Compounds and Reactions

from the six-part

Elements of Chemistry Series

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 Table of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Links to Curriculum Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Student Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Summary of the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Pre-Test and Post-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Teacher Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Student Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Description of Blackline Masters . . . . . . . . . . .6
Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Follow-Up Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Script of Narration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

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 Compounds and Reactions
from the six-part Elements of Chemistry Series
Grades 9 to 12
Viewing Time: 20 minutes

‹ INTRODUCTION
Compounds and Reactions is part of the Elements of Chemis-
try Series, a six-part series of programs to help students under-
stand the fundamental concepts of chemistry. The attractive
images and engaging narration of the program have been de-
signed by educators and filmmakers to help students understand
the sometimes complicated and obscure explanations of this
important branch of science.

Elements are able to bond together into compounds and it is

these compounds that make up the millions of unique sub-
stances that exist in the universe. There are two different types
of compounds: ionic bonds and covalent bonds. Chemical reac-
tions are the process in which elements bond together into
unique substances with different physical and chemical proper-
ties.

This program gives a practical explanation of the process of

bonding and explains different types of chemical reactions. It
provides a comprehensive introduction to this fascinating area
of science appropriate for high school students.

‹ LINKS TO CURRICULUM STANDARDS

The Elements of Chemistry Series is based on the "National
Science Educational Standards" for "Physical Science," grades
9-12, (Content Standard B).

‹ STUDENT OBJECTIVES
After viewing the program and participating in the various fol-
low up activities, students should be able to:

• Explain that the approximately 12 million substances that

chemists have discovered are all made from the 92 elements
found naturally in the universe.
1
• Describe the three types of changes in matter: nuclear, physi-
cal, and chemical changes.

• Explain the difference between substances and mixtures.

• Describe how valence electrons of atoms have the ability to

move.

• Define a positive and a negative ion and explain how elements

become electropositive or electronegative.

• Explain how ionic bonds are formed and held together.

• Explain how covalent bonds are formed when electrons are

shared between atoms in structures called molecules.

• Define the principles behind the writing of molecular formu-

las.

• Define and understand the Law of Constant Composition.

• Explain how the octet rule can be used to understand how both
ionic and covalent bonds are formed.

• Describe in a general way the importance of molecular shapes

and the length of the bonds.

• Describe the process of chemical reactions and the system

chemists use to write chemical equations.

• Explain why chemical equations must balance.

• Define oxidation and reduction and explain oxidation-reduc-

tion or redox reactions.

• Give a general explanation of the redox reaction that occurs in

a voltaic cell battery.

• Define anode and cathode and explain what is happening at

each of them when a battery is operating.
2
‹ SUMMARY OF THE PROGRAM
There are three different types of changes in matter: nuclear,
physical, and chemical changes. When chemical changes occur,
there is an actual change in the chemical composition of the
substances. The original atoms are preserved but they combine
in such a way that a new substance is created with a different
chemical composition.

In a chemical compound, the valence electrons are lost, gained,

or shared between the different atoms. These unions are called
chemical bonds. There are two basic kinds of bonds: ionic
bonds and covalent bonds.

Electrons have the ability to move between atoms. When a neu-

tral atom loses an electron, it becomes a positive ion and when
a neutral atom gains an electron it becomes a negative ion.
Frequently elements lose or gain electrons to other elements
and these ions are then attracted to each other because of their
opposite electrical charges. This is an ionic bond. There are
many examples of ionic bonds involving two or more elements
but one of the most common is sodium chloride, table salt.

Covalent bonds occur when electrons are shared between atoms

in structures called molecules. There are a vast number of sub-
stances that have molecular structures including plastic, paper,
water, and all of the bonds in plants and animals. Molecules
can be made up with as few as two atoms or hundreds and even
a billion atoms. Molecular formulas are precise descriptions of
how many atoms there are in a single molecule.

A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more sub-

stances are converted into new substances with different physi-
cal and chemical properties. An incredible number of chemical
reactions are going on around us at all times. Chemical equa-
tions are written to describe what happens in a chemical reac-
tion.

3
Electrochemistry is a special type of chemical reaction called
redox reactions. There are a wide variety of redox reactions,
from respiration in animals to the rusting of iron. One of the
most interesting is the production of electricity in a battery.

When chemists understood chemical bonding and how reac-

tions occur, they were able to explain how the millions of sub-
stances that exist could be formed from the 92 elements that are
found naturally in the universe.

‹ PRE-TEST AND POST-TEST

Blackline Master #1, Pre-Test, is an assessment tool intended

to gauge student comprehension prior to viewing the program.
Remind your students that these are key concepts upon which
they should focus while watching the program.

Blackline Master #7, Post-Test, can be compared to the results

of the Pre-Test to determine the changes in student comprehen-
sion after viewing the program and participation in the activi-
ties.

‹ TEACHER PREPARATION
Before presenting this program to your students, we suggest
that you preview the program and review this guide and accom-
panying Blackline Master activities in order to familiarize your-
self with the content. Feel free to duplicate any of the Blackline
Masters and distribute them to your students.

