane

Light Loss Factor

Light loss factor (LLF) is the ratio of the illuminance produced by the lighting installation at the
some specified time to the illuminance produced by the same installation when new. It allows
for effects such as decrease in light output caused by

(a) the fall in lamp luminous flux with hours of use,

(b) the deposition of dirt on luminaire, and

(c) reflectances of room surfaces over time.

In fact, light loss factor is the product of three other factors:

(2)

where LLMF = lamp lumen maintenance factor

LMF = luminaire maintenance factor

RSMF = room surface maintenance factor

Lamp Lumen Maintenance Factor

Lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF) is the proportion of the initial light output of a lamp
produced after a set time to those produced when new. It allows for the decline in lumen output
from a lamp with age. Its value can be determined in two ways:

(a) by consulting a lamp manufacturer's catalog for a lumen depreciation chart, and

(b) by dividing the maintained lumens by the initial lamps.

63
Luminaire Maintenance Factor

Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) is the proportion of the initial light output from a
luminaire after a set time to the initial light output from a lamp after a set time. It constitutes the
greatest loss in light output and is mainly due to the accumulation of atmospheric dirt on
luminaire. Three factors must be considered in its determination:

(a) the type of luminaire,

(b) atmospheric conditions, and

(c) maintenance interval.

Room Surface Maintenance Factor

Room surface maintenance factor (RSMF) is the proportion of the illuminance provided by a
lighting installation in a room after a set time compared with that occurred when the room was
clean. It takes into account that dirt accumulates on room surfaces and reduces surface
reflectance. Figure 4 shows the typical changes in the illuminance from an installation that occur
with time due to dirt deposition on the room surfaces.

Utilisation Factor

Utilisation factor (UF) is the proportion of the luminous flux emitted by the lamps which
reaches the working plane. It is a measure of the effectiveness of the lighting scheme. Factors
that affect the value of UF are as follows:

(a) light output ratio of luminaire

(b) flux distribution of luminaire

(c) room proportions

(d) room reflectances

(e) spacing/mounting height ratio

64
Light Output Ratio of Luminaire

Light output ratio of luminaire (LOR) takes into account for the loss of light energy both inside
and by transmission through light fittings. It is given by the following expression.

(3)

Example 1

The total, upward and downward lamp output from a lamp are 1000 lm, 300 lm and 500 lm
respectively. Calculate upward light output ratio (ULOR), downward light output ratio (DLOR),
light output ratio (LOR) of luminaire and percentage of light energy absorbed in luminaire.

65
Amount of light energy absorbed in luminaire = 100 - 80 = 20 %

A greater DLOR usually means a higher UF.

A simple classification of luminaires according to their distribution is based on flux fractions, as

shown in Figure 5. Upward flux fraction (UFF) and downward flux fraction (DFF) are used as a
basis of comparison.

Example 2

For data given in Example 1 determine upward flux fraction (UFF), downward flux fraction
(DFF) and flux fraction ratio (FRR).

66
 Figure 5 Flux Fraction of Various Luminaires

Flux Distribution of Luminaire

Direct ratio is the proportion of the total downward luminous flux from a conventional
installation of luminaires which his directly incident on the working plane. It is used to assess
the flux distribution of luminaire. Since the intensity distribution pattern of the light radiated
from a luminaire in the lower hemisphere will affect:

(a) the quantity of the downward flux falls directly on the working plane and

(b) the quantity of flux available for reflection from the walls in a given room,

Direct ratio depends on both the room proportions and the luminaires. Direct ratio has a low
value with a narrow room (small room index) and a luminaire which emits most of its light
sideways (BZ 10), and on the contrary, a high value with a wide room (large room index) and a
luminaire which emits most of its light downwards (BZ 1).

Room Proportion

Room index (RI) is the ratio of room plan area to half the wall area between the working and
luminaire planes.

(4)

where L = length of room

W = width of room

Hm = mounting height, i.e. the vertical distance between the working plane and the luminaire.

Room Reflectances

The room is considered to consist of three main surfaces:

(a) the ceiling cavity,

(b) the walls, and

(c) the floor cavity (or the horizontal working plane).

The effective reflectances of the above three surfaces affect the quantity of reflected light
received by the working plane.
67
Spacing to Height Ratio

Spacing to Height ratio (SHR or S/Hm) is defined as the ratio of the distance between adjacent
luminaires (centre to centre), to their height above the working plane. For a rectangular
arrangement of luminaires and by approximation,

(5)

where A = total floor area

N = number of luminaires

Hm = mounting height

Under a regular array of luminaires the illuminance on the working plane is not uniform. The
closer spaced the luminaires for a given mounting height, the higher the uniformity; or the
greater the mounting height for a given spacing, the greater the uniformity. If uniformity of
illuminance is to be acceptable for general lighting,

(a) SHR should not exceed maximum spacing to height ratio (SHR MAX) of the given
luminaire as quoted by the manufacturer, and

(b) geometric mean spacing to height ratio of the luminaire layout should be within the range
of nominal spacing to height ratio (SHR NOM) of the given luminaire as quoted by the
manufacturer, i.e.

(6)

Methods to control glare:

 Rather than having one very bright luminaire, use number of dimmer luminaire.

 Do not use height reflectance value paints on walls and do not use glossy surfaces.

 Use high ceilings.

 Avoid luminance that emits light to sides.

 If the lighting is directed upwards towards the ceiling, glare can be eliminated.

68
Manufacturer’s data contains the maximum ratio between the spacing (centre to centre) of the
light fitting and their height above the working plane.
Consider for example, spacing to mounting height ratio is 3:2

Mounting height (Hm) = 4m

Spacing / Hm = 3/2

Spacing = 1.5

Hm = 1.5 x 4 = 6m

Now the no. of lamps is calculated by dividing the width of the building (from the problem
width of building = 24m)

24 / 6 = 4 r
Building Services II

69
 Important University Question

Unit 3: Illumination and Lighting

2Marks

1. Write about Short note on Spot Lighting ? ( May / June 2014 )

Spot lighting or Lamping Is a method of hunting nocturnal animals using off –
road Vechicles and high powered lights , that makes a Special use of the eyeshine
revealed by many animal Species.
2. Write about Room Reflectance? ( May / June 2014 )
Room Reflectance of the interior surfaces of the room has a big effecton the
average daylightfactor. Especially the rear area of the roomwhich is furthest away
from thewindow benefits enoromously from bright surfaces because most of the light
will be reflected off the floor, walls, and Ceilling before it reaches deep into the
room.
3. Mention the Methods of Mounting Lamps? ( Apr / May 2015)
1. Weather Proof and under water Light mounting
2. Bayonet cap Light mounts
3. Bi pin Light mounts
4. Cable and rail light mounts
5. Edison Screw Mounts
6. Fluorescent tube light mount
4. What is Meant by lighting Control? ( Apr / May 2015)
A Lighting Control System is an intelligent Network based lighting Control
Solution that incorporates communication between various system inputs and
outputs related to lighting control with the use of one or more central computing
devices. Lighting control system are often referred to under the terms smart Lighting.

16 Marks

1. Describe the various types of Lamp mounting Systems and Lighting Controls and
their application
2. What are the Positive and Negative aspects of reflection? /what are the different
menas by which one could achive the desired amount of room reflectance?
3. Discuss in detail about the classification Luminaries and the method of mounting
them.
4. Explain the Lumen method for design of lighting in interiors.
5. Explain the characteristics and application of various types of lamps.
6. Explain the use of Manufactures Data on Luminaries.
7. Write a note on the different types of lamps and methods of mounting with sketches.
8. Write note on a) Luminaries Cost B) manufactures Data on Luminaries.

70
 UNIT : 4 LIGHTING DESIGN : INSTALLATION AND APPLICATION IN

BUILDING

According to the principle of operation the lamp can be classified as follows

1. Incandescent lamps

2. Gaseous discharge lamps

TYPES OF LAMPS:

INCANDESCENT LAMPS:
1. When an electric current is passed through a thin metallic wire, heat is produced and
the temperature of the wire increases.

2. As the temperature of wire increases it radiates heat as well as light energy.

3. The higher the temperature of the wire higher is the amount of light energy radiated.
Construction:

4. incandescent lamp consists of an outer glass bulb.

5. Inside the glass bulb a thin wire known as filament is present. Inside the bulb inert gas is
present.

6. The materials used for manufacture of filament must posses the properties of high
melting point, high resistivity, and low temperature coefficient.

