“Correlation of GPR and Seismic Exploration methods for

assessment of lithological and structural features”

A Report submitted on the Partial Fulfillment of

the requirements for Minor Project-1

By:
Name Roll No. SAP Id

VIVEK ARYAN R490215059 500046971

VIVEK KUMAR MISHRA R490215061 500046953
SWAYANGDIPTA TALAPATRA R490215053 500046889

Department of Petroleum Engineering and Earth Sciences

B.TECH Geo Science Engineering
Year-3rd, 5th Semester

Under Guidance of:

Dr. J.Devaraju
CC & AC
Associate Professor, UPES, Dehradun

Mr. Gaurav Sidharth Gairola

Assistant Professor, UPES, Dehradun

Mr. Jairam Singh Yadav

Senior Researcher Fellow
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Vivek Aryan, Swayangdipta Talapatra & Vivek Kumar Mishra bearing
roll numbers R490215059, R490215053, and R490215061 respectively, of 5th Semester B.Tech.
in the department of Geoscience Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Dehradun completed this project “Correlation of GPR and Seismic Exploration methods for
assessment of lithological and structural features” under my guidance.

_____________________________
Dr. J. Devaraju
Associate Professor
(CC & AC)
Department Petroleum engineering and Earth Sciences
College of Engineering Studies
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Dehradun

_____________________________
Mr. Gaurav S. Gairola
Assistant Professor
Department Petroleum engineering and Earth Sciences
College of Engineering Studies
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies,
Dehradun

_____________________________
Mr. Jairam Singh Yadav
Senior Researcher Fellow
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology,
Dehradun

2
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the report work entitled “Correlation of GPR and Seismic Exploration
methods for assessment of lithological and structural features” submitted to UPES
Dehradun, is a record of original work done by us under the guidance and direction of Dr. J.
Devaraju (Associate Professor, UPES), Mr. Gaurav S. Gairola (Assistant Professor, UPES) and
Mr. Jairam Singh Yadav (Senior Researcher Fellow, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology,
Dehradun)

The results embodied in this report have not been submitted to any other University or Institute
for the award of any degree or diploma.

Submitted by
Vivek Aryan
Swayangdipta Talapatra
Vivek Kumar Mishra

Date: 12th December, 2017

Place: UPES, Bidholi Campus.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind
support and help of many individuals and our university. I would like to extend my sincere
thanks to all of them.

We are highly indebted to Dr. J. Devaraju (Associate Professor, CC & AC, PEES) for his
guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the
project & also for his support in completing the project.

We would like to express our deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Gaurav S. Gairola (Assistant
Professor, PEES) for his kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of
this project.

We would like to express our special gratitude to Mr. Jairam Singh Yadav (Senior Researcher
Fellow, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun) and thanks to all our fellow mates for
giving me such attention and time.

Our thanks and appreciations also go to our team in developing the project and people who have
willingly helped us out with their abilities.

4
ABSTRACT
We studied the basic theory, the fundamentals, working and the widespread applications of
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR). We observed the various components of GPR System. GPR is
the electromagnetic analogue of seismic method, but for the shallow depth. The project is also
aimed at modeling the shallow seismic signatures of selected regions of F3 Netherlands, North
Sea. We obtained the data and it was processed in OpendTect 6.0.0 ( A free open source software
for seismic interpretation). We added the Semblance, Similarity and GapDecon attributes on the
seismic data and then differentiated the output figures. And finally, we correlated the GPR
investigation and Seismic exploration methods for the further assessment of lithological and
structural features as per our topic. Further, we continued geological mapping and modeling of
the subsurface features by analyzing the seismic profiles generated in the software.

Ground penetrating radar (commonly called GPR) is a high resolution electromagnetic technique
that is designed primarily to investigate the shallow subsurface of the earth, building materials,
and roads and bridges (Jeffrey J. Daniels, 2000). GPR is basically a subsurface ―anomaly‖
detector; as such it will map changes in the underground profile due to contrasts in the
electromagnetic conductivity across material interfaces (Joseph F. Labuz, Minnesota, 2007).
GPR is a time-dependent geophysical technique that can provide a 3-D pseudo image of the
subsurface, including the fourth dimension of color, and can also provide accurate depth
estimates for many common subsurface objects. Under favorable conditions, GPR can provide
precise information concerning the nature of buried objects. It has also proven to be a tool that
can be operated in boreholes to extend the range of investigations away from the boundary of the
hole.

Seismic surveying is the most widely used and well-known geophysical technique. Seismic
sections can now be produced to reveal details of geological structures on scales from the top
tens of meters of drift to the whole lithosphere (Helga Wiederhold, 20th century). The spectacular
success of the method lies in the fact that the raw data are processed to produce a seismic section
which is an image of the subsurface structure. Seismic Wave Analysis for Near Surface
Applications presents the foundational tools necessary to properly analyze surface waves
acquired according to both active and passive techniques. Applications range from seismic
hazard studies, geotechnical surveys and the exploration of extra-terrestrial bodies.

GPR uses the principle of scattering of electromagnetic waves to locate buried objects. The basic
principles and theory of operation for GPR have evolved through the disciplines of electrical
engineering and seismic exploration and thus can be correlated. The fundamental principle of
operation is the same as that used to detect aircraft overhead, but with GPR that antennas are
moved over the surface rather than rotating about a fixed point. This has led to the application of
field operational principles that are analogous to the Seismic reflection method (Jeffrey J.
Daniels, 2000).

5
 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 7

AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT 11

THEORY 11

METHODOLOGY 33

RESULT 43

CONCLUSIONS 44

REFERENCES 45

6
INTRODUCTION

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) was primarily developed and used in geophysics and geology
for subsurface scanning and imaging. Since then, the method has been successfully adapted in
many other disciplines including civil engineering. The multipurpose nature of GPR and its
broad range of applications, make it distinct from existing NDT methods. Got good fortune in
civil engineering market, GPR can detect subsurface events and objects using the
electromagnetic radar impulse, ranging from 10 MHz to 3,000 MHz.