As you review the materials presented in this guide, you may

find it necessary to make some changes, additions, or deletions
to meet the specific needs of your class. We encourage you to
do this. Only by tailoring this program to your class will your
students obtain the maximum instructional benefits afforded by
the materials.

We suggest that you first show the program in its entirety to

your students. This is an introduction to the complex subject of

4
modern chemistry, and at this stage it is helpful that students
gain an overview of the concepts and material in the program.
A number of lesson activities will grow out of the content of the
program and, therefore, the presentation should be a common
experience for all students.

After the introduction, the program is divided into chapters with

the following titles:

• Changes in Matter
• Ionic Bonds
• Covalent Bonds
• Chemical Reactions
• Electrochemistry

These chapters vary in length from three to five minutes. After

the students have seen the entire program, lessons could be
designed around these different chapters. A chapter could be
shown at the beginning of the class, and the balance of the class
time, and subsequent classes, could be spent examining the sub-
ject matter in the program in greater depth.

‹ STUDENT PREPARATION
It is important that students work through the material and
familiarize themselves with the vocabulary, concepts, and theo-
ries that scientists use to understand this field.

If the students have a textbook that they are following, assign

the relevant reading before the lesson. As students work
through the material, they will encounter a number of unfamil-
iar words and concepts. Most of these words are highlighted in
the program. An additional list of words is provided in Black-
line Masters #2a-c, Vocabulary Definitions and Activities.

The program concludes with a ten-question Video Quiz that

may be used to gauge students' comprehension immediately
after the presentation of the program. Blackline Master #6,
Video Quiz, is a printed copy of the questions, which may be

5
reproduced and distributed to the students. The answers to the
questions appear in the answer key of this Teacher's Guide.

‹ DESCRIPTION OF BLACKLINE MASTERS

Blackline Master #1, Pre-Test, should be given to students
before viewing the program. When these answers are compared
to the quiz results it will help you gauge student progress.

Blackline Master #2a, Vocabulary Definitions, will introduce

students to unfamiliar words and concepts used in this program.
Blackline Master #2b, Use the Right Word, and Blackline
Master #2c, Word Match, are activities designed to help rein-
force key concepts and vocabulary.

Blackline Master #3, Connected and Not Connected, will

help students identify their knowledge of key vocabulary terms
and the context in which they are used.

Blackline Master #4, Crossword Puzzle, reinforces key con-

cepts and vocabulary.

Blackline Master #5, Creative Writing Story Ideas, will

allow students to think creatively while incorporating scientific
principles and vocabulary covered in this program.

Blackline Master #6, Video Quiz, is a printed version of the

Video Quiz that appears at the end of the program.

Blackline Master #7, Post-Test, may be used to evaluate stu-

dent progress after completing this lesson.

6
‹ ANSWER KEY
Blackline Master #1, Pre-Test
1. False 6. True
2. True 7. True
3. True 8. False
4. False 9. True
5. False 10. False

Blackline Master #2b, Use the Right Word

1. nuclear change 6. molecular formulas
2. chemical reactions 7. polarity
3. ion 8. synthesis
4. octet rule 9. oxidation...reduction
5. molecules 10. voltaic cell

Blackline Master #2c, Word Match

anode- where oxidation occurs

cathode- where reduction occurs

chemical reaction- change in chemical composition of sub-

stance

electrochemistry- study of chemical effects of electrical

action

element- an atom with a unique number of protons

ion- an atom with more or less protons than

electrons

molecule- covalent bond

oxidation- loss of electrons

polarity- molecules with a slight positive or nega-

tive charge

reduction- the gain of electrons

7
Blackline Master #3, Connected/Not Connected
1. fusion fission
2. changes in state chemical reactions
3. negative ions positive ions
4. mixtures compounds
5. electronegative electropositive
6. ionic covalent
7. negative positive
8. voltaic conventional
9. oxidation reduction
10. anode cathode

Blackline Master #4, Cross Word Puzzle

1 2
P E
3
I O N L
L E
4 5 6
C A T H O D E E C
R X L T
7
I M I X T U R E R
8 9
T D C R A D I A T I O N
Y A T N N
10 11
T O P R O T O N
I C O D
12
V O L T A I C E
N E H
T E
13
M O L E C U L E S
I
14
S Y N T H E S I S
T
15
R E D U C T I O N
Y

Blackline Master #6, Video Quiz

1. True 6. molecules
2. False 7. False
3. reaction 8. True
4. ion 9. False
5. True 10. True
8
Blackline Master #7, Post-Test
1. chemical reaction
2. ionic bond
3. molecules
4. anode
5. False. Nuclear changes are those changes that occur in the
nucleus of atoms.
6. False. Electrons have the ability to move. When a neutral
atom loses or gains electrons, it becomes an ion. Negative ions
are attracted to positive ions because of their opposite electrical
charges. In the process, the ions form an ionic bond.
7. True
8. False. During a chemical reaction, atoms can form mole-
cules; molecules can break apart or react with other molecules
and new bonds are formed.
9. False. Redox reactions occur when electrons are transferred
from the atom that is oxidized to the atom that is reduced.
10. Ions occur when neutral atoms lose or gain electrons. This
makes the ions electronegative or electropositive. The ions will
assemble into a pattern because positive and negative electrical
charges attract each other. This forms an ionic bond.
11. Electrons have the ability to move and often the electrons of
two or more elements join together in order to complete their
valence energy levels. These covalent bonds are molecules.
12. A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more sub-
stances are converted into new substances with different physi-
cal and chemical properties.