71
Advantages:

1. No effect on surrounding air temperature.

2. Available in various shapes and different watts.

3. High color Rendering Index (100)

4. Immediate off and on

Disadvantages:

Low efficiency
HALOGEN LAMP:

o A halogen lamp also uses a tungsten filament but it is encased inside a quartz
envelope.

o The gas inside the quartz envelop is also different. It consists of a gas from
halogen group.

o These gases combine with the tungsten vapour

o When the supply is given the temperature increases and the halogen gas will
combine with tungsten atoms when they evaporate and redeposit them on the
filament.

72
 o Since the filament is very close to the quartz envelope it is extremely hot
compared to normal light bulb.

FLUORESCENT LAMP:

o Fluorescent lamp is one of the gas discharge lamp

o When electricity flows into the electrodes, electrons are emitted.

o These electrons collide with the atoms of the mercury present inside the tube.

o This collision gives the mercury atoms some energy so their electrons jumps to
higher energy levels.

o But this makes the mercury atoms unstable so the electrons quickly return to their
ground states.

o When the electrons return they give off photons of invisible ultraviolet light.

o The thin glass of fluorescent light are covered with white colored chemicals
called phosphor

o When the ultraviolet rays strikes atoms of the phosphor it excites the electrons of
phosphor.

o This makes the phosphor atoms unstable so they give off their energy as photon
which is known a light and it is visible to the human eye.

Use of Ballast:

73
  In fluorescent lighting system, the ballast regulates the current to the lamps and
provides sufficient voltage to start the lamps.

 If there is no ballast the lamp uncontrollably increase its current drawn, so in

order to limit the current during starting to a safe value ballast is used.

Starter:

o For ionization of gas in the tubes it requires high voltage near to 1100 or 1200r
across its terminals.

o The starter helps the ballast to generate this much of voltage for a short time.

COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMP (CFL):

o The working of compact fluorescent lamp is same as that of fluorescent tube.

o The supply is given to the input terminals.

o Small electronic circuit containing a transformer that boosts the voltage of

incoming electricity.

74
 o The circuit is connected to a couple of electrical contacts called electrodes.

o When electricity flows through the electrodes electrons are emitted.

o The electrons collide with the atoms of the mercury. This makes the mercury
atoms gain some energy so their electrons jump to higher levels. But this means
that mercury atom is unstable, so the electrons quickly return to their original
state. When they return they give off photons of invisible ultraviolet light.

o The thin glass tube of CFL are covered with white colored chemicals called
phosphor

o When the ultraviolet light strikes the atom of phosphor its electrons gain some
energy and moves to higher levels. This makes the phosphor atom unstable. So
when the electrons of phosphor return to their original state they give off
photons.

o These photons are the light which is visible to the human eye.

SODIUM VAPOUR LAMP:

The sodium vapour lamp is of two types:

a. Low pressure sodium vapour lamp

b. High pressure sodium vapour lamp

75
Low pressure sodium vapour lamp

o The low pressure sodium vapour lamp have a borosilicate glass gas discharge
tube (Arc tube) containing solid sodium, a small amount of mixture of neon and
argon gas to start the gas discharge.

o The discharge tube may be linear or U-shaped

o When the lamp is turned on, it emits a dim red/pink light to warm the sodium
metal.

o Within a few minutes it turns into the common bright yellow as the sodium metal
vapourizes.

High pressure sodium vapour lamp:

o High pressure sodium lamps are smaller and contain additional elements such as
mercury.

o Initially when the lamp is turned on it produces a dark pink glow, after sometime
itproduces bluish white light.

o They are used in street lighting and used as flood light.

76
MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP:

 The mercury vapour lamp consists of a discharge tube (Arc tube) with a tungsten
electrode present at either end.

o The discharge tube is made up of quartz and inside the discharge tube a few
milligrams of mercury and argon gas is present to carry the discharge while the
lamp warms up.

o A starting electrode is placed next to one of the main electrode to start the initial
discharge.

o When the lamp is given supply the full voltage is applied across the discharge
tube.

o Since the distance between the main electrodes is large it is not high enough to
cause ionization of the gas filling.

o At the same time the same voltage is applied across a starting electrode. Since the
distance between the stating electrode and main electrode is less the discharge
begins.

 Once the discharge begins after sometime the discharge happens between the main

77
 electrodes and the mercury is fully vaporized.

 The lamp emits invisible ultraviolet radiations which is invisible to human eyes

 This ultraviolet radiation is converted to visible light by means of a chemical coating

called phosphor.

 Outside the Arc tube or discharge tube argon gas is present to prevent oxidation.

METAL HALIDE LAMP:

 The metal halide lamp has the same construction as that of mercury vapour lamp.

 The color and efficiency of the lamp depends on various factors such as
the type of gases (Xenon, Argon, Neon, etc.) and metals (Mercury,
Sodium, etc.)

 To improve the color of the lamp other metal salts can also be used inside
the tube.
Construction of metal halide lamp:

o The metal halide lamp consists of a small arc tube made up of quartz

o Inside the arc tube mercury metal halide and neon gas is present.

o The discharge tube is enclosed inside a larger bulb made from glass that helps to
keep more heat inside the bulb and used to block ultraviolet radiation inside the
lamp
o When the discharge begins the lamp is very dim when the lamp heats up, the
mercury slowly starts to vaporize making the lamp glow brighter.

o When enough heat is generated inside the arc tube various halide salts starts to
vaporize too producing a different color from white to green and yellow.

o If the combination with the blue color of mercury and various color of halide
salts, the lamp color can be made white.
o The time taken for mercury and halide salts to fully vaporize and the lamp to
produce full brightness is called warm-up period.

LED (Light Emitting Diode):

 LED is basically a small light producing device that comes under active semiconductor
electronic components.

 The two terminals (Anode and Cathode) of a LED when connected to a voltage source in
correct polarity may produce lights of different colours as per the semiconductor material

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 used inside it.

 The material used in LED is basically Aluminium- Gallium Arsenide (AlGaAs)

 In its original state the atoms of this material is strongly bonded without free electrons
conduction of electricity is impossible.

 By adding impurity which is known as doping extra atoms are introduced effectively
disturbing the balance of the material.

 These impurities in the form of additional atoms are able to provide free electrons (N-
type)

o In response to the P-type doping electrons in LED move by falling from higher
orbitals to the lower ones releasing energy in the form of photons i.e. light.

o The farther these orbitals the intensity of light emitted will be higher.

o If the distance between the orbits the electrons travel is less, then the intensity of
light is also low.

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 The electrons from the conduction band move to the valence band and recombine with
the holes, releasing energy in the form of photons.

SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION:

SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION:

1. Spectral energy distribution is the visual representation of the light spectrum produced
by a lamp.

2. It is the graph showing the relative intensities of light source at each wavelength

3. These graphs are used to compare the energy levels of various light sources.

4. This is the most practical way to compare the quality of light produced by various light
sources.

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  The light sources with cooler color temperature emit the colors blue to violet more than
the colors red and yellow.

 The light colors with warmer color temperature emit colors red to yellow in large
amount.

 In the above figure, the high pressure sodium vapour lamp has the main part of energy
radiated in red-yellow color while the spectral energy for metal halide lamp is radiated in
all parts of the spectrum resulting in white light.

LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY:
Luminous efficiency is the capacity of the lamp to convert electrical energy to light energy
Luminous efficiency = luminous flux output

Electrical power input

Its unit is lumen / watt

The electrical running cost can be calculated by using its luminous efficiency
The efficiency of the lamp varies with its type and wattage.

COLOR TEMPERATURE:

The color temperature is the method of describing the color characteristics of light usually either
warm (yellowish) or cool (bluish) and measuring it in degrees of Kelvin (K)

A numerical value will be assigned to the color emitted by a light source measured in degrees of
Kelvin.

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the figure below shows the color temperatures of various light sources.

In the figure, the tungsten lamp has a color temperature around 3200oK

Household cool white fluorescent lamps have color temperature around 4000 o K depending on
the lamp.

Sunlight has the color temperature of 5200 o K

 The reddish light which has the lowest color temperature is described as warm.

 The bluish light which has the higher color temperature is described as cool.

 The warmer and cooler characteristics describe only the color and not the temperature.
COLOR RENDERING:

 Although the light sources have the same color appearance this doesn’t necessarily mean
that the colored surfaces will look the same under them.

 Two lights that appear the same white may be the result of different wavelengths.

