Math 110.

1 LE3: Rings
Rafael N. Hernandez

Definition: A ring hR, +, ·i is a set R with two binary 7. Let R be a ring and a, b ∈ R \ {0}. If ab = 0 then a
operations addition and subtraction defined on R such and b are called zero divisors of R
that:
R1 : hR, +i is an abelian group
Theorem: In hZn , +n , ·n i (n ∈ Z+ , n 6= 1), m ∈ Zn is a
R2 : (a · b) · c = a · (b · c), ∀a, b, c ∈ R
zero divisor iff gcd(m, n) 6= 1.
R3 : (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c and
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c, ∀a, b, c ∈ R
Corollary: If p is a prime, then Zp has no zero divisors.

Definition: Suppose hRi , +i , ·i i with i = 1, ..., n are

Theorem: Let R be a ring. The cancellation laws for
rings. Let R = R1 × R2 × ... × Rn and + and · are
multiplication hold in R iff R has no zero divisors.
component-wise addition and multiplication. Then
hR, +, ·i is a ring, called the Direct Product of Rings
Corollary: If R is a ring without zero divisors, then the
Ri ’s.
equation ax = b, a 6= 0, will have at most one solution in
R.
Theorem: Let R be a ring with additive identity 0.
Then ∀a, b ∈ R:
Definition: A commutative ring with unity 1R 6= 0 and
1. 0 · a = a · 0 = 0
containing no zero divisors is called an integral domain.
2. a(−b) = (−a)(b) = −(ab)
Theorem: Every field is an integral domain.
3. (−a)(−b) = ab

Theorem: Every finite integral domain is a field.

Definitions: Let hR, +, ·i be a ring

1. R is called a commutative ring if Definition: Let R be a ring. If ∃n ∈ Z+ such that

ab = ba, ∀a, b ∈ R n · a = 0, ∀a ∈ R, then the least such positive integer is

called the characteristic of R. If no such positive
2. If there exists an element 1R ∈ R such that
integer exists, then R has characteristic 0.
a · 1R = a = 1 + R · a, ∀a ∈ R, then R is a ring
with unity. 1R is the unity in R.
Theorem: If R is a ring with unity 1R , then R has
−1
3. Let R be a ring with unity 1R 6= 0. a ∈ R is characteristic n > 0 iff n is the smallest positive integer
called the multiplicative inverse of a if such that n · 1 = 0.
−1 −1
a·a = 1R = a · a. If a has a multiplicative
inverse, then a is called a unit in R. Theorem: The characteristic of an integral domain D is

4. Let R be a ring with unity 1R 6= 0. If ∀a ∈ R \ {0}, either 0 or prime.

and a is a unit, then R is called a division ring.

5. R is called a field if it is a commutative division
ring.
6. R is called a strictly skewed field if it is a
noncommutative division ring.
Definition: Let R be a ring (resp. field). A subset S of
R is called a subring (resp. subfield) if S is itself a ring
under the same operations. Notation: S ≤ R
Remark: If R is a ring with unity, a subring of R need
not have unity. For example, 2Z ≤ Z

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Theorem: (Subring Test) Let R be a ring and S be a
subset of R. Then S ≤ R if the following conditions hold: Theorem: Let φ : R → R0 be a ring homomorphism,
and let H = Kerφ. Then the set of cosets of H:
1. S 6= ∅
R/H := {a + H : a ∈ R} forms a ring under the following
2. ∀a, b ∈ S, a − b ∈ S binary operations:
+: (a + H) + (b + H) = (a + b) + H
3. ∀a, b ∈ S, ab ∈ S
· : (a + H) · (b + H) = (ab) + H
Moreover, the map µ : R/H → φ[R], a + H 7→ φ(a) is an
Examples: isomorphism of rings.