‹ DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. We see change in the world all around us. Surely when
chemists claim that there are only three different types of
change—nuclear, physical, and chemical—they are exaggerating.
A chemist, like a physicist, focuses on the physical world.
Science has long demonstrated that matter cannot be created or
destroyed. The same amount of matter exists in the universe
today as existed when the Big Bang occurred some 15 billion
years ago. To a chemist, therefore, change can only occur at an
atomic level. There can be a change in the nucleus of atoms,

9
called nuclear change. There can be a change of state as sub-
stances transform from a gas to a liquid or solid. This is almost
always induced by temperature or pressure changes. Or there
can be chemical changes, which occur when the original atoms
are preserved but they combine in such a way that a new sub-
stance is created with a different chemical composition than the
original.

2. What are the differences in the physical characteristics of

substances formed by ionic bonds and those formed by covalent
bonds?
Ionic bonds occur when electrons are transferred from one
atom to other atoms. What holds the ions together are their dif-
fering electrical charges. Covalent bonds are a joining of atoms
into a molecular structure so that the valence electrons are
shared between the different atoms. Ionic bonds tend to be brit-
tle and make good conductors of electricity. Most have a high
melting point and dissolve in water. Covalent bonds tend to be
strong, they usually do not dissolve in water and most are not
good conductors of electricity.

3. Why are plants and animals made up of substances that have

molecular structures?
Of the 12 million substances that have been identified by
chemists, the vast majority come from plants and animals.
Some of these molecular structures are very complex. The DNA
molecule in humans, for example, is made up of about one bil-
lion atoms. Living things have evolved for hundreds of millions
of years. As these organisms adapted to meet new conditions,
new molecular structures emerged to meet their needs.

4. Why must chemical equations that describe chemical reac-

tions always balance?
Matter cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change. A
chemical equation is a description of what happens in that
change. Therefore, the same number of atoms must be on either
side of the equation.

10
5. Why do batteries run down and electricity generated from
other sources does not run down?
Electric power in a battery is created by a chemical reaction.
Electrons are attracted from atoms and flow through a circuit
to create electricity. When the chemicals are exhausted, there
are no more electrons available and the battery is used up.
(Some batteries, like those in cars, can be recharged.) Virtually
all of the electricity that we use in homes, factories, and offices
comes from mechanical energy powered by steam, waterpower
or the wind. This mechanical power generates electricity by
turning a magnet in a coil of wire. As long as the magnet turns,
it will generate electricity.

‹ FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES
The following activities and projects are designed to help stu-
dents understand compounds and reactions.

1. Research nuclear fusion and illustrate what happens as

hydrogen is converted into helium. How is it possible that ener-
gy is released in this process? Some scientists believe that
fusion will be a source of inexhaustible, inexpensive non-pol-
luting electrical power. What is the difficulty in reaching that
goal?

2. Visit a nuclear power plant, if there is one near your com-

munity, and discuss the safety precautions that are being taken
at the plant. Write a report explaining why the process of
nuclear fission is potentially so dangerous and give your esti-
mation about the plant's safety program.

3. Draw what happens at an atomic level when sodium chloride

is formed.

4. Draw a diagram explaining why ionic solutions are good

conductors of electricity.

5. Explain why the periodic table is able to predict when ionic

bonds are likely to be formed. Give three examples of bonds
that follow your predictions.
11
6. Draw a diagram of a water molecule (H2O), and a methane
molecule (CH4). Label all of the atoms.

7. Research and write the molecular formula for the following

substances: water, table salt, a molecule of oxygen, propane,
octyne, and table sugar.

8. Research the history and use of the Lewis Dot method of

illustrating the valence electrons. What is the advantage of this
method?

9. Draw and label the important parts of a voltaic battery. Show

the flow of electrons.

10. Research different types of batteries. Draw diagrams ex-

plaining how each of them works and explain why different bat-
teries are appropriate for different uses.

‹ REFERENCES
There are many excellent books and websites dealing with
compounds and reactions that are appropriate for students. The
following is a short list.

Books:
LeMay, Eugene, Karen M. Robblie, Herbert Beall, Douglas
Brower, Chemistry: Connections to Our Changing World,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996.