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  Color rendering is how natural an object appears under a given light source.

EXAMPLE:

 A red apple will look true red if there is red wavelength to reflect into eyes. If there is
absence of red wavelength the apple does not look true red.

 Color rendering is an important aspect in artificial lighting.

 In some applications the colors should be represented as naturally as possible as under

daylight conditions.

 However in some lighting situations the color rendering does not matter the most.

 So when selecting a light sources for different applications the color rendering is an
important criteria.

 The light source can be classified according to the color rendering properties.

 A numerical value will be assigned from (0-100) depending on the color rendering
property of the lamp.

 It is represented by Color Rendering Index (CRI)

If the CRI value is 100 the objects will appear more natural under given light source.

If the CRI value is less than 60 the objects will appear unnatural.
CRI = 90-100 Excellent color rendering properties
CRI = 80-90 Good color rendering properties

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CRI = 60-80 Moderate color rendering properties
CRI < 60 Poor color rendering properties

ADDITIVE & SUBTRACTIVE COLORS:

 Color is the way we distinguish different wavelength of the light.

 Color of the light depends on the spectral composition of the light emitted by the source

 The apparent color of the light is determined by two characteristics.

Spectral composition of light

Spectral reflectance characteristics of the surface
EXAMPLE:

 The spectral reflectance of red paint shows that it reflects a high percentage of red
wavelength and no blue wavelength.

 But an object painted red can appear red only if the light falling on it contains sufficient
red radiation.

 It will appear dark when illuminated with a light source having no red radiation.

ADDITIVE COLORS:
 when colored beam are mixed, the result will be brighter than the individual colors

 If right colors are mixed in right intensities white light is produced.

 This is known as additive color mixing.

 The three basic colors are red, green and blue.

 These are called primary colors and additive mixing of these colors produce all other
light colors including white.

So,
Red + Green = Yellow
Red + Blue = Magenta
Green + Blue = Cyan
Red + Green + Blue = White
The colors yellow, magenta and cyan are called secondary color as they are made up of
combination of primary colors.

EXAMPLE:
A color television is an example for additive mixing in which the light emitted from red, green
and blue phosphors on the screen combines to produce all other visible colors and white.

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SUBTRACTIVE COLORS:

 In subtractive color mixing darker colors are produced than the original colors.

 Photographs, magazines create color by subtracting or absorbing certain wavelength of

color while reflecting other wavelength back to the viewer.

 A printing presses use color inks that act as fillers and subtract portions of the white light
striking the image on paper to produce other colors.

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  The offset printing press uses cyan, magenta and yellow color inks.

 In order to produce the color red, the secondary colors yellow and magenta are mixed.

 To produce green, the secondary colors yellow and cyan are mixed.

 To produce blue, the secondary colors magenta and cyan are mixed.

 In order to produce the color cyan, the red light will be absorbed, green and blue will be
reflected.

 To produce the color magenta green light will be absorbed, blue and red will be
reflected.

 To produce the color yellow, the blue light will be absorbed, red and green will be
reflected.
LIGHTING FOR SCHOOLS:

 The lighting objective for a classroom is to create the right environment for learning.

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  Tasks are generally carried out on desks, tables, computers, blackboards / white boards.

 Lighting in a classroom should be flexible and controllable.

 The ambient, task and accent lighting should be considered.

 It is common for a classroom to have significant amount of daylight.

 Lighting controls with daylight sensing should be used to reduce power demand and
conserve energy.

 Indirect lighting provides superior quality of light by illuminating the ceiling which
reflects the light downwards uniformly without glare.

 Illumination required for classroom is 300 – 500 lux

 The Color Rendering Index should be 80

Illumination required CRI

Staircases 100 lux 80
Assembly Halls 300-500 lux 80
Laboratory 500 lux 80

Direct indirect luminaries are more efficient than suspended indirect luminaries for class rooms.
Fluorescent tube and CFL light can be installed in classrooms.
LIGHTING FOR OFFICES:

 Installing the right light in offices is important in order to create a pleasant working
environment.

 Modern lighting systems satisfy these demanding requirements by creating the perfect
conditions for the relevant visual task.

 Natural lighting is often unreliable and it varies with weather conditions, seasons and
window spacing.

 So natural lighting can be combined with artificial lighting to improve the workspace
lighting.

 The lighting installations should provide uniform illumination over the whole
workspace. Both quality and quantity of light is important.

 If lights are too bright, glare will result and affect visibility.

 Disability glare usually happens when broad band light illuminates your work area such
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 as light from a window. So in order to prevent this glare the work area can be
repositioned.

 The minimum level of illumination recommended for work in general office is 200 lux

 Local lighting can improve the illumination of the working area.

 If you are working with colors like paint the type of lamp you use will be important.

 So fluorescent lamp which has good color rendering property can be used.

 Lighting controls must be installed in order to conserve the energy.

 Intelligent light controls with a zonal function helps to control the light efficiently.

LIGHTING FOR LIBRARIES:

Since reading is the most important visual task carried out in libraries. So lighting is a major
consideration during the design process.
Parallel scheme:

 The parallel scheme uses a single row of one lamp linear fluorescent fixtures centered
above the book stacks.

 The fixtures can be recessed in the ceiling or suspended from the ceiling.

 The fixtures must distribute the light uniformly across the book stacks.

 Attaching light to the stacks may be the only solution in high ceiling rooms.

Perpendicular scheme:

 The perpendicular scheme uses rows of two lamp linear fluorescent fixtures running at
the right angles to the book stacks.

 The perpendicular scheme uses few fixtures than the parallel scheme so it may be the
low cost solution, but each fixture has two lamps.

Indirect scheme:

 The indirect scheme uses up lights on top of the stacks or suspended from ceiling.

 All of the light is reflected off the ceiling so the illumination on the stack appears to have
a pleasant glow.

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LED Lighting:

 The LED lighting can be fixed on the library shelves so that the light can fall on the
entire shelf.

 LED lighting is most efficient and it has a long life.

Hybrid Scheme:

 The perpendicular and indirect schemes are sometimes combined with rows of direct –
indirect fixtures suspended perpendicular to the stacks.

 Hybrid scheme can be a very successful solution that provides good solution with less
cost and low energy consumption.

LIGHTING FOR HOSPITALS:

 Lighting in hospitals must be suitable for medical staff to do their work and meet the
needs of patients.

 Good lighting can provide a considered recovery environment.

 The main things to be considered for energy efficient and effective lighting in hospitals
are:

 Color rendering and color appearance

 Light distribution

 Lamp efficiency

 Controls

 Use of daylight

Color rendering and color appearance:

(i) Color appearance:

 A color temperature of less than 3500K is warm and color temperature of 4000K and
above is cooler.

 The color of white which is commonly used in general areas is 4000K

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(ii) Color rendering:

 It is the ability of a light source to give good color representation to object it is

illuminating.

 It is measured in CRI scale of 0 – 100

 In clinical areas lamps of CRI = 80 must be used.

 Treatment areas lamps of CRI = 80 – 90 + should be used.

Light distribution:

 Even and uniform lighting in patient areas.

 Avoid glare by using indirect lighting techniques.

 Reduce lighting levels overnight with appropriate controls.

Reception and nurse stations:

 Appropriate lighting levels: 300 lux

 lighting – use fluorescent tubes and CFL

 For task lighting – use CFL

Corridors:

 Appropriate lighting levels: 150 to 200 lux

 Color temperature 40000K, Color Rendering Index 80

 General lighting use lamps such as fluorescent tubes and CFL

Patient wards:

 Appropriate lighting levels: 300 to 500 lux

 Color temperature 35000K, color rendering Index 80

 Task lighting – use lamps, Halogen lamps

 General lighting – use CFL and Fluorescent tubes

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Office areas:

 Appropriate light levels: 500 lux

 Color temperature 40000K, CRI: 80+

 Task lighting – use lamps such as Halogen, CFL

 General lighting – use fluorescent tubes

RESIDENTIAL LIGHTING: (i) Indoor lighting:

 The home is a world of family, relationships surrounded by objects and furniture

revealing the taste of people living there.

 The various indoor and outdoor areas that make up a home need residential lighting.

 In indoor lighting, recessed lights, pendants, ceiling mounted lights are used.

 Cove, soffit and valance light are used in bedroom

 The lightings are also installed on the walls. Indoor wall mounted luminaries can be
used.

 Indirect lighting directs the light flow onto the ceiling and the light is uniformly
distributed.