1. If R is a ring, then {0R }, R ≤ R (trivial subring of

R) Theorem: Let R be a ring and H ≤ R. Then
multiplication of additive cosets is well-defined iff ah ∈ H
2. ∀n ∈ Z+ , nZ ≤ Z
and hb ∈ H, ∀a, b ∈ R and ∀h ∈ H.
3. Let Z[i] = {a + bi : a, b ∈ Z, i2 = −1}. Then Z ≤ C,
called the ring of Gaussian integers. Definition: Let R be a ring and I be a subring of R. I
is said to be an ideal (2-sided) if ar ∈ I and
ra ∈ I, ∀a ∈ R, ∀r ∈ I.
Definition: Let hR, +, ·i and hR0 , +0 , ·0 i be rings. Then a
(ar ∈ I - left-sided ideal; ra ∈ I - right-sided ideal)
ring homomorphism is a function φ : R → R0 such
that ∀a, b ∈ R:
Theorem: Let R be a ring and H ≤ R. Then
0
1. φ(a + b) = φ(a) + φ(b) multiplication of additive cosets is well-defined iff H is an
ideal of R.
2. φ(a · b) = φ(a) ·0 φ(b)

Theorem: (Ideal Test) Let R be a ring and I be a

0 0 0
Theorem: Let φ : hR, +, ·i → hR , + , · i be a ring subset of R. Then I is an ideal of R iff:
homomorphism.
1. I 6= ∅
1. φ(0) = 00R
2. ∀a, b ∈ I, a − b ∈ I
2. ∀a ∈ R, φ(−a) = −φ(a)
3. ∀a, b ∈ I, ∀r ∈ R, ar, rb ∈ I (∀a, b ∈ I, ab ∈ Iandb ∈
3. S ≤ R ⇒ φ[S] ≤ R0
I ⇒ b ∈ R)
0 0 −1 0
4. S ≤ R ⇒ φ [S ] ≤ R

5. If R has unity 1, then φ(1) is a unity for φ[R].

Definition: Let R be a ring and I be a subring of R.
The set of additive cosets, R/I = {r + I : r ∈ R} is a ring
0
Definition: Let φ : R → R be a ring homomorphism. under the operations:
Then φ−1 [{00 }] is the kernel of φ. +: (a + I) + (b + I) = (a + b) + I
·: (a + I) · (b + I) = (ab) + I
Theorem: Let φ : R → R0 be a ring homomorphism and iff I is an ideal of R.
write H = Kerφ. Then
∀a ∈ R, φ−1 [{φ(a)}] = a + H = H + a. Theorem: Let N be an ideal of a ring R. The the map
γ : R → R/N givenbyγ(x) = x + N is a ring
Corollary: A ring homomorphism φ : R → R0 is homomorphism with kernel N .
one-to-one iff Kerφ = {0}.

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Theorem: (Fundamental Homomorphism
Theorem) Let φ : R → R0 be a ring homomorphism
with kernel N . Then:
1. φ[R] is a ring (image set is always a subring)
2. The map µ : R/N → φ[R], /, x + N 7→ φ(x) is an
isomorphism.
3. The map γ : R → R/N, /, x 7→ x + N is a ring
homomorphism and φ(x) = µγ(x) ∀x ∈ R
Definition: Let R be a ring and N an ideal of R. N is
called a proper nontrivial ideal if N 6= {0} and N .
Theorem: Let R be a ring with unity 1R and N an
ideal of R. If N contains a unit, then N = R.
Corollary: A field contains no proper nontrivial ideals.
Definition: Let M be an ideal of ring R. M is called a
maximal ideal if M is a proper ideal of R and R has no
proper ideal properly containing M (i.e. if N is an ideal
such that M ⊆ N ⊆ R, then either M = N or N = R)
Theorem: Let R be a commutative ring with unity and
M an ideal of R. Then R/M is a field iff M is maximal.
Definition: Let R be a commutative ring. An ideal
N 6= R is said to be a prime ideal if ab ∈ N impies
a ∈ N or b ∈ N .
Theorem: Let R be a commutative ring with unity, and
let N 6= R be an ideal in R. Then R/N is an integral
domain iff N is a prime ideal.
Theorem: Every maximal ideal is a prime ideal.
Theorem: Let D be an integral domain. Then there
exists a field F that contains a subdomain isomorphic to
D. F is the field of quotients of D.
Theorem: Any two fields of quotients of D are
isomorphic.