Jenkins, Frank, Hans van Kind, Lucille Davis, Olivier Lantz,

Patricia Thomas, Dick Tompkins, Chemistry II, Toronto:
Nielson, 2002.

McMurry, John, Robert C. Fay, Chemistry, Englewood Cliffs,

New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1995.

Smoot, Robert C., Richard G. Smith, Jack Price, Chemistry,

Glencoe: McGraw Hill, 1998.

12
Internet Sites:
www.molecularuniverse.com
http://highschoolhub.org/hub/chemistry.cfm
http://dir.yagoo.com/Science/Chemistry/
www.dist214.k12il.us/users/asanders/chemhome2.html
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/elec-
trochem.html
http://www.howe.k12.ok.us/~jimaskew/creact.htm
http://www.ausetute.com.au/shapemol.html
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/Bonding/Electroneg-Bond-
Polarity.html

‹ SCRIPT OF NARRATION
Only 92 elements are found naturally in the universe and yet
chemists have identified more than 12 million different and
unique substances. How can this be possible? The secret lies in
how elements bond together into compounds. When chemists
unraveled the mysteries of compounds and reactions, they were
able to explain the fundamental nature of matter. This remark-
able achievement lies at the very heart of modern chemistry.

CHANGES IN MATTER
There are only three different types of changes in matter:
nuclear, physical, and chemical changes. Nuclear changes are
those that occur in the nucleus of atoms. Fusion occurs in the
sun and stars when two hydrogen nuclei fuse together to
become helium. In the process, enormous amounts of energy
are released, which travels to us in the form of electromagnetic
radiation, or light.

Fission is a different type of nuclear process, created in nuclear

bombs or nuclear power plants. In this process, the nuclei of
uranium atoms are broken apart and release energy. Radio-
active decay is another form of nuclear change. In this process,
the original nucleus of an atom decomposes to form a new
nucleus, releasing radiation in the process. But although nuclear
changes are vital in the universe, we tend not to be aware of
them in our everyday life

13
Physical changes in matter occur when a substance undergoes
change, but retains its chemical composition. Water can be in
the form of liquid, a solid—ice, or a gas—water vapor, but it
always has the same chemical composition, H2O. Another term
for this is changes of state.

Chemical changes are significantly different and when they

occur, there is an actual change in the chemical composition of
the substances. The original atoms are preserved but they com-
bine in such a way that a new substance is created with a dif-
ferent chemical composition than the original. There are many
examples of this. Metals can be melted together and form new
alloys with a different chemical composition than the original.
Plastics are made by combining different types of elements. In
the process, new substances with unique qualities are created.

Chemists make a distinction between pure substances and mix-

tures. In a mixture, different substances are mixed together but
do not bond. Muddy water is a good example. The mud and
the water do not join together and if left to stand for a time, the
mud will settle to the bottom.

In a compound, however, the valence electrons of elements are

lost, gained, or shared between the different atoms to create
substances with unique chemical properties. These unions are
called chemical bonds. There are two basic kinds of bonds:
ionic bonds and covalent bonds.

IONIC BONDS
A neutral atom is made up of an equal number of positively
charged protons and negatively charged electrons. Protons in
the nucleus of atoms rarely become free, but electrons have the
ability to move and it is the valence electrons—those electrons
in the outer energy level—that move and give the element its
chemical characteristics.

When an atom loses an electron, or more than one electron, it

becomes a positive ion, because it now has more positively
charged protons than electrons. If an atom gains electrons, giv-
ing it more electrons than protons, it becomes a negatively
14
charged ion. These ions then attract each other because of their
opposite charges. The two elements do not merge; they lose or
gain electrons.

The periodic table predicts when this type of bond is likely to

happen. Chlorine is in group 17 and all elements in this group
need one more electron to fill their valence energy level. All
elements in this group strongly attract electrons. They are said
to be electronegative.

Sodium is in group 1 and all elements in this group have only

one electron in their valence energy level. These elements are
electropositive, meaning that they are more likely to lose elec-
trons. Sodium is an element with only one valence electron in
its outer energy level. Chlorine is an element with one electron
missing to complete its outer energy level and become stable.

When these two elements come close together, there is a natu-

ral tendency for the lone valence electron of sodium to move to
complete the valence energy level of chlorine. In the process,
the two atoms become ions and form an ionic bond. As a result
each of the elements becomes more stable. The new compound
formed is sodium chloride, a substance everyone knows as table
salt.

This relationship is common in chemistry and has given rise to

the octet rule, which states that: "Atoms tend to gain, lose, or
share electrons in order to acquire a full set of valence elec-
trons."

When ions are close together, they assemble into a pattern. Ne-
gative and positive electrical charges attract each other. For
example, in sodium chloride, or table salt, the sodium ions are
surrounded by the chloride ions, which in turn are surrounded
by the sodium ions and so on. They are arranged in this way to
maximize the electrical attraction among them.