(ii) Outdoor lighting:

 For outdoor lighting in gardens, outdoor flood lights and pathway luminaries can be
used.

 Ground and floor recessed luminaries highlight the paths in outdoor garden and building
areas.

 Down lighting occurs when a light is placed in an elevated location and pointed
downwards to highlight large surface areas.

 Down lighting adds a beautiful effect on the landscape

 Flood light is used to illuminate a fountain or an architectural masterpiece.

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  In shadow lighting the lighting fixture is installed on the ground and the lighting is
pointed upwards the surface of the object.

LIGHTING FOR PARKING:

 Architects, designers realize the quality lighting and better looking garage can improve
the environment and attracts more customers.

 In designing the lighting system, the quality and quantity of light must be considered.

 Both the horizontal and vertical lighting level should be considered.

 High pressure sodium vapour lamps and mercury vapour lamps are used for lighting.

Special features in lighting required for physically handicapped people:

a. Lighting for physically handicapped people must create an environment that avoids excessive
reflection, glare and shadows.

b. The deign should achieve this by considering both artificial and natural light

c. Careful lighting design can provide changes in texture and color for visually impaired people.

d. Reception should not be located in front of large areas of glaring sunshine that could put a
receptionist face in shadow and make lip reading difficult.

e. Daylight should be carefully controlled to reduce glare.

f. Shadows should be avoided to prevent potential hazards by increasing the level of ambient
lighting.

g. Down lighters should be carefully located so that they do not create shadows across people’s
faces making lip reading difficult.

h. Staircases should be well illuminated with the minimum lighting level of 100 lux.

i. Lighting should be bright and uniform and there should not be any glare.

j. Indirect lighting is more comfortable than direct lighting.

k. Lighting dimmers can be used to control the intensity of light.

l. Fluorescent lights may create a hum sound that can be heard in hearing aids which should be
minimized by careful placement of lights.

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Special features in lighting required for old age (elderly) people:

a. Increase the general lighting level in the space. This helps the old age people see better and
improve the daily sleep cycles.

b. Improve the uniformity of the light to reduce the shadows.

c. Use light colored surfaces in order to maximize the amount of light in that space.

d. Bright and dark colored surfaces often create a highly effective lighting design for normal
eyes but usually not for aged people.

e. Use daylight wherever possible and introduce it into the space and balance it with available
electrical lighting. The daylight provides significant health to older adults.

f. Indoor staircases and outdoor staircases should be illuminated well to improve safety and
avoid risky falls. Step lights should be provided.

g. Installing night lights in bedrooms, bathrooms and kitchens for older people.

h. Installing light controls to adjust the amount of light that he /she needs for a given situation.
This makes the older adults more comfortable.

Solar energy systems for lighting:

Solar energy is obtained through the use of solar cells. The solar cells convert sunlight into
electrical energy based on the principle of photovoltaic effect. The electricity so obtained can
directly charge the batteries used for various applications. 10

Advantages of solar panels:

 Fast response and high reliability

 Minimum maintenance

 Pollution free

 Noise free, as there are no moving parts

Disadvantages:
 Initial installation cost is high
 Dependent on sunlight
 Climatic conditions, location, latitude, tilt angle affects the output.
Photo voltaic effect:
Electricity can be generated directly from sunlight by a process called photovoltaic effect, which
is defined as the generation of an electromotive force (voltage) as a result of the absorption of
ionizing radiation from the sun.

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Solar cell construction and working:

 The basic building block of a photovoltaic system is the solar cell, a semiconductor
device having a simple pn-junction which when exposed to sunlight produces DC
electricity.

 The solar cell is made up of single crystal of silicon.

 Solar cells consists of a p-type semiconductor (silicon doped with boron) and n-type
semiconductor (silicon doped with phosphorous)

 They are in close contact with each other.

 When solar rays falls on the p-type semiconductor the electrons from the valence band
get promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into the n-type
semiconductor.

 Due to this DC voltage is produced.

Main components of solar photovoltaic system:

Solar array

Battery bank

Solar charge controller

Inverter

Earthing

Cables

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95
a. Solar array:

 The solar array consists of series /parallel combination of modules which are mounted on the
metallic structure in sunny and shadow free area at a fixed angle.
 All the modules will face the south in Northern hemisphere.

b. Battery bank:

 The sun is not always available and it is not regular. However loads are to be fed anytime of
the day.

 Therefore power should be stored in a battery bank.

 Lead acid batteries are commonly used.

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c. Solar charge controller:

 Charge controller is the interface between the array and the battery bank.

 The charge controller protects the battery from overcharging and therefore it enhances the
life of the battery.

 It also indicates the charging status of batteries like battery undercharged, overcharged or
deep discharged through LED indications.

 Some switches and circuit breakers are provided to cut off the charging during fault
conditions.

d. Inverter:

Used to covert DC to AC.

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e. Earthing:

Earthing is done in order to protect the solar array and its associated devices from lightning and other
faults.

f. Cables:

Different types of cables are used to connect module to module, module to charge controller, charge
controller to battery.
Installation and maintenance of solar power:

 Efficiency of the solar installation depends on the collection of solar energy and its transfer to
the load.

 Flat plate collectors are best suitable for low and intermediate temperature which includes
water heating for buildings and small industrial applications.

 Concentrated collectors are used for power generation.

 Solar concentrators provide a improved thermal efficiency due to reduced heat loss.

Maintenance:

 Solar panels require virtually no maintenance. However the equipment such as batteries
and charge controller should be maintained.

 The surface of the panels should be wiped clean to remove dust.

 All connections are properly made tight and neat using the red (for positive) and black
(for negative) wires in order to prevent reverse connection.

 The solar panel is installed facing south and with correct tilt angle.

 There should not be any shadow on the solar panel in order to get maximum power.

LEED CERTIFICATION:

 The leadership is energy and environment design certification is referred to as LEED

A program sponsored by the U.S. Green Building Council. LEED certification is designed
based on the concept of sustainability.
LEED certification can be achieved in five primary areas:

a. Energy use, including energy efficient lighting

b. Location of the building and sustainability of the immediate environment.

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c. Indoor air quality and use of daylight to reduce lighting cast.

d. Water conservation

e. Use of sustainable materials for construction.

Certificate for commercial buildings:

In order to achieve LEED certification, commercial buildings must meet certain standards. There are
difference levels of LEED certification depending on environment standards.

 For certified buildings (40 points out of possible 110 points)

 Silver certification (50 or more points)

 Gold certification (60 or more points)

 Platinum certification (80 or more points)

Certification is given to buildings based on the points earned.

LIGHTING CONTROLS:
Lighting controls are used to automatically turn lights on and off as needed and save energy. The
energy can be saved by turning off the lights when they are not needed.

I. Time switch automatic control:

The most common type of timer now used is programmable timer. It consists of a
microprocessor with a rechargeable battery for memory hold up and maintaining time in

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 the event of a supply mains failure. Depending on the time set the light will be switched
ON and OFF.
Occupancy sensors for automatic control:
They are of two types:

i. Infrared

ii. Ultrasonic

The passive infrared occupancy sensors get activated when there is any infrared radiation.

 A person emits infrared radiation therefore it activates the passive infrared sensor.

 When the passive infrared sensors get activated, the luminaries or light will switch on
immediately.

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  When there is no person or no presence of infrared radiation it will delay for a person of 10-
20 minutes before switching off the light.

 This control saves the energy.

 This can be used only for small area.

 For larger areas ultrasonic detectors are more sensitive to the movement and therefore more
suitable for areas where small movements are made.

II. Daylight sensors or photo sensors:

 Daylight controls or photo sensors are linked to the switch or dimming switch respond to
daylight levels.

 When there is sufficient daylight, the lights will be switched off.

 The photo sensors consist of photo cells.

 The large workspace can be divided into zones and the lighting can be controlled based on
the natural daylight entering the space.

Dimmers:

 Dimmers are inexpensive and provide some energy savings.

 They are used to reduce the intensity of the lamps.

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  Dimming increases the service life of light bulbs.

ENERGY EFFICIENT LIGHTING:

The most common energy efficient lighting types include CFL’s, LED’s, Halogen lamps.
Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL):

 CFL’s are used now-a-days instead of incandescent bulbs because they use less electricity.

 An energy star qualified CFL uses about 1/4th the energy and last ten times longer than
incandescent bulbs.

 A CFL uses one third the energy of a halogen lamp.