Applications of non-destructive testing (NDT) methods are growing in condition assessment of

civil structures. NDT methods are commonly used to evaluate the strength of materials (e.g.
strength of concrete, consolidation of soil), to detect/localize embedded objects (e.g. pipe and
tube, cables, manhole tunnel), to detect symptoms and side effects of damage mechanisms (e.g.
delamination, internal cracking), to map the bed rock or boundaries in multi-layer media (e.g.
asphalt/concrete/soil), and to detect the thickness or length of a medium (e.g. pile length, tunnel
lining). GPR is based on the principle that the propagation of radar waves through a medium is
controlled by its electrical properties at high frequencies. Electrode magnetic waves emitted into
the ground and time is measured for wave to be reflected and received by the antenna. When
wave hits areas of change in subsurface, it is hit back to receiver antenna. Changes in subsurface
can include objects buried underneath the surface. GPR is similar in its principles to sonar
surveying. A short radar pulse in the frequency band 10–1000 MHz is introduced into the
ground. Radar velocities are controlled by the dielectric constant (relative permittivity) and
conductivity of the subsurface.

Fig-1: GPR (Bistatic system) setup (Source: Pulse EKKO PRO manual)

7
The antennae used can be in monostatic or bistatic mode. Monostatic: one antenna device is used
as both transmitter and receiver. Bistatic: Two separate anntennae are used with one serving as
transmitter and the other as receiver (Fig-1).Equipment consists of:

1. Control unit
2. Display unit
3. Transmitting and receiving unit

Seismic exploration uses recordings of seismic waves that arrive at a seismic station. To
interpret the recordings, we must determine how the waves have propagated through the
subsurface – how their velocity and direction have changed, how their amplitude has changed,
etc. The method is comparable to a marine echo sounder: seismic waves are created by a hit on
the surface and they travel underground. Like sound waves, they are reflected and refracted when
they reach a boundary between different layers in the underground. Using the time required for
the wave to come back to the surface and the velocity of travel, we can determine the depth of
different geological boundaries. The velocity value of the waves carries information on the type
of sediment or rock. This method is important not only for structural information, e.g. in
delineating faults or valley structures, but also for physical characterization of layers and thus is
very useful in hydrogeological investigations.

For the field layout of a seismic survey, independent of reflection or refraction, we need a
seismic source, several seismic receivers (geophones) connected by cable, and connected to the
seismograph (Fig.2). Usually the survey will be done along profiles determined by logistics and
costs but 3D information should be the optimum. The equipment and configuration have to be
adapted to what we are investigating to make sure to get the best quality data possible for the
given objective. We next look at the equipment in detail to facilitate its correct use.

There are different kinds of seismic sources in practice; in general we have to decide between
impulsive sources and the vibroseis method. The main factors to consider when choosing the
source - beside costs, efficiency, convenience and safety - are spectral characteristics, amount of
energy, and repeatability. Taking local geologic conditions into account, surface seismic source
or shot holes can be important.

With seismic sources operating from the surface, signal enhancement in the field is simply
possible by repeatedly ―shooting‖ at a single point and summing the outputs (vertical stacking).
The desired signals, e.g. the reflections, will be strengthened and the undesired signals, i.e.
random noise, will remain random. Thus the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio) is improved. It
increases as the square root of the number of pulses stacked. A good repeatability of the source
signal is necessary and independent which kind of source is used; we traditionally speak of a
―shot‖. The geophone is the instrument used to transform seismic energy into an electrical
voltage. It ordinarily responds to only one component of the grounds displacement, velocity, or

8
acceleration associated with the passage of a seismic wave. For a seismic reflection survey with
P-waves, this is the vertical component. The seismograph is the instrument for controlling and
recording the data in a seismic survey.

Fig.2: Sketch of seismic survey: layer model, seismic rays (green: direct travelling wave, blue:
(critical) refracted or head wave, red: reflected waves) and resulting seismogram with
appropriate seismic signals (Source: Helga Wiederhold)

Proper configuration of the field parameters is essential for the success of the seismic survey.
Among the important field parameters are geophone spacing, shot spacing, and shot point offset
to the geophone. It is important to consider carefully what it is that we want to see. A simple
model including travel time curves for the key reflectors and the expected arrival times of
coherent noise, like ground roll or surface waves and air-coupled waves, may be very helpful and
may be calculated by simple formulas.

International Status:

Since the mid-1980s, GPR has become enormously popular, particular with the engineering and
archaeological communities. It was applied since the 1960s in connection with the development
of radio echo sounding of polar ice sheets. For regional and large scale investigations, radar
measurements have been made from aircraft and satellites. Ancient river drainage systems now
buried beneath desert sands in Africa important source of possible water. A detailed Ground

9
Penetrating Radar Survey was conducted at two locations on the Brookhaven National
Laboratory property to locate and define the size and depth of pits containing laboratory waste.

A sandy glacial till is present at the surface. From a geophysical perspective, the unconsolidated
sandy till is relatively homogenous, with radar penetration depths at 80 MHz that are greater
than 12 m. Cores and outcrops show some stratification within the till that is primarily a
variation in grain size, and this subtle layering is clearly seen on the GPR displays. The water
table is at a depth of approximately 12 m throughout the site, and is clearly visible as a strong
scattering layer on the GPR data displays.

Seismic measurements are well known from their use in hydrocarbon exploration, but can also
be applied for mapping of shallower underground structures such as buried valleys. Shallow
seismic method has been applied worldwide for geotechnical investigations like rock and soil
subsidence. Karst Landscapes have been analyzed using shallow seismic Method internationally.

National Status:

In India, the pavement evaluation is done solely by conventional destructive methods involving a
lengthy procedure of core drilling, sampling and laboratory testing which, due to the same
reason, is time consuming, costly and traffic disturbing in nature. An innovative non-destructive
high resolution subsurface imaging technique (ground penetrating radar ‗GPR‘) was used to
monitor the RCC (reinforced cement concrete) pavements parameters at IIT Roorkee, India, to
overcome the existing difficulties (D.C. Bala, S.S. Jain, R.D. Garg, 2010). It substantially
reduced manpower requirement, time, money and traffic disturbances.

The use of GPR for road survey is in use for the last three decades in different parts of world but
in India this concept is very new and currently not in use for routine survey purposes for the
evaluation of flexible and rigid pavements. As a result it has got enormous scope of
implementation for various survey purposes efficiently and cost effectively. It will be helpful as
a diagnostic tool for early forecasting of road and structure damage and destruction.