There are many examples of ionic bonds. Some, like calcium

carbonate, involve more than two elements. Ionic compounds
share a number of similar properties. They have high melting
15
points and tend to be brittle. Most dissolve in water, which sep-
arates the ions and makes the water a good conductor of elec-
tricity.

COVALENT BONDS
Ionic bonds occur when electrons are transferred between
atoms, but there are many substances formed when electrons
are shared between atoms in covalent bonds in structures called
molecules.

A vast number of substances have molecular structures, includ-

ing plastic, paper, all plant life, water, most of the air we
breathe, and every tissue in the bodies of animals such as
humans. Molecules can be made up of as few as two atoms or
hundreds of them. The DNA molecules that provide the hered-
itary code in every cell of our bodies are made up of about one
billion atoms. It is the ability of atoms to join together into
covalent bonds that result in the millions of substances that we
find in the world.

To describe the composition of molecules, chemists use molec-

ular formulas, which precisely describe how many atoms there
are in a single molecule. O2, for example, is a molecule of oxy-
gen, which is in the air we breathe and flows through our blood-
stream. O is the symbol for oxygen, and 2 indicates that there
are two oxygen atoms in the molecule.

This is the molecular formula for ordinary table sugar:

(C12H22O11). It is a complicated molecule but it is possible to see
its composition at a glance. The molecule is made up of 12 car-
bon atoms, 22 hydrogen atoms, and 11 oxygen atoms.

Molecules always arrange themselves in the same proportions

because the atoms bond together in a predictable way. The
chemical formula of a substance reflects these proportions.
This is called the Law of Constant Composition, which states
"A given compound always contains the same elements in the
same proportion by mass." Pure water, H2O, for example, is
always 88.9% oxygen and 11.1% hydrogen by mass.

16
The principle that influences covalent bonding is the octet rule,
the same rule that influences ionic bonds. In a molecule of
water, H2O, the oxygen atom has 8 electrons, 6 of which are in
its valence energy level. As this Lewis Dot drawing shows,
when the oxygen joins with hydrogen, the two electrons from
the hydrogen atoms complete the valence energy level of the
oxygen atom and satisfy the octet rule. The molecule also com-
pletes the valence energy level of the hydrogen atoms.

Although the octet rule predicts the structural formulas for mil-
lions of molecules, there are many exceptions. Some atoms,
particularly those elements that are beyond the second row in
the periodic table, often form bonds that have an irregular num-
ber of electrons in the valence energy level. This is true of
phosphorous and sulfur.

Molecules have different shapes and sizes. Some have a linear

shape—the centers of the atoms fall in a straight line. Others
have a triangular shape, and still others have the shape of tetra-
hedrons. The reason atoms arrange themselves in this way is
because of the attraction and repulsion of the electrical charges
between the atoms.

The length of the bonds varies and many molecules have slight
negative and positive charges. This is called polarity and results
from unequal distribution of the electrical charges.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
When we crack an egg into a hot pan, it changes from a semi-
liquid, runny goop into a fried egg, ready to eat. The egg can't
be uncooked and put back into the eggshell. It has undergone a
chemical reaction.
A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more sub-
stances are converted into new substances with different physi-
cal and chemical properties. During a chemical reaction, atoms
can form molecules, molecules can break apart, or react with
other molecules and new bonds are formed. Some substances
readily go through chemical reactions, but others do not be-
cause of the arrangement of the electrons in the atoms and mol-
ecules.
17
There are an incredible number of chemical reactions going on
around us all of the time. All life processes—respiration, diges-
tion, and reproduction—are chemical reactions, as are the com-
bustion of gasoline in car engines, the rusting of metal, and the
decomposing of plants.

Chemists categorize reactions to describe what is happening at

a molecular level. A synthesis is a union of substances into a
new molecular structure, in this case, a polymer. A single
replacement reaction is one in which one element displaces
another. Here we see sodium-displacing hydrogen from water.
And a double replacement reaction is an exchange of elements
to form new compounds. Potassium leaves iodine behind and
bonds with nitrate, and lead breaks its connection to nitrate and
bonds with iodine. The rate of these reactions can be affected
by temperature and the presence of a catalyst.

Chemical equations are written to describe what happens in a

chemical reaction. This is magnesium, quite a reactive element.
When it reacts with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen gas is pro-
duced. It can be written magnesium plus hydrochloric acid
produces magnesium chloride plus hydrogen gas: Mg + HC1¤
MgCl2 + H2. The arrow means yields or produces.

The key to understanding chemical equations is that they must

balance. Matter can never be created or destroyed. There must
be the same number of atoms on each side of the equation. Is
this chemical reaction written correctly? No! On the right-hand
side of the equation, there is one magnesium atom, two chlorine
atoms and two hydrogen atoms. The equation does not balance.
In order to make both sides of the equation balance, there must
be 2 molecules of hydrochloric acid. This is now the proper
equation: Mg + 2HC1¤ Mg Cl2 + H2.

The system that chemists have developed for writing the equa-
tions for chemical reactions and the formulas for compounds
are precise ways of describing the structure and reactions of
elements at an atomic level.