 CFL bulbs are available in range of light colors including warm white to yellow

LED (Light Emitted Diodes):

 LED’s are types of solid state lighting- semiconductors that converts electricity to light.

 LED with white light is used for general illumination applications.

 LED’s are the most energy-efficient lighting technology.

 Energy star qualified LED use only 20% to 25% of the energy and last up to 25 times longer
than incandescent bulbs.

 LED’s use 25% to 30% of the energy and last up to 8 to 25 times longer than Halogen lamps.

 LED bulbs are available in different Watts. Incandescent lamps such as 40W, 60W and 75W
are now replaced with LED bulbs.

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  LED lights are used in both indoor and outdoor applications such as recessed lightings, track
lights, desk lamps, under cabinet lighting.
 LED’s work well in outdoor environment because of the durability and performance in
cold environment.

 White LED’s are most expensive, they still save money because they are low cost and
low energy consumption.

 In outdoor lighting LED can be used for pathway lighting.

Types of lighting schemes:

Direct lighting:

 It is the most commonly used type of lighting scheme. In this lighting more than 90% of
the light is made to fall on the working plane with the help of reflectors.

 Though it is efficient, it causes hard shadows and glare. It is generally used in industrial
and outdoor lighting.

Semi-direct lighting:

 In this lighting scheme 60 to 90% of the light is made to fall on the working plane
directly with the help of semi-direct reflectors, remaining light used to illuminate the
ceiling.

 The lighting system is best suited to rooms with high ceiling where a high level of
uniformly distributed light is desirable.

Semi-Indirect lighting:

 In this lighting scheme 60-90% of the total light is thrown upwards to the ceiling to
reduce reflection and the rest reaches the working plane.

 This lighting scheme is glare free.

 It is mainly used for indoor light applications.

Indirect-lighting:

 In this lighting scheme more than 90% of total light is thrown upwards to the ceiling by
using inverted reflectors.

 Here the ceiling act as a light source and the glare is reduced.

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 The shadows are less and the appearance of the room is much improved than direct
lighting.

 It is employed in places where there should be no shadow to do a particular task.

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 Building Services II

Important University Question

Unit 4 : Lighting Design: Installation and Application in Buildings

2 Marks

1. What is Called Colour Temperature?

The Quality of light emitted by headed objects depend upon the temperature of the
radiating source. A theoretically perfect radiator called a black body is used as the
standatd for comparison.
2. Write the advantages of Photovoltaic Panels.
o Fast response and high reliability

o Minimum maintenance

o Pollution free

o Noise free, as there are no moving parts

3. Define : Colour Rendering

The appearance of colour of a surface by the quality of light from the source.
Colour rendering is the ability of light source to reveal the appearance of true colour
of the surfaces. This ability is measured by comparing the appearance of objects
under the light source with their appearance under a reference source such as
daylight.
4. State any two factors to be considered while locating luminaries for the
Physically handicapped.
1. Careful lighting design can Accenture changes in texture and colour and
provide additional information to visually impaired people.
2. Changes in lighting level must be gradual throughout the facility.
3. Daylight must be carefully controlled to reduce the glare.

5. What is subtractive colour?

If Colours are subtracted from while light then other colours will be prodiced.
When the three primary subtractive colours are combined in equal propotionals they
subtract components of white light to Produce darkness.

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 red

green

Blue

Cyan Yellow

Subtracts Subtracts

Red Blue

16 Marks

1. Explain the applications of Solar energy in buildings.

2. Explain Spectral Energy Distribution
3. How do you work out suitable lighting requirement for the different spaces of a
library building ? Explain
4. “ Building surfaces treatment influence the luminous efficiency and Colour
rendering” Explain with the Example for outdoor and indoor situations.
5. Discuss in detail about Photovoltaic Systems and Reducing electric Loads
6. Discuss the Principles of designing lighting for schools and libraries
7. Explain the salient features of lighting required for Physically challenged and elderly
people in Commercial buildings.

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 UNIT : 5 CONVEYING SYSTEMS BUILDING ELEVATOR SYSTEMS
For most people residing in urban cities, elevators have become an integral part of their daily
life. Simply stated, an elevator is a hoisting or lowering mechanism, designed to carry passengers
or freight, and is equipped with a car and platform that typically moves in fixed guides and
serves two or more landings. The elevators can be broadly classified as either electric traction
type or hydraulic type.
• Traction elevators have an elevator car and counterweight attached to opposite ends of hoist
ropes. The hoist ropes pass over a driving machine that raises and lowers the car.
Traction elevators run on load-bearing rails in the elevator hoistway. Traction elevators
are most often used in mid-rise and high-rise buildings with five or more floors.
• Hydraulic elevators, on the other hand, are raised by forcing pressurized oil through a valve
into a steel cylinder located above ground or underground. The pressure forces a piston to
rise, lifting the elevator platform and car enclosure mounted on it. The car is lowered by
opening the valve and allowing the weight of the car to force oil from the cylinder in a
controlled manner. When the valve is closed the car is stopped. Since the weight of
hydraulic elevator cars is borne by the piston, there is no need for a structural framework
or load-bearing rails. Hydraulic elevators are commonly found in low-rise buildings with
two to five floors.

The main design considerations for choosing either electric traction drive or hydraulic for a
particular project are the number of floors, the height of the building, the number of people to be
transported, desired passenger waiting times and frequency of use.
The other mode of vertical building transportation is “Escalator”. It can be described as moving
stairs typically used to carry large number of people at high volumes through a limited no of
floors. These are commonly used in high density areas or where sudden traffic surges are
expected at times; for example at discharge times from offices, railways underground stations,
airport terminals, theaters, shopping malls and departmental stores. In such applications,
escalators will provide shorter travel time than elevators because elevator cars are limited in size
and passengers have to wait longer for the service.

GENERAL ELEVATOR PLANNING

Several factors combine to influence the cost of an elevator installation, including the passenger
handling capacity, waiting interval, speed, location, finishes, intelligent group control safety, and
reliability. There are also risks associated with the use of elevators. To ensure that persons are
not stuck in elevators for longer periods of time, or worse that the elevator does not loose
stability and plummet to the basement from a high floor, the engineers responsible for designing
elevators must comply with all statutory codes and standards.
Typical parameters in design of elevators include:
Characteristic of the premises

• Type and use of building

• Floor plate size and height of the building

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 • Size of population and its distribution in the premises

• Fire safety and regulations

• The house keeping of the premises

Circulation Efficiency

• Number of cars and their capacity

• Location and configuration of elevators in entrance lobby

• Travel length, number of stops and maximum acceptable waiting time

• Arrangement with the combination of elevator, escalator and emergency stairs.

Characteristic of the equipment

• Type of transportation systems

• Rated load and car dimensions

• The speed of the lift/escalator system

• The type of motor drive control system of the machine

• Mode of group supervisory control and safety features

• Cab enclosure and hoist way door finishes

• Emergency power supplies and fire protection systems

• Requirements of the local regulations on vertical transport system.

And so on. There could be over a hundred different possible configurations for your building's
elevators, and each will have its advantages and disadvantages compared with the others.

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

The design, installation, and use of an elevator system is dictated according to various standards
(aka elevator codes), which may typically be international, national, state, regional or city based.
Building codes, fire regulations, the American Disabilities Act (ADA) and other Uniform
Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) are a few examples of these rules to which the engineers
and architects must submit. As far as the specific rules governing the design of elevators;
American Society of Mechanical Engineer's Standard A17.1 (ASME/ANSI A17.1), CAN/CSA
B44 in Canada and EN81 (European standard) provide the detailed criteria.

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Note that in most US Jurisdictions, ASME/ANSI A17.1, A17.2, A17.3, A17.5, A18.1 usually
take precedence over all other codes unless specifically advised.

DESIGN ELEMENTS OF ELEVATOR SYSTEMS

Traffic Planning

Elevators’ planning in building projects is dependant on the “traffic analysis” study which varies
according to the type and usage of the building. For example, an office building typically
requires more elevators than an apartment building due to heavier loads & traffic. Elevator
professionals often use building type to assist in recommending solutions based on different
types of building traffic.