In India shallow seismic parametric surveys are being carried out for offshore geoscientific
studies both in Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and Territorial Waters (TW) along the East and
West Coasts of India. Also, Landslide detection in EE by Geological Survey of India (GSI) apart
from that it is being used for landslide prediction in hilly regions of India. The High-resolution
seismic reflection survey was carried out at Sohagpur, Madhya Pradesh to determine the high
rank coals below 300m to 600m. Generally these high rank coals contain Methane gas. This
methane gas is known as Coal bed methane (CBM) which is free methane found in coal seams.
The presence of high rank coals may be the indication of CBM horizons.

10
AIM & OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

AIM: Correlation of GPR and Seismic Exploration methods for assessment of lithological and
structural features

OBJECTIVE:

1. To investigate High resolution, Shallow Subsurface features using Ground Penetrating

Radar (GPR).
2. Geological mapping and modelling of subsurface feature of using seismic method and to
analyze surface waves created.
3. To correlate the GPR and Seismic exploration methods for the assessment of lithological
and structural features.

THEORY
In Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Surveys, electromagnetic waves of frequencies between
50MHz and 2.5GHz are transmitted to the ground or a structure. This energy is reflected back to
the surface when it encounters significant contrasts in dielectric properties.

A radio wave transmitter (Tx) located at the surface is used to generate a short (<20ns) pulse of
radio waves which penetrate into the subsurface. Some of the energy carried by these waves is
transmitted to greater and greater depths, while some of the energy is reflected back towards the
surface receiver (Rx) whenever a contrast in dielectric properties is encountered. The amount of
energy reflected is dependent on the contrast in electrical properties encountered by the radio
waves.

The receiver measures the variation in the strength of the reflected signals with time. The
resulting profile is called a 'scan' and is a one-dimensional representation of the subsurface
beneath the antenna. To build up a two dimensional section of the subsurface (a radargram); the
antenna is traversed across the surface to collect a number of adjacent scans. Conversions to
depth sections may be made providing there is sufficient information regarding the dielectric
properties of the material(s) surveyed.

Data can be processed and presented as individual radargrams (as shown in the figure below).
These are essentially two dimensional cross sections of the sub surface. Modern software now
enables stacking of adjacent radargrams and the construction of three-dimensional data cubes.
Horizontal slices (or ―time slices‖) through the data at the desired depth enables visualization of
the reflection strength across the survey area. This is an invaluable approach in the detection and
tracing of linear targets (e.g. pipes and walls) and complex three dimensional buried structures
(GPR; 2nd edition- Knoval, August 2006, Pages 4-7).

11
GPR Fundamentals

 Frequency, Wavelength, Amplitude, Phase, Polarization, Impedance and Power.

 GPR as a subset of general radar.
 GPR Sensor modalities: Stepped frequency, Impulse, FMCW, Chirp pulse.
 Monostatic/ Bistatic/ Multistatic/ SAR systems
 Important aspects of wave interaction with media other than free space & metal.
 GPR responds to changes in electrical and magnetic properties

Wave Forms

Electromagnetic Waves Acoustic Waves

EM Waves result from currents and moving Acoustic waves are wave of mechanical
electrical charges. They travel at the speed vibrations. They travel at the speed of sound.
of light (c).

ρ=density, κ=compressibility of medium

v=330 m/s in air (normal temp/pressure)

v=1.5 km/s in water
µ= Permeability, ɛ= Permittivity of medium
c=3×108 m/s in free space
1 < ɛ‘< 81 for most material.

12
13
 Wave interaction with media:

Maxwell Equations and Boundary conditions:

(RW= Radio Waves)

Dielectric Permittivity (ɛ): It represents an important diagnostic physical property for GPR. It is defined
as the ratio between the electric fields (E) within a material and the corresponding electric displacement
(D). It impacts the attenuation, wavelength and velocity of the EM waves as they propagate through a
material.

Electrical Conductivity (σ): It is a physical property that describes how easily the electric currents can
flow through the medium when subjected to an applied electric field (E). It defines the relationship
between the electrical current density (J) within a material and the electric field (E). [J= σE], Radio
waves will also reflect-off of very conductive objects buried in the earth.

Magnetic Permeability (µ): It is the degree of the magnetization that a material obtains in response to an
applied magnetic field. It relates the magnetic field (H) to the magnetic flux density (B). [B= µH].
Also, B= µ0(H+M) and µ0=4 × 10-7 H/m (in free space).

Bottom Line:

14
 Horizontal E- Field is the same in the air and in the soil right at the surface.
 For flat ground, vertical E-Field drops in inverse proportion to the dielectric constant of the soil.

Reflection at interfaces and electrical properties:

Velocity of Propagation: Velocity of a radar wave in the Earth is given by:

15
Working:

 Emits weak radio frequency signals.

 Detects the echoes sent back and uses them to build an image.
 Displays signal time delay and strength.
 The reflected signal has information on:
– how quickly the signal traveled
– how much was attenuated
 These quantities depend on spatial configuration and materials.

16
 Instrumentation Services:

Companies Diagnostic Features

Geomorph Radar GM Radars (Geomorph Instruments) is a
leading company in geophysical services and
non-destructive testing In Middle East,
Southern Europe and Africa
US Radar US Radar is a technological leader in the
design and innovation of surface and ground
penetrating radar (GPR) systems.
GPR Data LLC GPR Data, Inc. established in 1998, is a
company using Ground Penetrating Radar for
non-destructive investigation of earth and
concrete
Geo Searches Inc Geo Searches Inc is a full service Geophysical
company for all non-intrusive subsurface
investigations utilizing ground penetrating
radar.
Bay Geophysical, Inc Bay Geophysical, Inc. is an industry leader in
high resolution subsurface imaging
applications.
Mala MALÅ is the global leader in the design and
manufacture of Ground Penetrating Radar
(GPR) systems
Earth Measurement Corporation EMC is a near-surface geophysical survey firm
that specializes in subsurface investigations
and utility clearances.
GSSI Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc. (GSSI) is
the world`s leading manufacturer of ground
penetrating radar (GPR) equipment.
TT LLC Transient Technologies LLC is an innovative
privately owned company based in Kyiv,
Ukraine
Sensor and Software* Sensors & Software's founders have
continuously pioneered Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) innovation. Practical experience
combined with professional scientific and
engineering expertise give Sensors & Software
the unique insight needed to create innovative
GPR solutions
(Source: Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology)