18
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
One special type of chemical reaction is called oxidation-re-
duction, or redox reaction. Oxidation refers to the loss of elec-
trons, while reduction refers to the gain of electrons.
Oxidation-reduction reactions occur when electrons are trans-
ferred from the atom that is oxidized to the atom that is reduced.

There are a wide variety of redox reactions that occur in nature

from the rusting of iron, to breathing in animals, to the func-
tioning of muscles.

An important class of oxidation-reduction reactions is used to

provide electric current in voltaic cell batteries. This is a sim-
plified drawing of a voltaic cell battery. These types of batter-
ies can be created using any two different metals since metals
differ in their tendency to lose electrons. We take advantage of
this by connecting two such metals with a wire to allow elec-
trons to flow from one to the other. This is electric current.

In this example, zinc is placed in a zinc-salt solution, zinc sul-

fate, and copper is in a copper-salt solution, copper sulfate.
Oxidation takes place at the electrode we call the anode and
reduction occurs at the cathode.

Zinc atoms of the anode are oxidized, providing two electrons,

which flow through the external wire from the anode to the
cathode. This causes the electric current to light the bulb. In
their oxidation, the zinc atoms have become positive ions
because they have given up electrons, and they go into the solu-
tion.

On the copper side, when the two electrons are received, they
reduce a copper ion in the copper-sulfate solution into a neutral
copper atom, which attaches itself to the cathode. As this pro-
cess continues, an imbalance of charge is very quickly built up
in the battery, as positive charges are generated on the left and
negative charges accumulate on the right. For the voltaic cell to
continue to produce an external electric current and power the
light bulb, there must be a movement of sulfate ions in solution

19
from the right to the left, to balance the electron flow in the
external circuit wire.

This is an oxidation-reduction process. At the anode, oxidation

—or loss of electrons—occurs, and at the cathode—reduc-
tion—or gain of electrons occurs.

When scientists came to understand how elements bonded to

become compounds, they were able to explain one of the great
riddles that has puzzled us since the beginning of human civi-
lization: what is the makeup of matter?

20
 Name ____________

1 COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS from the Elements of Chemistry Series

Pre-Test

Directions: This will help you discover what you know about compounds and reactions before you begin
this lesson. Answer the following True or False.