Traffic analysis is the study of the population distribution and their predicted pattern of flow
within the day. It helps in selecting:

• The correct number and type of transportation devices;

• The right sizes and speeds of the transportation devices;
• The proper control systems and features to optimize and synchronize traffic flow;
• The optimum layout for the transportation devices and correct positioning in the building
and in relation to one another;
• Easy access to buildings and a smooth flow of people and goods.
The efficiency of an elevator system is defined in terms of the quantity of service (handling
capacity) and quality of service (passenger waiting time).
Handling Capacity:

The handling capacity of elevator system is the total number of passengers that the system can
transport within a certain period of time, (usually 5 minutes i.e. 300 seconds) during the peak
traffic conditions (usually the morning up-peak*) with a specified average car loading (usually
80% of the rated capacity of the elevator). The handling capacity is usually expressed in
percentage and is calculated as:

Where

• HC = Handling capacity (percent)

• RC = Rated capacity of the elevator (lbs)

• I = Interval (seconds)

• P = Number of passengers carried on a round trip [the number of passengers carried on a

round trip is established by the designer for each project, and is typically obtained by
dividing elevator capacity by 150 pounds per person].

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Acceptable five-minute handling capacities during peak periods for general passenger elevator
service can be taken as 10 to 16%. The criteria differs depending on the building type —
residential apartments or offices. As a rough guide, the following is acceptable:
• Residential Apartments / buildings: 7 to 9%.

• Premises without specific distribution traffic, such as mixed-tenancy office buildings with
different working hours: 12 to 16%.

• Premises with excessive distribution traffic, such as single tenancy office buildings with the
same working hours: 16 to 25%.

*The up-peak mode is defined as elevator travel from lobby to upper floors. This is considered
the worst case traffic scenario in elevator planning, typically in the morning as people arrive for
work or at the conclusion of a lunch-time period. The reason for employing the up peak model
for sizing the lift is because during up- peak period, the “handling capacity” of the lift system
dominates the degree to which the traffic demand is fulfilled. It is also believed that systems that
can cope with the up-peak period are also sufficient to handle other traffic conditions.
What is the main purpose of estimating handling capacity?

Since the building space particularly in downtown skyscrapers is precious, the architects desire
to ensure the elevator size fit for the purpose. The purpose of the Handling Capacity requirement
is to allow designer to experiment with different lift system configurations and to determine the
optimum size, speed and number of elevators for a building based on its peak use periods. Note
that the use of smaller lift car will reduce system’s handling capacity unless more lift cars are
installed. The requirement of the handling capacity ensures that the capacity of the lift system is
not being traded off for the interval figures.

If the handling capacity of a lift system is too small, there will be lot of people queuing for the
lifts during up peak. Also, the lift cars will have to go more round trips in order to clear off the
queue. Thus system with too small handling capacity will degrade the quality of service.

Interval:

Interval or waiting interval is the average time, in seconds, between successive lift car arrivals at
the main terminal floor with cars loaded to any level. The interval represents the theoretical
longest time between elevator dispatches from the main lobby.

The interval is directly related to passenger waiting times and inversely related to the number
of elevators in a group and is calculated by the following equation:

Where

• I = Interval

• T = round trip time for one elevator

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 • n = number of elevators in the group (in lift bank)

An acceptable interval during peak periods for ordinary occupancies can be taken as 25 to 30
seconds. An interval of 30 seconds means that a car will be leaving the lobby every 30 seconds
with a load of passengers.

For a fixed handling capacity, large interval means small number of lift cars and large lift car
rated capacity. Lift system with small number of lift cars but large rated capacity will result in
inefficient use of energy during off peak hour. Imagine how energy is wasted during off peak
hours when there are frequent occasions of only a few people traveling in a large lift car.

Round Trip Time

It is the time in seconds for a single car trip around a building, from the time the car doors open
at the main terminal, until the car doors reopen, when the car has returned to the main terminal
after its trip around the building.

The round trip time is estimated by adding together such factors as acceleration and deceleration
rates, full-speed running time, door opening time, door closing time, and passenger entrance and
egress times, multiplied by the probable number of stops.

Average Waiting Time

Average waiting time is the average period of time, in seconds that an average passenger waits
for a lift measured from the instant that the passenger registers a landing call (or arrives at a
landing), until the instant the passenger can enter the lift. Typically this would be the sum of the
waiting times of all the passengers divided by the total number of passengers. It needs to be
clearly recognized that Interval is NOT EQUAL TO Average Waiting Time. Average waiting
time can be realistically established only through a simulation.

Other Factors

Once the traffic analysis is done and the handling capacity determined, the next step is to select
and specify the most appropriate type of elevator. The first question to answer here is "what
exactly do we expect the elevator to accomplish for us?"
This can be broken down into several more specific questions:
• How much weight must it lift?
• How fast should it lift it?
• How many landings will be served?
• How many elevators shall be provided?
• How large does the cab need to be?
• Are automatic doors or gates required?
• What is the ideal location of elevator?

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Next, we have to determine the building structure that will support the elevator:
• What size is the hoistway?
• What is the wall construction?
• How deep is the pit?
• How high is the overhead?
• What kind of power is available?
• Is a machine room available?
• Is an overhead machine space available?
• How many car openings are required to suit the floor plan?
• Is underground drilling a problem?

These answers will usually narrow the available choices down. Elevator Capacity
The elevators capacity is derived from up-peak traffic analysis. The nominal capacity of the
elevator and the rated maximum passenger capacity is than known from manufacturer’s
catalogues. Table below provides standard nominal capacities and passenger relationship:

Passenger Elevator Rated Max Passenger Passengers Per Trip

Service Capacities Capacity (Normal Peak)*
Nominal Capacity
1140 kg (2500 lbs) 17 13
1360 kg (3000 lbs) 20 16
1600 kg (3500 lbs) 23 19
1800 kg (4000 lbs) 27 21
2250 kg (5000 lbs) 33 27
2730 kg (6000 lbs) 40 32
3180 kg (7000 lbs) 47 37
3640 kg (8000 lbs) 53 43

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Number of Elevators

Several numbers of passenger elevators are usually required in most buildings in order to cope
with the traffic density. The number of elevators is derived from a traditional traffic calculation
during morning up peak. In this scenario, an elevator loads at the lobby, delivers passengers to
their floors, and returns empty for the next trip. The number of elevators required shall be
selected on the basis of a 25 to 30 second response waiting time interval between elevators.

The general rules of thumb for estimating the number of elevators are:
2
• For buildings with 3 or less elevator stops and gross area of less than 5,000 m , provide a
single elevator. (Note however, if one elevator would normally meet the requirements in
the facility where elevator service is essential, two elevators shall be installed to ensure
continuity of service. If financial limitations restrict the inclusion of a second elevator, as
a minimum, a hoistway for a future elevator is recommended).
2
• For buildings with 4 or more elevator stops and the gross area above 6000 m provide two
2
elevators. If the gross area of the building exceeds 10,000 m provide a group of three
elevators.

• If distributed elevator configurations are used then the total number of elevators required
shall be increased by approximately 60% to account for the inefficiencies of the
distributed arrangement and imbalances in demand.

Two lifts of 680 kg provide a better service than one 1360 kg. The large single lift would run
only partly loaded during the major part of the day with a resulting decrease in efficiency and
increased running cost. The offset is that although 2 lifts may be costly, require more foot print

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(space) and have less tenable area; the advantage is the lower operating costs and better quality
of service.

Speed of Elevators

Elevator speed is determined by travel distance and standard of service. The speed should be
selected such that it will provide short round time and 25 to 30 second interval, along with least
number of elevators to handle the peak loads. The taller buildings above 20 floors may have
high-speed lifts that do not stop at the first 10 floors. Car speed is chosen so that the driving
motor can be run at full speed for much of the running time to maximize the efficiency of power
consumption. The overall speed of operation is determined by the acceleration time, braking
time; maximum car speed; speed of door opening; degree of advanced door opening; floor-
leveling accuracy required; switch timing and variation of car performance with car load.

The general rules of thumb, for the Car speed m/s

recommended elevator speeds for various
travel distances are: Floors
4 0.75
9 2
15 3
Over 15 5-7

Zoning of Elevators

Zoning implies subdivision of the floors of the premises into clusters of stops to be served by
different elevator cars. This creates the need for people traveling to floors within that zone to use
the same lifts, thereby reducing the probable number of stops made by the lifts. This in turn
reduces the overall time lifts are accelerating and decelerating. With the reduction in time spent
in obtaining full speed or stopping from full speed, the efficiency of the overall system is
increased and so energy savings can be made.