17
 COMPONENTS OF GPR (Sensor and Software)*

(Source: Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology)

Serial Assembling Material Quantity/ Basic components/ Others

No.
1 Control unit
2 Antenna
3 Antenna connectors
4 4 – wheel smartcart
5 Fibre optic cable
6 Batteries
7 Chargers
8 GPS
9 Electrical beeper
10 Odometer
11 Battery power splitter cab
1, digital control unit attached back with DVL
2, fibre optic converters, attached with control module, for
optimization of data collection in noisy conditions
2 GB, Flash memory card (SanDisk) for data storage and
transfer
Digital video logger (DVL)
12.5 MHz, paired (transmitter & receiver), unshielded with
4 separate plates having total length of 8m
25 MHz, paired, unshielded with 3 separate plates having
total length of 4m
50 MHz, paired, unshielded
100 MHz, paired, unshielded
12, used to connect plates of paired antenna (12.5 &
2.5MHz)
with connecting accessories
5.0 & 20m dual fibre wires
8, used at transmitter and receiver port
1, 12V belt battery holding in pocket box with XLR
connector
1, 12V battery holding in gray case
4, for charging of PK12V2.3 batteries
1, for charging of belt battery
Optional trimble GPS with connecting wire and bracket
1
1, assembled with smart cart wheel
16 smaller and 3 larger sizes

12 Pulse pro LF, electronics Extra electronic accessories

WH9B
13 PVC tape 2
14 Shipping stand Only used for shipping
15 DVL carrier 1, with belt supporter
16 Supporting belts 2, yellow and 4,black coloured belt

18
 Parameter- Antenna Frequency:

 Deciding which antenna frequency to use for a survey depends on the objectives of the
survey.
 As frequency decreases the depth of investigation generally increases but spatial
resolution decreases.
 Therefore, ideal survey will be one that uses the highest frequency that adequately
penetrates to the target depth.
 The frequency of antenna particularly depends on soil interface of two media.

Depth (m) Center Freq.(MHz)

0.5 1000

1.0 500

2.0 200

5.0 100

10 50

30 25

50 10

What Controls Penetration:

 Exploration depth is site specific
 soils absorb radio waves
 sands and gravel are favourable for GPR
 fine grained soils such as silt and clay absorb signals
 salty water is totally opaque
 do not penetrate far through soils, rocks and concrete.

19
 Exponential decrease of Rw.
 a→attenuation co-eff. :determined by σ (or ρ)

A number of factors can cause the amplitude of seismic waves to decrease as they travel
from a source to the receiver: Geometrical Spreading, Attenuation, Scattering.
 Attenuation due to scattering:
 Heterogeneity
 Presence of water
 Attenuation α f
 Geometric spreading. similar to the way that ripples on a pond decrease in amplitude.

• As the wave travels through a material, the deformation is not perfectly elastic. Some
energy is converted into heat due to friction associated with movement along grain
boundaries. The loss of energy results in a decrease in the amplitude of the seismic
waves. This is called attenuation or absorption.
• Attenuation varies with excitation frequency and material
• Lowering frequency improves depth of exploration
20
• Increases in exploration depth require large power sources.(exponentially), exploration
depth is given by RRE (Radar Range Equation) : D= 35/σ meters

 The ground is more complicate

 Man-made structures are complex

 Some things simply do not reflect and Some grounds absorb all of the signal

21
Radar responses: GPR Cross-Section and Back-Scatter Gain
Amount of scatted energy is E= e x a

• Function of both physical property contrast and geometry.

22
 Determination of velocity from hyperbolas:

Applications of GPR:

1. Glaciology:
(a) Measuring ice thickness and bedrock topography, Ice thickness is measured by

 Measuring ice thickness can confirm studies of glacier volume.

(b)Mapping internal structure of ice sheets and glaciers.

 Internal reflections believed to be due to isochronous layers.
 Layers of dust from volcanic eruptions can give strong reflections.
23
  used to understand flow pattern of glacier.
 helps with interpretation of ice core data.
(c) Determine basal conditions
 Identification of Sub-glacial lakes
 The amplitude of the basal reflection can be used to study the composition of
sub-glacial sediments.
 Identification of frozen base and water contain surface idea about glacier
movement
 Coherence of basal reflection indicates basal roughness
(d) Detection of crevasses
 Done by considerable R
 In unmigrated radargram: appears as hyperbolic diffraction
 In migrated radargram: hyperbolae collapse (broken lines)- [Glover & Ress,
1992]
 Geometry of radargram depends on:
a. Depth of crevasses
b. Width & its filling
c. Orientation w.r.t profile line
(e) Study of englacial channel in hydrology
 In region of strong melt at the surface, the melt water penetrates the ice and
forms englacial channel
 Possible to detect & map the depth & position of a channel
 R & amplitude provide state of filling of channel. (Stuart et al, 2003)
(f) Flow behavior of Glacier
 Important role of basal interface
 If T< Pressure Melting Point (PMP), ice is frozen to the bed rock →slow
movement of glacier
 If T=PMP, liquid water is present at interface→ Sliding (depends on
roughness) & presence of sediment contribute to the sliding velocity.
2. Agriculture & Forestry
GPR determines:
i. material alteration or degradation
ii. geological characterization of crop growing areas,
iii. precision farming, water content evaluation and bio counting
iv. mapping of drainage and irrigation piping. Further uses include
v. mapping wood structures or wood products and derivatives.

3. Concrete
GPR widespread use for:
a. investigating the structural state
b. physical properties of concrete structures, roads etc.