1. Matter can never change.

T_______ F_______

2. Chemical reactions occur when there is a change in the chemical composition of substances.
T_______ F_______

3. In a mixture, substances do not bond.

T_______ F_______

4. In an ionic bond, the protons in the nucleus attach themselves to other atoms.
T_______ F_______

5. An electropositive element is one that has a tendency to attract electrons.

T_______ F_______

6. Molecules are covalent bonds.

T_______ F_______

7. A molecular formula precisely describes how many atoms there are in a single molecule.
T_______ F_______

8. A molecule of water, H2O, has two oxygen atoms and one hydrogen atom.
T_______ F_______

9. All life processes—like respiration, digestion, and reproduction—are chemical processes.

T_______ F_______

10. A battery produces electricity by passing electrons back and forth from the anode to the cathode.
T_______ F_______

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COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS from the Elements of Chemistry Series
2a Vocabulary Definitions
The following words and terms used in the program may be unfamiliar to you. Try to listen for these terms while
viewing the program, pay close attention so you can later include them in your scientific descriptions, observa-
tions, and creative writing assignment activities.
anode - Where oxidation, or the giving up of
electrons, occurs.
atom - The fundamental unit of matter in the
universe, made up of a nucleus of protons
and neutrons and orbiting electrons
atomic number - The number of an element
determined by the number of protons in its
nucleus.
atomic mass - The mass of the element.
cathode - Where reduction, or the gain of
electrons, occurs.
change of state - Most substances can
undergo changes from a gas, to a liquid, to a
solid, but still retain their chemical composi-
tion. This is sometimes called physical
change.
chemical bonds - When valence electrons
of elements are lost, gained, or shared
between different atoms to create substances
with unique chemical properties.
chemical equations - Descriptions of what
happens in a chemical reaction using chemi-
cal symbols.
chemical reaction - A change in the che-
mical composition of a substance.
compounds - When valence electrons of
elements are lost gained or shared between
different atoms to create substances with
unique chemical properties.
covalent bonds - When electrons are shared
between atoms, they are called covalent
bonds, or molecules.
double replacement - An exchange of ele-
ments to form a new compound.
electrochemistry - The study of the chemi-
cal effects of electrical action.
electron - Negatively charged particles that
orbit the nucleus of atoms.
electronegative elements - Those elements
that tend to attract electrons. They are on the
right-hand side of the periodic table.
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electropositive elements - Those elements
that tend to lose electrons. They are on the
left-hand side of the periodic table.
element - An atom with a unique number of
protons.
energy levels - Electrons orbit the nucleus
of atoms with different levels of energy.
These energy levels are sometimes called
shells or levels. The energy levels corre-
spond to the periods of the periodic table.
fission - When the nucleus of atoms are split
apart releasing energy. This is the energy of
nuclear bombs and nuclear reactors.
fusion - When two hydrogen atoms fuse
under extreme heat, energy is released.
Fusion is the energy of the sun and stars.
groups - Vertical columns of the periodic
table.
ions - Atoms with more electrons than pro-
tons or fewer electrons than protons are
called ions.
ionic bonds - Two or more ions held to-
gether by the electrical attractions be-tween
them.
Law of Constant Composition - A given
compound always contains the same ele-
ments in the same proportion by mass.
Lewis Dot drawings - Representations of
elements by showing the valence electrons
as dots around the nucleus.
matter - Material that makes up objects.
Matter cannot be created or destroyed.
mass - The total quantity of an object's mat-
ter.
mixtures - When substances are mixed but
do not chemically bond.
molecules - When electrons are shared
between atoms. Molecules are covalent
bonds.
molecular formula - The precise descrip-
tion of the type and number of atoms in a
single molecule.
Name ____________
negative ion - An ion that has more elec-
trons than protons.
neutral atom - When an atom has an
equal number of protons and electrons, its
electrical charges are balanced and the
atom has a neutral electrical charge.
neutron - Particles in the nucleus of atoms
that have no electrical charge.
nuclear change - A change that occurs in
the nucleus of atoms.
octet rule - Atoms tend to gain, lose, or
share electrons in order to acquire a full set
of valence electrons.
physical change - When a substance under-
goes change but retains its chemical compo-
sition. This is sometimes called change of
state.
polarity - Molecules with slight negative or
positive charges.
positive ion - An ion that has fewer elec-
trons than protons.
proton - Positively charged part of the
nucleus of atoms.
Quantum Theory - The theory that ex-
plains matter and energy at atomic and sub-
atomic levels.
radiation - When the nucleus of an atom
decomposes to form a new nucleus, it re-
leases radiation in the process.
reduction - The gain of electrons.
single replacement - When an element
replaces another element.
synthesis - A union of substances into a new
molecular structure.
valence electrons - The outer ring of elec-
trons of an element.
Volta, Alessandro (1745-1827) - Italian
physicist best known as the developer of the
voltaic battery, which is named after him.
voltaic cell battery - A devise for producing
an electric current by the action of two plates
of different metals in an electrolyte.
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 Name ____________

2b COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS from the Elements of Chemistry Series

Use the Right Word

Directions: Find the right word from the vocabulary list that completes the following sentences.
1. Fusion is an example of ____________ ____________ because it is the change in the nucleus of atoms.

2. ___________ ____________ occurs when there is an actual change in the chemical composition of sub-
stances.

3. An ____________ is an atom that has more or less protons than electrons.

4. "Atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons in order to acquire a full set of valence electrons," is called
the ____________ ____________.

5. Substances formed when electrons are shared between atoms in covalent bonds are called __________.

6. ____________ ____________ are precise descriptions of the number and type of elements in a single
molecule.

7. Many molecules have slight negative or positive electrical charges. This is called ____________.

8. A union of substances into a new molecular structure is called a ____________.

9. ____________ refers to the loss of electrons, while ____________ refers to the gain of electrons.

10. A device for producing an electrical current by the action of two plates of different metals in an elec-
trolyte is called a ____________ ____________ battery.

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 Name ____________

2c COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS from the Elements of Chemistry Series

Word Match

Directions: Connect the word with the proper definition.

anode an atom with more or less protons than electrons

cathode molecules with a slight positive or negative charge

chemical reaction change in chemical composition of substance

electrochemistry the gain of electrons

element where oxidation occurs

ion where reduction occurs

molecule an atom with a unique number of protons

oxidation study of chemical effects of electrical action

polarity covalent bond

reduction loss of electrons

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 Name ____________

3 COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS from the Elements of Chemistry Series

Connected/Not Connected

Directions: Place the following words in the proper sentences.

fusion positive ions ionic conventional

fission mixtures covalent oxidation
changes in state compounds negative reduction
chemical reactions electronegative positive anode
negative ions electropositive voltaic cathode

1. ____________ is connected to ____________ because both are nuclear charges.

2. ____________ are NOT connected to ____________ because a substance undergoes change in one while
in the other there is a change in the chemical composition of the substance.

3. ____________ are connected to ____________ because the opposite electrical charges holds them togeth-
er.

4. ____________ are NOT connected to ____________ because in one the substances do not bond and in
the other there is a chemical bond of the substances.

5. ____________ elements are connected to ____________ elements because one tends to lose electrons
and the other tends to gain electrons.

6. ____________ bonds are NOT connected to ____________ bonds because the electrons in one type of
bond are lost or gained between the elements and the electrons in the other type of bond are shared between
the elements.

7. Molecules with a slight ____________ charge and molecules with a slight ____________ charge are con-
nected because they tend to attract each other.