For office buildings, a single elevator group can generally serve all floors in buildings up to 15 to
20 floors depending on the building population. The taller building more than 20 floors (up to
about 35 floors), are best served by two different elevator groups; one serving the low rise and
the other the higher floors. Such a zoning arrangement would cut down on the number of stops
per elevator, thus reducing round trip times and increasing the handling capacity of each group.
Other advantage is that the low rise group won’t need high speed elevators, thus providing an
economical and energy efficiency solution.

The same principle can also be deployed for low rise buildings of say 10 floors in a different
way. A typical example is separating elevator systems to serve even number floors and odd
number floors. If the average waiting time is too long, passengers will call for both lift systems
and travel one floor by stair.

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Location of Elevators

The location of elevators shall be such that they are easily accessible and convenient to
circulation routes. When planning the location of elevators, the following principles shall be
observed:

• Elevators should be located so that the building entrances with the heaviest traffic shall
have adequate elevator service. Elevators should be as near to the center of the building
area served as practicable, taking into consideration the distance from the elevator bank
or banks to the most distant functional areas do not exceed a maximum of 45 meters.

• Congestion at peak travel times is minimized by arranging the lift lobbies in a cul-de-sac of,
say, two lift doors on either side of a walkway, rather than in a line of four doors along
one wall. For passenger cars, three across are preferred, and not more than four in a row
shall be used. Where four or more cars are required within a group, cars shall be placed in
opposite banks, opening into a common lobby.

• As a general guide, the lobby width between two banks of passenger elevators shall not be
less than 3600 mm (~12 ft) and the lobby width between two banks of service elevators
should not be less than 4200 mm (~14’).

• When designing the service core in relation to the floor plate, the designer must ensure that
the elevator lobby should not be used as a common or public thoroughfare at ground-
floor level.

• Where elevators are accessed from corridors, they shall be located on one side of the
corridor only and shall be set back from the line of circulating corridors. Elevator
ingress/egress shall be from a distinct elevator lobby and not directly from a corridor.

• Elevator lobbies generate noise and shall be acoustically isolated from areas sensitive to
noise and vibration. Elevators shall not be placed over occupied spaces as this shall
require counter-weight safeties and reinforced pits.

• Egress stairs shall preferably be located adjacent to elevator lobbies when possible.

• Any decentralized banks and/or clustering of elevators shall be planned to include at least
two cars to maintain an acceptable dispatch interval between cars and to ensure
continuity of service.

• Elevators shall preferably provide positive separation between passenger and freight
/service traffic flows.

• In facilities that utilize interstitial floors and mechanical penthouses, at least one elevator
shall stop on these floors to facilitate equipment maintenance and removal.

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Elevator Doors

The doors protect riders from falling into the shaft. The door opening shall be capable of opening
doors at the rate of 0.9 m/s. This is a capability speed, with actual speed being adjusted to meet
the requirements of the specific installation. The closing speed shall be set per ASME/ANSI
A17.1. All power operated doors shall be equipped with an automatic reopen device for
passenger protection.
Door configuration and door opening
The most common configuration is to have two panels that meet in the middle, and slide open
laterally.
• Single-speed bi-parting doors are typically used in the larger capacity ranges and when
dictated by the shaft and platform arrangement. Their operating speed is generally faster
than side-acting doors.

• Two-speed bi-parting doors have the fastest action and are used where a wide opening is
required; they are common on large passenger elevators and service elevators.

A cascading configuration is sometimes used for wider opening of service elevators where the
doors are tucked behind one another, and while closed, they form cascading layers on one side.
The clear opening (width and height) of an entrance depends on its application.
• For passenger elevators and handicap access, a minimum door opening width of 1070 mm
(3'-6") and height of 2135mm (7’) is recommended.

• Combined passenger/ service elevators typically have doors at least 1220 to 1320 mm (4'-0" to
4'-4") wide and 2135 to 2440 mm (7'-0" to 8'-0") high.

TYPES OF ELEVATORS
The two main types of elevators are hydraulic and traction.
Selection of the best-suited type of elevator considers initial cost of the elevator plus the
building structure needed to house the lift, maintenance costs over the life of the building and
running costs.
TRACTION ELEVATORS
Traction elevators are the most popular form of elevator designs used widely across the world.
These consist of the elevator car and a counterweight held together by steel ropes looped around
the sheave. The sheave is a pulley with grooves around its circumference. The sheave is driven
by the AC or DC motor. The sheave grips the hoist ropes so that when it rotates, the ropes move,
too. This gripping is due to traction.

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Roping Arrangements
A roping system is used to attach the motor/gear reducer, the elevator car and the counterweight.
There are many different kinds of arrangements that can be used; the two most common are:
1. One to One roping (1:1) also called traction drum arrangement

2. Two to One Roping (2:1) also called lifting drum arrangement

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One to One roping (1:1) or Traction Drum Arrangement
In a One to One roping (1:1) arrangement, the hoist ropes runs from the elevator car hitch over
the machine sheaves to the counterweight hitch. The elevator car and the counterweight each run
in their own sets of guide rails. A second governor cable runs from the car up to a governor
pulley, then down to a tension pulley at the bottom of the elevator shaft, and up to the car again.
This cable rotates the governor pulley at a speed directly proportional to the speed of the car. In

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the event of excessive car speed, the governor uses another cable to activate the emergency brake
jaws which grip the guide rails and slow the car to a stop.
Two to One Roping (2:1) or Lifting Drum Arrangement
Arrangement of hoist ropes in which one end of each hoist rope passes from a dead-end hitch in
the overhead, under a car sheave, up over the drive sheave, down around a counterweight shave
and up to another dead-end hitch in the overhead. The car speed is one-half the rope speed.
Counterweight
When the traction drive is rotated, power is transferred from the traction drive to the elevator car
and counterweight. The counterweight adds accelerating force when the elevator car is ascending
and provides a retarding effort when the car is descending. The counterweight is normally sized
equal to the weight of the car plus approximately half its maximum rated capacity. It saves
energy equivalent to the unbalanced load between the elevator and the counterweight both when
the car is travelling full and empty. The counterweight also ensures that the elevator cannot fall
out of control while the cable is intact.
Hoist Mechanisms
An elevator's function is to convert the electrical power, which runs the motor, into mechanical
power. There are two types of hoisting mechanisms: Geared and Gearless types.

Geared type:

In a geared machine, the motor turns a gear train that rotates the sheave. Geared traction
machines are used for medium-speed applications and have effective speeds from 0.5 m/s (100
fpm) to 2.0 m/s (400 fpm). The slower speeds are for freight operation, while the higher speeds
are typically used for passenger service in mid-rise buildings of ten stories or less.

The geared elevator system most commonly use a worm gear reducer, which is composed of a
worm gear, typically called the worm, and a larger round gear, typically called the worm gear.
These two gears which have rotational axes perpendicular to each other that not only decreases
the rotational speed of the traction pulley, but also change the plane of rotation. By decreasing
the rotation speed, we are also increasing the output torque, therefore, adding the ability to lift
larger objects for a given pulley diameter. A worm gear is chosen over other types of gearing
possibilities because of its compactness, precise speed control, quite operation and its ability to

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withstand higher shock loads. It can also be easily attached to the motor shaft and has high
resistance to reverse shaft rotation.

The efficiency of the gear train is a consideration in the selection of the type of hoisting machine.
Following key facts should be noted, when specifying geared machines:

1. The efficiency of the gear train depends on the lead angle of the gears and the coefficient
of friction of the gear materials. The lead angle is the angle of the worm tooth or thread
with respect to a line perpendicular to the worm axis. As this angle approaches zero
degrees, the reduction ratio increases and the efficiency decreases due to increased
sliding along the gear teeth. For optimum efficiency, the lead angle should be high
usually in the range of 50% to 94%.

2. The efficiency also depends on the operating parameters of the gear train. Usually, smaller
reduction ratios, higher input speeds, and larger gear reducer sizes shall result in greater
efficiencies. However, it does not mean to intent ally over-size the gear train because the
large gear train will operate less efficiently at partial load condition. The gear reduction
ratios typically vary between 12:1 and 30:1.

Geared Traction machines can be driven by AC or DC motors. The machines are normally
located overhead, directly over the hoistway but can be mounted to the side and below; and when
this is done, it is termed as "basement traction" application.

The disadvantage of geared hoisting is that the gear train will loose some energy due to friction
and thus the transmission efficiency of geared elevator is inferior to gearless machine.