24
 c. the presence of voids, water content and compaction.
4. Forensics and Archaeology
 Uncover buried of drug artifacts , money, and weapons as well as locate
unmarked graves.
 Mapping large historical sites with no need for costly and intrusive excavation.
5. Geotechnical. Engineering, hydrology & environmental site assessment
 Stratigraphy, Soil Structure
 Bathymetry and Sub-Bottom Profiling
 Septic Systems
 Sinkholes/Karst (CaCO3 Dep. Env)
 Water Table
 Contaminant Delineation
 Rock Mass Rating (RMR), Rock Mass Structure Rating (RSR)
6. Locating Pipes & Cables Subsurface Utility Mapping
 Metal Pipes/Cables/Conduits
 Subsurface Utility Mapping
7. UXO & Landmines Intrusion Monitoring Search & Rescue
 Unexploded Ordnance (UXO)
 Cables and sensors embedded in walls
 Landmines
 Tunnels, Bunkers
 Detect Movement of buried Victims
8. Mining
 Waterborne Placer Exploration
 Uranium exploration (in Africa)
 Kimberlite exploration (in Tanzania)

SEISMIC SURVEY

The project is aimed at modelling the shallow seismic signatures of selected regions of F3
Netherlands, North Sea. The data obtained was processed in OpendTect 6.0.0 (A free open
source software for seismic interpretation).
To utilize a region better, we need to understand and analyze its geologic parameters. Shallow
Seismic method serves as an integrated technique to map and model a wide range of structural,
hydrogeological and geotechnical features to a precise resolution. Active use of this technique
has been made worldwide to understand the sedimentology and stratigraphy of many regions.

Seismic attribute

Seismic attributes are the components of the seismic data, which are obtained by measurement,
computation, and other methods from the seismic data. Seismic attribute analysis can extract

25
information from seismic data that is, otherwise, hidden in the data and have been used to
identify prospects, ascertain depositional environments. Hence, many new attributes were used in
seismic geomorphology study. Most of these attributes are yet to be understood by many
geoscientists and interpreters. Most commonly used seismic attributes are used as interpretation
tool for seismic geomorphology.

Attribute-1= (Amplitude × Polarity)

Frequency

Attribute-2 (Sweetness)= -(A2 ) ; A2 = Energy

f

Sweetness (instantaneous amplitude divided by the square-root of instantaneous frequency) is

defined as the trace envelope a(t) divided by the square root of the average frequency fa(t):

Sweetness is an attribute designed to identify ―sweet spots‖ places that are oil and gas prone and
improves the imaging of relatively coarse-grained (sand) intervals or bodies.

SEMBLANCE AND SIMILARITY ATTRIBUTE

Semblance: - Attribute that returns a value (semblance coefficient) which is a measure of

multichannel coherence.
Near Fault- Low Semblance Value
Left and Right of the Pic: High Semblance Value

Description: - Semblance is, essentially, a measure of how similar a particular trace is to a group
of traces within a user-defined correlation window. This attribute will calculate the semblance
coefficient and return a value between 0 (completely dissimilar) and 1 (identical). This is done
by summing the squares of the energies within the stack and dividing by the sum of those
energies.

On the other hand, the Similarity attribute works by comparing pairs in given positions,
Semblance uses all points within the window to create the score.

Coherence attributes- Bahorich and Farmer (1995) introduced the coherence attribute which
computes coherence coefficients from seismic amplitudes on adjacent traces using a cross-
correlation technique.

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 Figure3 (2-D Seismic Interpretation)

Figure4 ( 3-D Seismic Interpretation)

Seismic Reflection Data Processing

Filtering data
[Section 4.8, Page No-61 - An introduction to Geophysical Explorations, Kearey et al. (2002)]
Seismic data is often filtered in order to remove noise and to enhance the vertical resolution of
the data. Filtering can be applied to the traces that are collected during a shot gather and to the
stacked trace from a CMP gather (or both).

Frequency domain filtering

Seismic data is usually contaminated by noise (i.e., ground motion due to factors other than the
seismic wave energy). Source of noise include wind, traffic and cultural noise, and electrical

27
signals from power lines. In marine surveys, waves and the motion of the ship and streamer
through the water produce noise. Some noise is random, which means that stacking seismic
traces will tend to reduce its amplitude, and increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). However, it
is common to perform further processing on the seismic traces in order to improve the SNR by
removing more noise.

Much of the noise in seismic data occurs at a frequency that is distinct from the seismic signal –
e.g., wind tends to have a higher frequency, marine noise has a lower frequency. In addition,
some noise occurs at a very specific frequency range (e.g., 60 Hz frequency of power lines).

This noise can be removed by applying frequency domain filters. The frequency content of each
seismic trace is analyzed and filters are used to remove a given range of frequencies from the
data. Common filters are:
High pass filter (or low cut filter) - All frequencies above a given frequency are retained, lower
frequencies are removed.
Low pass filter (or high cut filter) - All frequencies below a given frequency are retained, lower
frequencies are removed.
Band pass filter – only data within a given frequency range are retained
Notch filter – removes data within a given frequency range

In general, filtering will improve the visual display of the seismic sections by taking out
unwanted noise. But it is important to remember that filters are not selective – both signal (e.g.,
reflections) and noise will be removed! In addition, some noise will have frequencies that are
close to those of the reflection signals and can not be removed by frequency domain filtering.

Deconvolution (Inverse filtering)

Deconvolution or inverse filtering is a method that further removes noise and improves the
vertical resolution of the seismic traces.

First, consider that a column of Earth can be represented as an impedance log (plot of impedance
with depth). The reflection coefficient as a function of depth can then be calculated. This will
plot as a series of spikes that coincide with sharp changes in impedance. The amplitude of the
spikes depends on the impedance contrast.

This is illustrated in the following Figure (in Kearey et al., 2002):

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Another way to think of this is as a reflectivity function. This is identical to the reflection
coefficient log, with spikes of varying amplitude, except now the vertical axis is time. The time
between the spikes depends on the thickness and velocity of each layer.

Ideally, the reflectivity function is what we want to obtain from a seismic reflection survey.
Unfortunately, the seismic pulse that is generated by the source has a finite length (it is not just a
spike). It can be shown that the seismic trace that is recorded is the convolution of the
reflectivity function and the input (source) pulse.

The mathematical definition of convolution is:

Where x(t) is the recorded trace, r(t) is the reflectivity function, and w(t) is the input waveform.
The asterisk denotes the process of convolution.

