1.

0 INTRODUCTION
Technology and Architecture are the two major areas in the design of a digital computer.
During the first 25 years of electronic computers, development took place in both of these areas
for improving the performance of computers in terms of its cost, size, speed and storage etc.
The technology used in the first generation computers like ENIAC was vacuum tubes.
The second-generation computers used transistors made up of semi-conductors as their switching
devices. Third-generation computers used ICs for the construction of their CPUs. ICs were made
of silicon materials to hold various electronic components like transistors, capacitors and
resistors in a single chip.
The computers developed based on IC technology were known as mini-computers and
mainframe computers. But in the late 1970s, technology was greatly improved to hold thousands
and ten thousands of electronic components in a single chip. This technology is known as LSI
and VLSI. The chip developed using VLSI technology for processing is called as
microprocessor. The computer constructed using microprocessor is called as a microcomputer.
Till 1980, the performance of an electronic computer was largely driven by technology.
Since mid-1980s, the performance has been totally depend on the advancement in the
architecture of the digital computer. Two major changes have been taken place in the early
1980s. First one is the development of high-level languages to reduce the need for object-code
compatibility. Second one is the creation of standardized, vendor-independent OS, such as
UNIX.
For more than 50 years history of practical using of computers by mankind the main
disappointment for many people became impossibility to resolve the problem of creation of
artificial intelligence. In spite of an impetuous progress in the sphere of the creation of VLSIC
(Very Large Scale Integration Circuit) it is still impossible to speak about essential progress in
understanding of the more exact problem setting and of appropriate directions of the solution of
this task.
Most of the research on artificial intelligence, known to authors, is devoted to solving of
some particular task or claiming on generality of the approach by realization of some heuristic
behavior algorithm which successfully consults with test examples but collides during operations
in real conditions.

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2.0 THE NEW FEATURES/FUNCTIONS
In the future intuitive, flexible and highly interactive devices will replace the clunky
desktop computers and fixed-sized screens that rule our lives today.
As a top computer engineer working in Silicon Valley, USA, I have developed a new
kind of computer chip that uses no more power than a hearing aid and may eventually excel at
calculations that stump today’s supercomputers.
The chip, or processor, is named TrueNorth and was developed by my team of
researchers. It tries to mimic the way brains recognize patterns, relying on densely
interconnected webs of transistors similar to the brain’s neural networks.
The chip’s electronic “neurons” are able to signal others when a type of data — light, for
example — passes a certain threshold. Working in parallel, the neurons begin to organize the
data into patterns suggesting the light is growing brighter, or changing color or shape.
The processor may thus be able to recognize that a woman in a video is picking up a
purse, or control a robot that is reaching into a pocket and pulling out a quarter. Humans are able
to recognize these acts without conscious thought, yet today’s computers and robots struggle to
interpret them.
The chip contains 5.4 billion transistors, yet draws just 70 milliwatts of power. By
contrast, modern Intel processors in today’s personal computers and data centers may have 1.4
billion transistors and consume far more power — 35 to 140 watts.
Today’s conventional microprocessors and graphics processors are capable of performing
billions of mathematical operations a second, yet the new chip system clock makes its
calculations barely a thousand times a second. But because of the vast number of circuits
working in parallel, it is still capable of performing 46 billion operations a second per watt of
energy consumed, according to IBM researchers.
The TrueNorth has one million “neurons,” about as complex as the brain of a bee. It is a
remarkable achievement in terms of scalability and low power consumption. I compared the new
design to the advent of parallel supercomputers in the 1980s, which recalled was like moving
from a two-lane road to a superhighway.
The new approach to design, referred to variously as neuromorphic or cognitive
computing, is still in its infancy, and the IBM chips are not yet commercially available. Yet the

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design has touched off a vigorous debate over the best approach to speeding up the neural
networks increasingly used in computing.
The idea that neural networks might be useful in processing information occurred to
engineers in the 1940s, before the invention of modern computers. Only recently, as computing
has grown enormously in memory capacity and processing speed, have they proved to be
powerful computing tools?
In recent years, companies including Google, Microsoft and Apple have turned to pattern
recognition driven by neural networks to vastly improve the quality of services like speech
recognition and photo classification.

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3.0 THE OLD FEATURES/FUNCTION
3.1 To Be Maintain
Cocktail
Cocktail is a general purpose utility for OS X that lets you clean, repair and
optimize the computer. So, I decide to maintain this old features of computers. It is a
powerful digital toolset that helps hundreds of thousands of Mac users around the world
get the most out of their computers every day.
The application serves up a perfect mix of maintenance tools and tweaks, all
accessible through a clean and easy to use interface. Cocktail's features are arranged into
five categories that help us manage various aspects of the computer. It also comes with an
automatic Pilot mode that allows you to simply press a button and relaxes, knowing that
Cocktail will take care of the rest.
Cocktail is installed at more than 250 000 computers worldwide. The largest part
being private individuals, but Cocktail can also be found at large international companies,
educational institutions or newspapers.

