Professional Documents
Culture Documents
H. DESCENT / HOLDING
1. FLIGHT MECHANICS
1.1. Definitions
The following Figure (H1) shows the different forces which applied on an
aircraft in descent.
Drag
Thrust
Horizontal axis
γ θ
Aircraft axis
TAS α
Aerodynamic axis
RD
TAS
γ
RD = Rate of Descent (Vertical speed)
1
Figure H1: Balance of Forces in Descent
While climb is due to excess thrust, descent is, on the other hand, caused by a
lack of thrust. Therefore, the descent gradient and the rate of descent, which depend
on the difference (Thrust – Drag), are negative.
1
In order to simplify, the thrust vector is represented parallel to the aircraft longitudinal axis.
159
DESCENT / HOLDING Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance
Thrust - Drag
(1) γ rad =
Weight
Descent is carried out at the Flight Idle thrust (i.e. at a thrust close to zero).
Consequently:
Drag
(2) γ rad = −
Weight
By introducing L/D (the Lift to Drag ratio), and as the weight value is close to
the lift one (Lift = Weight.cosγ), the descent angle becomes:
1
(3) γ rad = −
L
D
100
(4) γ(%) = −
L
D
The Rate of Descent (RD) corresponds to the vertical component of the TAS.
Hence:
Drag - TAS
(6) RD = −TAS ⋅ or RD = <0
Weight L
D
160
Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance DESCENT / HOLDING
The example below (Figure H2) illustrates both thrust and drag forces, as
opposed to True Air Speed.
Drag Drag
Given Weight, Temp, FL
(TAS.Drag)min
Dragmin
TAS
L/Dmax
Descent
Gradient γmin TAS
(γ)
During the descent phase, air density increases, so that, for a given aircraft
weight and a given true air speed, the drag force also increases. As the descent
161
DESCENT / HOLDING Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance
gradient and rate of descent are proportional to drag (Equations 2 and 6 above), an
increase in their magnitude should be observed.
300 kt (IAS)
Figure H3: A330 example - Descent Gradient (γ) and Rate of Descent (RD) versus Altitude and TAS
162
Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance DESCENT / HOLDING
At a given TAS, a higher weight means that a higher lift coefficient (CL) is
needed to maintain the balance of forces. This is achieved by increasing the angle of
attack (α) and reducing the descent gradient (γ). As RD = TAS.γ, the rate of descent
is also reduced at higher weights.
Figure H4: Gradient and Rate of Descent versus Speed and Weight
γg γa
Rate of
TAS Descent
GS (RD)
γa < γg
Headwind
163
DESCENT / HOLDING Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance
2. DESCENT IN OPERATION
The standard engine rating for descent is “Flight Idle Thrust”. For fly-by-wire
aircraft, the thrust throttle position doesn’t change when autothrust is engaged. The
throttles remain on the “CL” (climb) gate for the entire flight (Figure H6). The engine-
monitoring computer, or FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control), adjusts the
thrust level to the required value.
In case of an altitude constraint or a repressurization segment (see ”Cabin
Descent”), the aircraft’s vertical speed may have to be limited during descent. This is
achieved at a thrust called “Adapted Thrust”. The adapted thrust may vary between
flight idle thrust and maximum cruise thrust. It is delivered by the engines, when
autothrust is engaged, as soon as the aircraft descent speed plus one of the two
descent parameters (gradient or rate) have to be maintained at fixed values.
164
Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance DESCENT / HOLDING
TAS variations during descent are illustrated in Figure H7. For more details,
refer to the “Climb” chapter.
FL
400
Tropopause
350 36,089 ft
200
150
100 Deceleration
300 kt to 250 kt
50 Descent profile
M0.78 / 300 kt / 250 kt
0
150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 TAS
Figure H7: Descent Profile at Given MACH/IAS Law
The cost index aims at lowering direct operating costs for a given flight. For
given cost index, an optimum descent Mach (MachECON) and an optimum descent
speed (IASECON) are calculated by the FMGS as a function of the aircraft’s weight.
165
DESCENT / HOLDING Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance
The descent is then carried out in managed mode, based on the following MACH/IAS
law:
To minimize overall fuel consumption during flight, a low cost index must be
used. As the descent phase is performed at idle thrust, it is advantageous to
maximize its duration, from a fuel consumption standpoint. This is achieved at a low
descent speed, which depends on the aircraft type (e.g. 250 knots for the A320
family). In any case, the descent speed must remain above green dot.
On the other hand, a high cost index is required when the overall flight time
needs to be reduced for cost reasons. In this case, the descent must be as fast as
possible (i.e. at the maximum rate of descent speed). It is obtained at a speed, which
is generally limited to VMO – 10 kt in normal operations .
166
Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance DESCENT / HOLDING
Assumptions: Results:
The cabin pressure rate is optimized during descent, so that it reaches the
landing field pressure + 0.1 psi just prior to landing.
Depending on the initial cabin and destination airport altitudes, the FMGS
calculates the necessary cabin descent time. This time is obtained from the selected
cabin rate of descent, defaulted to –350 feet per minute in the FMGS, but which can
be modified up to a maximum of –750 feet per minute.
167
DESCENT / HOLDING Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance
As soon as the cabin descent time is longer than the aircraft descent time, a
repressurization segment is necessary, during which the aircraft vertical speed is
limited to permit cabin repressurization (Figure H9).
Altitude
Aircraft V/S
Initial (Thrust = Idle)
cabin
altitude
Cabin V/S
(selected rate)
Repressurization
Time
segment
The above A320 descent table (Figure H8) shows that to descend from FL390
at a weight of 45 tons, the N1 parameter must be maintained at 73%, from the start of
the descent, in order to limit aircraft vertical speed.
Note that, in some particular cases (landing at high altitude airports) , the cabin
pressure at cruise level is higher than the pressure at the landing airport. Therefore,
the cabin pressure has to decrease during descent, which means that the cabin’s
vertical speed is positive while the aircraft’s vertical speed is negative.
3. HOLDING
168
Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance DESCENT / HOLDING
Holding patterns may be quite limiting around certain airports due to obstacle
proximity. Therefore, green dot is sometimes too high, especially during turn phases
where the bank angle can be too significant. As it is not possible to significantly
reduce the speed below green dot in clean configuration, slats may be extended and
a holding done in CONF1 at “S” speed1.
Note that green dot and S speeds are easy to fly in selected mode, as they are
indicated on the Primary Flight Display (PFD), as a function of aircraft weight and
configuration:
• In clean configuration: “Green Dot”
• In configuration 1: “S speed”
1
S speed = Minimum slat retraction speed (from CONF1 to CONF CLEAN)
169