As shown in the figure, the long pulse length means that reflections are spread out in time and
can interfere with each other. In Section 4.6, it was shown that individual reflections will only be
resolved if they are separated by more than λ/4 (or equivalently T/4), making it difficult to
distinguish between closely spaced reflections in seismic data.

Several other factors will cause the length of the seismic pulse to increase, and thus further
reduce the resolution:
 water layer reverberations in marine surveys
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  ghost reflections – reverberations in the weathered layer near the surface
 other near-surface (short-path) multiples
 attenuation of the seismic energy as it propagates – this results in the removal of high
frequency components in the seismic wave, which causes the seismic pulse to lengthen
over time (In effect, the Earth acts as a low pass filter)

Deconvolution is used to remove the effects of the previous operations that have lengthened the
seismic pulse. It is also called an inverse filter because it will undo the results of previous
convolutions and filtering operations.

The goal is to shorten the length of the seismic pulse, so that the sharp reflectivity function can
be observed in the seismic trace. This will increase the vertical resolution of the seismic data,
making it possible to distinguish between closely spaced layers.

Mathematically, we want to find the function i(t), such that: i(t) * x(t) = r(t)

This says that if the inverse filter i(t) is convolved with the seismic trace, the spiky reflectivity
function will be obtained. In other words, i(t) attempts to turn the long duration seismic pulse
into (approximately) a spike function.

There are a range of deconvolution techniques, including:

• matched filters and Wiener filters - used when the input signal is known (e.g., Vibroseis
data)
• spiking deconvolution (or whitening) – a special case of Wiener filtering where the
output signal is a spike
• predictive deconvolution - used to remove reverberations and multiples (dereverberation
and deghosting)

In practice, it is nearly impossible to produce the ideal spiky reflectivity function, but
deconvolution can lead to a significant improvement in the appearance and resolution of a
seismic section, by suppressing reverberations and enhancing vertical resolution.

GapDecon- Attribute

• GapDecon - Attribute that aims to attenuate repetitions of primary reflections (multiples).

• The type of multiple removal algorithm chosen for this application is the well-known
inversed filtering method also known as Gap deconvolution.
• This filter aims to attenuate a user-defined part of an auto-correlation function.
• The underlying idea is that multiples in the data are secondary reflections

SPECTRAL DECOMPOSITION

Spectral Decomposition unravels the seismic signal into its constituent frequencies, which
allows the user to see phase and amplitude tuned to specific wavelengths. The amplitude
component excels at quantifying thickness variability and detecting lateral discontinuities while
the phase component detects lateral discontinuities.

30
It is a useful tool for "below resolution" seismic interpretation, sand thickness estimation, and
enhancing channel structures.

Structural Features:

A geological fold is defined as the undulations/ bendings/ curvatures which are formed from the
layer parallel compressional stresses such as on sedimentary strata as result of plastic
deformation. A geological fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across
which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock mass movement.

Types of Faults:

Normal Fault: In Normal Fault the block above the fault line i.e. hanging wall moves
down the block below the fault line i.e. footwall.

Figure 5

Reverse Fault: In reverse fault the hanging wall moves up the footwall. This fault is
caused due to compressional forces and results in shortening.

Figure 6

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SAMPLE SPACE

Figure 7

NETHERLAND OFFSHORE F3 BLOCK

The population of interest for this study is the “NETHERLAND OFFSHORE F3 BLOCK” data
using “opendtect-6.0” (which is a open source seismic interpretation software system for
processing, visualizing and interpreting multi volume seismic data).

F3 is a block in the dutch sector of the north sea. The block is covered by 3D seismic that was
acquired to explore for oil and gas in the upper Jurassic - lower cretaceous strata. The upper
1200ms of the data consists of reflectors belonging to the Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene.
Within the survey four vertical wells are present. All wells had sonic and gamma ray logs. Only
two wells (F2-1 and F3-2) had density logs. These logs were used to train a neural network that
was then applied to the other two wells (F3-4 and F6-1) to predict density from sonic and gamma
ray logs.porosity is calculated by: porosity=(2.65-density)/(2.65-1.05).

32
METHODOLOGY
LOADING SEISMIC DATA

1. Open the Opendtectv5.0 software containing the “NETHERLAND OFFSHORE F3

BLOCK”.

2. Extract the survey and select it to load the data in the software:

Figure 8

 The rectangular block is the F3 Block containing the inline (the fold in the
direction in which the receiver cables are deployed) and cross line (the fold
perpendicular to the direction in which the receiving cables are positioned) and
time.

33
 Figure 9

Inline coordinate increases from west to east whereas cross line coordinates increases from south
to north.

IMPORTING SEISMIC CBVS FILE

3. Go to survey->import->seismic->CBVS->from file.
Then select the CBVS file name and locate the ―original Seismic‖ in the data. Then click
on RUN to successfully import the data.

4. Now on the left hand side of the window Right click on the inline option denoted as
scene 1 and click on ADD option to add a layer to it and to the cross line respectively.

5. Now right click on the <right click> option and select attribute->stored cubes->1.original
seismic.

Note:-To increase the apparent velocity click on option View->Z-scale and increase the
apparent velocity.

Now we have to use seismic attribute or a combination of attributes which is the integral
tool of the project for the correct structural assessment and identification of lithology and
hydrocarbon (oil/gas).

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APPLYING SEISMIC ATTRIBUTE

Figure10:-Seismic section as visible in Similarity attribute

Figure11: - Seismic section as visible in Semblance attribute

Interpretation: - As we can infer from both the figures that the layers shown in orange colour
are discontinuous while the layers shown in dark blue colour are continuous. Discontinuity may
be due to some unconformity or upliftment of plate. Continuity indicates that the formation is
extending without any break. Extension must be linear.

In the bottom part we can see that the layer in orange colour is uplifted and a kind of intrusion
can be noticed. The layer may have been intruded due to a salt dome moving upwards or an
igneous intrusion or may be a dike intrusion. Certainty can be justified by further processing the
seismic data.