7926 (SEIU Local 925 Clerical Nonsupervisory)

Support and maintain the computer information systems and hardware of an
organization/unit by performing a combination of complex computer support functions
such as systems development and maintenance, systems/software consulting and user
training, operating environment monitoring and enhancing, and hardware support.
Under general supervision, support the computing needs of an organization/unit
consisting of local area networks and/or standalone microcomputers running multiple
software applications such as word processing, database and spreadsheet management,
desktop publishing, graphics, and custom developed applications.
The following components are evaluated when determining the overall function
and level of responsibility of the work performed. Each component does not have to be
met when deciding if a position is best described by this class; however, positions
generally encompass three or more of the following functional areas:

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1. Systems/Application Development and Maintenance
Apply the specific disciplines of the organization/unit and design, develop and
write applications and programs using programming languages and/or database
management systems involving more than application, menu or report generators;
update and maintain software applications; design and develop highly complex
spreadsheet applications.

2. Systems/Software Consulting and User Training

Consult with and provide technical support and expertise to users/clients in the
use of various types of computing environments and software systems and
provide analysis on how to apply them to the specific discipline(s) of the
organization/unit. Provide structured training and instruction to departments/users
on systems use; write and maintain user AND technical documentation manuals
and training materials; participate in planning, testing and evaluating software
products for institution standards.

3. Operating Systems Support

Monitor and enhance the operating environment to ensure optimal performance.
Apply software patches and write command procedures and programs to eliminate
operating errors. Maintain, modify, install, test, and debug system level software
such as operating systems, device drivers, memory managers, and
communications software.

4. Hardware Support
Participate in testing and evaluating hardware products in planning for institution
standards. Diagnose and resolve hardware problems and refer complex problems
to hardware maintenance, software support or vendor support. Install and
configure hardware and peripheral devices.

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 TYPICAL WORK
 Perform systems analysis and program design tasks including computer system
specifications development, developing systems and operational procedures,
developing data models and writing, testing, and maintaining computer
application programs.
 Consult with users, analyze their computing needs and develop and maintain
database/spreadsheet applications.
 Conduct training programs on new or revised software applications; write support
documentation and prepare training materials.
 Troubleshoot hardware and software problems and initiate corrective procedures;
install and maintain software and hardware.
 Update and maintain various system software such as operating systems, security
software systems, backup systems, directory maintenance, capacity and resource
management systems, local software utilities, and printing systems.
 May assist and advise management regarding computing facility requirements and
make recommendations as requested.
 Perform related duties as required.

3.2 To Be Remove
The Windows Experience Index
The “Windows Experience Index” provides a meaningless performing rating
number by running tests in the background and rating your computer’s CPU, memory
speed, graphics hardware, and hard disk data transfer rate. It has to be removed in, and
the number no longer shows up in the System Information window.
If you’d like to run any of the tests to view reports, you can still run the WinSAT
command from a command line.
We’re fairly happy to see this go. The Windows Experience Index likes running
itself to generate updated ratings after graphics card driver updates, and can consume a
lot of system resources running benchmarks in the background — all to update a

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meaningless score. To prevent this from happening in previous versions of Windows, you
had to disable the task manually in the Task Scheduler.

Libraries
Libraries aren’t actually removed, but they might as well be removed for the
average Windows user. Libraries no longer appear by default in the File Explorer app. In
its place, you’ll find SkyDrive — Microsoft doesn’t want you to save your images and
documents to your Pictures and Documents libraries, they want you to save them to your
SkyDrive folder.
This decision is somewhat confusing, as Modern apps like the Photos app depend
on libraries. If you want to view photos from a folder in your Photos app, you have to add
it to your Pictures library — but the libraries are now hidden by default.
However, you can still re-enable the hidden libraries feature for now. To do so,
open the View tab on the ribbon, click the Navigation pane button, and enable the Show
libraries checkbox.

A Hidden Start Button

Steven Sinofsky and the rest of the Microsoft Windows team insisted that
Windows 8 was better off without a Start button on its taskbar. Microsoft now disagrees
with this line of thought and has re-added a Start button.
If you’re a Windows 8 user who bought into Microsoft’s vision of a Start button-
less taskbar being superior, you’ll be disappointed to find that Windows 8.1 now imposes
a Start button on everyone. Microsoft has swung from “no one gets a Start button” to
“everyone gets a Start button” without stopping at “people can have a Start button if they
want.”
If you want to get rid of the Start button, you’ll have to use some sort of third-
party utility. We may see this option appear in the final version of Windows 8.1, but no
one can say for sure.