Gearless type:

In gearless elevators the motor turns the sheave directly. A brake is mounted between the motor
and drive sheave to hold the elevator stationary at a floor. This brake is usually an external drum
type, which is actuated by spring force.

Gearless traction elevators are specified for high-speed applications having effective speeds
varying from 2.5 m/s (400 fpm) to 10.0 m/s (2000 fpm). These are generally used on taller
structures with more than 10 stories. In terms of energy performance, gearless drive has no gear
transmission loss thus have a transmission efficiency of 100%.

Gearless traction machines use low torque electric motors (generally DC motors) driven by
motor generator (MG) drive or silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR). Modern gearless traction
machines use variable-voltage; variable frequency (VVVF) drives systems.

ESCALATOR
An escalator is a moving staircase – a conveyor transport device for carrying
people between floors of a building. The device consists of a motor-driven chain
of individual, linked steps that move up or down on tracks, allowing the step
treads to remain horizontal.

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Escalators are used around the world to move pedestrian traffic in places where
elevators would be impractical. Principal areas of usage include department
stores, shopping malls, airports, transit systems, convention centers, hotels, and
public buildings.

COMPARISON: ELEVATORS AND ESCALATORS

 The annoying waiting time for elevators is not present on traveling stairways
 Time is not lost by acceleration, retardation, leveling, door operation or operators
 reaction; not by pressing hall buttons by passengers interferences in getting in or
 out of the cars etc. Instead of formal lobbies and hallways leading to a bank of
 elevators on each floor, the corridors, aisles and other passageways in existing
 buildings provide space for floor opening adequate for the installation of
elevators.
 Elevator hoist ways must be vertical from bottom to top floors; an escalator
 installation can be staggered at various appropriate locations.
 Since escalators are constantly moving and are generally part of horizontal and
 vertical trip, they mumain line of circulation. But elevator bank, being a vertical
 transportation unit, can be set off as an element on its own, for people to
approach and utilize.
 Thus the capacity of one escalator is equivalent to many lift cars, so that
 escalators are excellent for large volume of traffic over short rise distance.

CONVEYORS

 Mechanical handling equipment that moves materials from one location to another

 Applications involving the transportation of heavy or bulky materials

 Allow quick and efficient transportation for a wide variety of materials, which make them
very popular in the material handling and packaging industries
Types of Conveyor Systems

Pneumatic Conveyor Systems

Vibrating Conveyor Systems

Flexible Conveyor Systems

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Pneumatic Conveyor Systems
•Makes use of pipes or ducts called transportation lines that carry mixture of materials and a
stream of air

•These materials are such as dry pulverised or free flowing or light powdery materials like
cement, fly ash etc

•Materials can be transported conveniently to various destinations by means of a stream of high

velocity air through pipe lines

•Products are moved through various tubes via air pressure, allowing for extra vertical versatility.

•Pneumatic conveyors are either carrier systems or dilute-phase systems; carrier systems simply
push items from one entry point to one exit point, such as the money exchanging tubes used at a
bank drive-thru window.

•Dillute-phase systems use push/pull pressure to guide materials through various entry and/or
exit points.

Three basic systems that are used to generate high velocity air stream:

1.Suction or Vacuum systems: utilizing a vacuum created in the pipeline to draw the material
with the surrounding air.The system operated at a low pressure, which is practically 0.4-0.5
atm below atmosphere, and is utilized mainly in conveying light free flowing materials.

2.Pressure Type systems: in which a positive pressure is used to push material from one point
to the next. The system is ideal for conveying material from one loading point to a number of
unloading points. It operates at a pressure of 6 atm and upwards.

3.Combination systems: in which a suction system is used to convey material from a number of
loading points and a pressure system is employed to deliver it to a number of unloading
points.

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Vibrating Conveyor Systems

•A Vibrating Conveyor is a machine with a solid conveying surface which is turned up on the
side to form a trough

•used extensively in food grade applications where sanitation, washdown, and low maintenance
are essential

•suitable for harsh, very hot, dirty, or corrosive environments.

•used to convey newly cast metal parts which may reach upwards of 1,500 °F (820 °C).

•Due to the fixed nature of the conveying pans vibrating conveyors can also perform tasks such
as sorting, screening, classifying and orienting parts.

•Vibrating conveyors have been built to convey material at angles exceeding 45° from horizontal
using special pan shapes. Flat pans will convey most materials at a 5° Incline from horizontal
line.

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Flexible Conveyor Systems

•The flexible conveyor is based on a conveyor beam in aluminium or stainless steel, with low
friction slide rails guiding a plastic multi-flexing chain.

•Products to be conveyed travel directly on the conveyor, or on pallets/carriers

Types of Conveyor Systems

Belt driven roller conveyor for cartons and totes.

•Gravity roller conveyor

•Gravity skate wheel conveyor

•Belt conveyor

•Wire mesh

•Plastic belt

•Belt Driven Live Roller

•Line shaft roller conveyor

•Chain conveyor

•Screw conveyor

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•Chain driven live roller conveyor

•Overhead conveyors

Belt conveyor
Used to Convey, handle and transport materials – Sand, Cement, aggregates, concrete, earth, etc
Transport material with a continuous flow at high speeds and posses high capacity
Long distance – quantity of material to be handled is great enough to justify the initial cost of the
belt conveyor system
Short distance Consist of
1. Continuous Belt
2. Idlers
3. Driving Unit
4. Pulleys
5. Take up equipment
6. Supporting Structure
7. Special Accessories

CHAIN CONVEYORS

Chain conveyors utilise a powered continuous chain arrangement, carrying a series of single
pendants.

•The chain arrangement is driven by a motor, and the material suspended on the pendants are
conveyed.

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•Chain conveyors are primarily used to transport heavy unit loads, e.g. pallets, grid boxes, and
industrial containers.
•These conveyors can be single or double chain strand in configuration.
•The load is positioned on the chains, the friction pulls the load forward
BUCKET CONVEYORS
•Used for horizontal and inclined movements provided the inclination to the horizontal does not
exceed 70O
•The carriers may be open top type or V-type. The loading may be fed at one point or the bucket
may feed itself as it drags through the load.

•In case of point feed, the conveyance speed can be upto 20 m per min while in the case of drag
feeding the conveyance upper speed limit is 10 m per min.

•Due to the weight of the conveyor and limited strength of the chains, the length of the
conveyors is restricted to 25 metres

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 Building Services II

Important University Question

Unit 5 : Conveying Systems

2 Marks
1. Differentiate the elevators and Escalators ( Apr / May 2015)
Escalotrs means continues movingstaircase that are everywhere these days like railway
stations airports or enen shopping malls. Escalators that help us move from one to floor to
another floot. Elecatirs also called lifts. Elevator mainstay is transporting people up or down
between floors in high rise building.
2. Name different types of Vertical Distribution system? ( Apr / May 2015)
Lifts, Elevators , Escalaotrs
3. What is the role of NBC? ( May / June 2011 )
A building code is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects
such as buildings and non building structures. Codes regulating the design and
constructionof structures where adopted into law.
4. What does the NBC code stipulate about the location of Elevators? ( May / June 2014 )
Elevators should be located so that the building entrances with the heaviest traffic
shall have adequate elevator service. Elevators should be as near to the center of the
building area served as practicable, taking into consideration the distance from the
elevator bank or banks to the most distant functional areas do not exceed a maximum
of 45 meters.
5. What is a Capsule Lift? ( May / June 2014 )
Capsule elevator is act as architectural highlights on prestigious buildings. They can be called
the ornaments of a building as they enhance its beauty and bring life into it.Their design,
features and infinite options add its optimum travel comfort.
16 Marks
1. Describe the design Criteria for Planning of Elevators in Public buildings Stating the
layout , Size, Handling Capacity Etc., And discuss the advantage of the Hydraulic Lifts.
( May / June 2014 )
2. Write Short notes On a) Horizontal Belt Conveyors and b) Criss Cross Escalators(
May / June 2014 )
3. Write about the Criteria for arriving at the number and Size of Elevators for a building.
Discuss the different types of Elevators. ( May / June 2014 )
4. Discuss in Detail about the various types of Escalators. Giving neat Sketches and
Describe each Type. ( May / June 2011 )
5. Give any Five important lighting design details that could improve the comfort and
convenience of the elderly users. ( May / June 2011 )
6. In what way the lighting design for conveying system differs from Others? Elaborate. (
May / June 2011 )
7. Explain different types of elevators with Sketches
8. Explain the factors governing the design of Horizontal moving Walkways.

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