35
 Figure 12: - Seismic Section as visible in Z slice

Interpretation; - In the above figure, when the seismic data is subjected to Z slice parameter,
the section gets tilted and we are able to see only the top view of the section. We can interpret
the following things:-

 The dark blue colored layer in the right side down corner is taking the form of a delta or
more precisely, a river channel-extending its channels outwards towards the land.
 Pockets of orange colored layers in between the dark blue colored layers may indicate
sediment deposition as deposited by the river channel.

Input Parameters in GapDecon:

• Correlation window = the window for calculating the auto-correlation function.

• Examine = pressing this button will open a new window where the user selects a subset
of the data (e.g. one inline, or one cross-line) on which the result of the auto-correlation
will be calculated and displayed for filter design purposes. This result can be used to
determine the lag and gap size (see example below).
• Lag-size = the window length in the auto-correlation function that is unaffected by the
filter. This window contains the wavelet-shape information.
• Gap-size = the window length in the auto-correlation function that the filter aims to
blank. This window contains repetitive (multiple) information.
• Noise level = random noise that can be added to stabilize the filter derivation. The noise
level is set to 1% by default.
• Stepout = a moving average across neighbouring traces that is applied prior to the
calculation of the auto-correlation function. This trace averaging results in a smoother
end-result. The higher the stepout, the smoother the result.
• Input is = The user can set the input to minimum or zero phase; if the input is zero phase,
a phase rotation of 90 degrees is applied before applying the GapDecon filter.

36
 • Output is = The user may set the output to zero phase, then the inverse 90 degrees
rotation is applied after the filtering.

Figure13:-Input parameters

The mathematical assumptions of gap or predictive deconvolution are that:

 The primary reflection series is random (beware cyclotherms).

 The source wavelet is minimum phase and is doesn't vary though the earth (stationary).
 The noise is random and is of minimal level.
 The multiple periods are fixed (stationary).
 The data are zero offset and dip is ignored.

Gap-Deconvolution Algorithm

A variety of deconvolution algorithms have been published in many literatures (Deconvolution

attribute article-Yuen mu. Ching and Jay. L Zweire (2005); Page 45-52). The performance of
each algorithm varies in terms of computational complexity, precision, numerical stability, and
application. The fundamental equation for gap-deconvolution is:

( ) ( ) ( )=∫ ( ) ( ) ……………… (1)

Fourier transforming both sides of equation (1) yields

( ) ( ) ( )……………… (2)
37
Rearranging equation (2), we will get
( )
( ) ……………… (3)
( )

The inverse Fourier transform of equation (3) gives

( )
( ) ∫ ……………. (4)
( )

This method is very simple and fast. However, when the signal and noise become relatively
comparable, due to low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or nature of energy compaction of the FT,
the noise will be amplified dramatically as the denominator in Eq. [3] approaches zero.

Figure14: 3D Cube of seismic data

38
39
40
The Black line in the above figure shows the presence of a fault. The fault detected is a normal
fault.

We observed GPR interpretation device/setup at Wadia institute of Himalayan Geology,

Dehradun. The Setup is shown below:-

Fig15: Software Setup for GPR Interpretation in Wadia Institute, Dehradun

There was a GPR Survey conducted (Crevasses detection in Himalayan glaciers using ground-
penetrating radar, K. K. Singh ,2013) in the Himalayan Catchment area to detect the crevasses
(A crevasse is usually perceived as a large crack in the ice, which may either be open or hidden

41
by snow. Crevasses of different dimensions are formed by tensional stress acting upon the brittle
ice).

Identification and mapping of crevasses in glaciated regions is important for safe movement.
However, the remote and rugged glacial terrain in the Himalaya possesses greater challenges for
field data collection. In the present study crevasse signatures were collected from Siachen and
Samudra Tapu glaciers in the Indian Himalaya using ground-penetrating radar (GPR). The
surveys were conducted using the antennas of 250 MHz frequency in ground mode and 350 MHz
in airborne mode. The identified signatures of open and hidden crevasses in GPR profiles
collected in ground mode were validated by ground truthing. The crevasse zones and buried
boulder areas in a glacier were identified using a combination of airborne GPR profiles and SAR
data, and the same have been validated with the high-resolution optical satellite imagery
(Cartosat-1) and Survey of India mapsheet. Using multi-sensor data, a crevasse map for Samudra
Tapu glacier was prepared. The present methodology can also be used for mapping the crevasse
zones in other glaciers in the Himalaya.

Figure 16: Radargram showing signature of open crevasse (a) and hidden crevasse (b) collected
in ground mode from Siachen glacier.

42
RESULTS:
Reflection imaging methods hold great promise for investigating buried cultural resources.
Reflection imaging can provide information on the depth of buried objects and structures as well
as their position within a site.

A comparison is presented between two geophysical prospecting methods based on reflection

imaging in shallow soil: seismic reflection imaging (SRI) and ground-penetrating radar (GPR).
Seismic reflection and GPR imaging methods are similar in that both are based. upon wave
propagation through the soil, and upon wave reflection from buried objects or structures. They
are different in the type of waves used for imaging—seismic or radar—making for differences in
the efficiency of wave coupling, propagation and reflection. Application of SRI and GPR at the
same site will improve our understanding of these methods for imaging buried objects or
structures. Geophysical reflection imaging uses the same experimental geometry, whether
seismic or radar waves are used as the energy source.

In both cases, the sources and receivers are located at the ground surface. An energy pulse is
transmitted into the ground, and is returned to the surface as a series of reflections from
discontinuities at depth. The reflected energy is received at one or more locations along the
ground surface, at near normal incidence angles. Data are collected as reflected energy versus
time, and converted to depth using knowledge of the propagation velocity within the soil. To
construct images of the subsurface reflectors, the sources and receivers are moved along the
ground surface. The resolving power for reflection imaging is limited by the wavelength of the
energy source, which is controlled by the wave frequency and propagation velocity. Attenuation
and scattering increase for short wavelength energy, placing practical limits on the highest
frequencies that may be used, and therefore, on the overall imaging resolution. The GPR
resolving power is also limited by the wavelength of the electromagnetic energy; operating in the
100–1000 MHz frequency range, typical radar velocities in soil are 150 mm ns_1.