8. A ____________ cell battery is NOT connected to ____________ electric power because in one the elec-
tricity is the result of a chemical reaction and in the other the electricity is generated by mechanical energy
when a magnet is spun in a coil of wire.

9. ____________ is connected to ____________ because one refers to the loss of electrons and the other
refers to the gain of electrons.

10. An ____________ is NOT connected to a ____________ because one electrode is where oxidation occurs
and the other is where reduction occurs.

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 Name ____________

4 COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS from the Elements of Chemistry Series

Crossword Puzzle

1 2

4 5 6

8 9

10 11

12

13

14

15

Across Down

3. Atoms with greater or fewer protons than electrons. 1. Molecules with slight negative or positive charges.
4. Where reduction occurs. 2. Negatively charged particle.
7. When substances mix, but do not bond. 5. The loss of electrons.
8. Release of energy when a nucleus decomposes. 6. The study of the chemical effects of electrical
11. Positively charged particles in the nucleus of action.
atoms. 9. Where oxidation occurs.
12. _____ cell battery. 10. The rule of how elements gain, lose, or share
13. Covalent bonds. electrons.
14. Union of substances into new molecular structures.
15. The gain of electrons.

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 Name ____________

5 COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS from the Elements of Chemistry Series

Creative Writing Story Ideas

Directions: Choose from one of the ideas listed below and write a story or dramatization. Include plot

5 lines that follow scientific principles and key vocabulary terms.

1. You have been asked by a prominent politician to write a speech advocating the expenditure of several bil-
lions of dollars to research fusion techniques for the generation of electricity. What is the text of the speech?

2. Chemists working in a private company have synthesized a new group of substances that are resistant to
the effects of heat, light, water, organic pests, and radiation. The company president has asked them to come
up with some ideas about how these new products might be commercialized. Write a story that dramatically
illustrates how they come to their conclusions.

3. Four university chemists have collaborated to analyze the chemical structures of a group of newly discov-
ered substances. Some have worked very hard at the project and made major contributions while others have
done little or nothing, but all four are very anxious to be recognized because those given credit for the
achievement will gain enormous prestige and their careers will be greatly enhanced. Write a short story
describing what happens when the association of chemists meets to give rewards and credit for the work.

4. Write a film script with a story line that involves four high students in a chemistry lab trying to understand
the molecular structures of various substances. A little humorous dialogue might lighten up the story.

5. Write a story that explores the reaction that people in the early nineteenth century might have had when
they saw how a voltaic cell battery actually worked. Perhaps the Italian physicist, Alessendro Volta, could be
in the story demonstrating this startling new technology.

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 Name ____________

6 COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS from the Elements of Chemistry Series

Video Quiz

Directions: Answer the following either true or false, or fill in the blank with the correct word to
make it true.

1. There are only 92 elements that are found naturally in the universe.
T_______ F_______

2. The process when atoms are broken apart to release energy is called fusion.
T_______ F_______.

3. When there is a change in the chemical composition of a substance, it is called a chemical __________.

4. When an atom loses or gains one or more electron, it becomes an ____________.

5. The octet rule states that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons in order to acquire a full set of
valence electrons.
T_______ F_______

6. When electrons are shared between atoms in covalent bonds, they are called ____________.

7. Molecules never arrange themselves in the same way.

T_______ F_______

8. A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances are converted into new substances
with different physical and chemical properties.
T_______ F_______

9. Chemical equations do not need to balance. There can be different numbers of atoms on each side of
the equation.
T_______ F_______

10. The electric power in a battery is generated by a chemical reaction.

T_______ F_______

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 Name ____________

7 COMPOUNDS AND REACTIONS from the Elements of Chemistry Series

Post-Test

Directions: Fill in the blank with the appropriate term from the list below.

7 anode
cathode
electron
element
mixtures
molecules
polarity
proton
chemical reaction ionic bond orbitals radiation
electrochemistry mass oxidation reduction

1. When there is a change in the chemical composition of a substance, it is called a ____________.

2. When two or more ions are held together by the electrical attractions between them it is called an
____________.

3. A covalent bond is when electrons are shared between atoms. These bonds are usually called
____________.

4. In a battery, the place where oxidation, or the giving up of electrons, occurs is called the ____________.

True or False
Directions: Fill in the blank with True or False. If the statement is false, change it to make the state-
ment true. Rewrite the true statement in the space provided.

5. __________ Nuclear changes occur when electrons move from atom to atom.

6. __________ Ionic bonds occur when the electrons of one atom merge with the electrons of another atom.

7. __________ When electrons are shared between atoms, they form covalent bonds, or molecules.

8. __________ A chemical reaction only occurs when molecules are formed.

9. __________ Oxidation-reduction, or redox reactions, occur when molecules merge.

Essay Section
Directions: Answer the following questions in complete sentences. Use the back of this page or a sep-
arate sheet of paper to complete your answers.

10. Explain how ionic bonds are formed.

11. Explain how covalent bonds are formed.

12. Explain the term chemical reaction.

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