Ground-penetrating radar uses radio frequency electromagnetic waves as an energy source,

which is sensitive to the dielectric properties of the soil and reflective objects within it. The
principal factors effecting soil dielectric properties are clay composition, compaction and water
content. Increased water content results in lowered wave velocity. Ground-penetrating radar uses
radio frequency electromagnetic waves as an energy source, which is sensitive to the dielectric
properties of the soil and reflective objects within it. The principal factors effecting soil dielectric
properties are clay composition, compaction and water content. Increased water content results in
lowered wave velocity. A key parameter for SRI is that several propagation modes may be
present: longitudinal (P-waves), shear (S-waves) and surface waves.

The SRI and GPR images show both similarities and differences in their ability to image
subsurface structure. The two imaging techniques applied at the site having energy wavelengths
that are comparable to within about a factor of three (GPR at 500 MHz and 170 mm ns_1 is 0.34
m wavelength, and SRI at 120 Hz and 120 m s_1 is 1 m wavelength). Reflection imaging
techniques have great potential to benefit archaeological field research by allowing, non-
destructive prospection, with detailed information on depth as well as lateral extent of buried
objects and structures. Application of both seismic and radar imaging to the same site has
revealed both similarities and differences in their imaging abilities.

43
The application of these techniques to a site with known features, such as the Controlled
Archaeological Test Site, allows ground truth of reflection imaging system performance. The
application of multiple reflection methods may allow better understanding of buried
archaeological features by providing an independent means for verifying depth, based on the site
velocity structure, and by providing multiple images based on common procedures for data
filtering, migration and display.

Another application of these methods is that we can observe the shallow lens of slits and clays,
along with depositional facies identification.

In Seismic reflection profile, we can identify sequence stratigraphy of a region. Bedsets, defined
by discontinuities, terminate against other bedsets and are defined by the angular relationship
between the two.

CONCLUSION:
This project is aimed at correlating the seismic and GPR exploration methods for the assessment
of structural and lithological features. Though these two methods use different aspects in their
subsurface mechanism, but we tried our best to observe and interpret the data obtained from
these methods and finally, we are able to correlate the two methods.

The methods are different in the type of waves used for imaging—seismic or radar—making for
differences in the efficiency of wave coupling, propagation and reflection. Application of SRI
and GPR at the same site will improve our understanding of these methods for imaging buried
objects or structures. Geophysical reflection imaging uses the same experimental geometry,
whether seismic or radar waves are used as the energy source. In both cases, the sources and
receivers are located at the ground surface. The SRI and GPR images show both similarities and
differences in their ability to image subsurface structure.

44
Acquiring good-quality seismic and ground-penetrating radar data at the same site is uncommon,
and collecting good-quality seismic data from the upper 15 m is usually difficult. However,
correlation with the GPR and geotechnical data strengthens the interpretations and conclusions
determined from the seismic data alone.

REFERENCES:
1. GPR; 2nd edition- Knoval, August 2006, Pages 4-7.
2. Section 4.8, Page No-61 - An introduction to Geophysical Explorations, Kearey et al.
(2002)
3. Porsani J.L., Jangelme G.M. and Kipnis R. 2010. GPR survey at Lapa do Santo
archaeological site, Lagoa Santa karstic region, Minas Gerais State, Italy. Journal of
Archaeological Science 37, 1141–1148.
4. Journal of Applied Geophysics; Volume 33, Issues 1-3, January 1995, Pages 177-193.
5. Ground-penetrating Radar for Landscape Archaeology. In Seeing the Unseen-Geophysics
and Landscape Archaeology, edited by Huckleberry, 2009, pp. 245-256, CRC
Press/Balkema: Taylor and Francis Group, London.
6. Helga Wiederhold- Seismics Methods.
7. GPR Fundamentals by Jeffrey J. Daniels, Department of Geological Sciences, The Ohio
State University.
8. Paper on Rebar detection using GPR-D.C. Bala, S.S. Jain, R.D. Garg.
9. Report on Implementation of GPR- University of Minnesota; Minnesota Department of
Transportation.
10. Textbook Referred: Fundamentals of Geophysics by William Lowrie.
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Southwestern Floodplain, edited by Nials, 2008, pp. 35-54. Anthropological Paper No.
28. Center for Desert Archaeology, Tucson, Arizona.
12. Crevasses detection in Himalayan glaciers using ground-penetrating radar, K. K. Singh
,2013.
13. Geomorphic Assessment of Flood-Prone Areas on the Southern Piedmont of the Tortolita
Mountains, Pima County, Arizona, edited by Pearthree, 1992. Arizona Geological Survey
Open-File Report 91-11: 234-236.
14. Geomorphic Analysis of Hohokam Settlement Patterns on Alluvial Fans along the
Western Flank of the Tortolita Mountains, Arizona, edited by Waters and Field, 1986.
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 1: 329-345.
15. Surficial Geologic Features of the Tucson Metropolitan Area, edited by McKittrick,
1988. Arizona Geological Survey Open-File Report 88-18: 12-13, Tucson, Arizona.
16. Urbini, S., Vittuari, L. and Gandolfi, S., GPR and GPS data integration: examples of
application in Antarctica. Ann. Geofis., 2001, 44, 687–702.
17. Delaney, A., Acrone, S., Bannon, A. and Wright, J., Crevasse detection with GPR across
the Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica. In Tenth International Conference of Ground Penetrating
Radar, Delft, The Netherlands, 2004.

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18. Björnsson H, Gjessing Y, Hamran SE, Liestol O, Palsson F and Erlingsson B (1996) The
thermal Basis, Contribution of working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
IPCC. Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
19. Sinisalo A, Grinsted A, Moore JC, Karkas E and Pettersson R (2003) Snow-accumulation
studies in Antarctica with ground penetrating radar using 50, 100, and 800 MHz antenna
frequencies. Journal of Glaciology 37:194-198.
20. Taurisano A, Tronstad S, Brandt O and Kohler J (2006) On the use of ground penetrating
radar for detecting and reducing crevasse-hazard in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica.
Cold region Science and Technology 45: 166-177.
21. Hambrey MJ and Alean J (2005) Glaciers. Second Edition. University Press,
Cambridge.106p.
22. OpendTect Tutorials
23. Deconvolution attribute article-Yuen mu. Ching and Jay. L Zweire (2005); Page 45-52

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