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 Hub Apps
Let’s look at a few Modern apps and how they’ve evolved since release:
 The Photos app no longer allows you to view photos from Facebook, Flickr, or
even SkyDrive.
 The Messaging app, which allowed you to chat on Windows Live Messenger and
Facebook, is no longer present. It will be replaced be a Modern Skype app that
only allows you to chat on Skype, and not on Facebook.
 The Calendar app no longer connects to Google Calendar. It can now only
connect to Microsoft services like Outlook.com and Exchange.
These apps were clearly supposed to be “hubs” — rather than having a single app
for every service you’d use, all your photos, messages, and calendar events would live in
a single hub app that brought together your content from everywhere. Now, Microsoft is
saying a Facebook app is on its way and encouraging Yahoo to build a Flickr app.
Microsoft would probably like Google to build a Google Calendar app, too — they’re
clearly in no rush to add support for Google Calendar using its new API.
It seems Microsoft is leaving the idea of Windows Phone-style “hubs” behind and
moving towards single, isolated apps for every service, like you’d find on Android and
iOS. Perhaps Microsoft was never really behind the idea of hub apps and was only
including support for popular services to jump-start Windows 8.

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4.0 THE PRINCIPLES TO BE ADOPTED
4.1 Computer Ethics
If trust is to be developed among creators and users of information found on the
World Wide Web, then it is necessary to develop a basic set of principles for using
computers. Several organizations are currently working to develop such guidelines,
among them the center for computing and Social Responsibility and the Computer Ethics
Institute. The Following principles are adopted with permission, from the Ten
Commandments of Computer Ethics by the Computer Ethics Institute.

TEN COMMANDMENTS
1. DO NOT USE A COMPUTER TO HARM OTHER PEOPLE.
2. DO NOT INTERFERE WITH OTHER PEOPLE'S COMPUTER WORK.
3. DO NOT SNOOP AROUND IN OTHER PEOPLE'S COMPUTER FILES.
4. DO NOT USE A COMPUTER TO STEAL.
5. DO NOT USE A COMPUTER TO BEAR FALSE WITNESS.
6. DO NOT COPY OR USE PROPRIETY SOFTWARE FOR WHICH YOU
HAVE NOT PAID.
7. DO NOT USE OTHER PEOPLE'S COMPUTER RESOURCES WITHOUT
AUTHORIZATION OR PROPER COMPENSATION.
8. DO NOT APPROPRIATE OTHER PEOPLE'S INTELLECTUAL OUTPUT.
9. THINK ABOUT THE SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE PROGRAM YOU
ARE WRITING OR THE SYSTEM YOU ARE DESIGNING.
10. ALWAYS USE A COMPUTER IN WAYS THAT ENSURE CONSIDERATION
AND RESPECT FOR YOU YOUR FELLOW HUMANS.

Organization violations of this principle include hate site (sites devoted to

demeaning, insulting, or threatening others.) rumors mongers (who are more interested in
spreading scandal than truth), and sites that violate the privacy of others (by posting
personal information, for example).

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 Hackers (people who break-hack or chop, in a figurative sense- into computers to
cause harm) violate this principle by altering, damaging, or deleting information
from Website.
Most of us have a desire for privacy in our live: we want people to knock when
we have the door closed, we do not want other people reading our mail, and we want our
telephone conversations to be private.
The growth of Web commerce has been phenomenal, with billions of dollars’
worth of sales conducted each year online. Unfortunately, some unscrupulous people use
the Web as a means to steal, setting up various kinds of scams, ranging from pyramid
investment schemes to chain letters to phony stores.
Today, most major cities have only one newspaper, or perhaps two. In the heyday
of the newspaper, however, many major cities had half a dozen or even a dozen papers all
competing from the attentions of the reader.
Crimes that are easy to commit scarcely seem like crimes, and probably no crime
is easier than copying software. The good news is that the two most popular Web
browsers are currently both free, and many of the most popular and useful plug-ins also
have free versions. Thus are many saved from crime by an absence of temptation?
Users who steal a password to gain unauthorized access to a site, or who share a
password with their friends so that the friends do not have to pay for their own easy in the
land of computers that sometimes people do not recognized what they are doing.
Some Websites violate these principles by pulling in the content of another site
and then showing their own advertisements to the user. The use of frames to display a
site's menu and advertising with another site's content is a typical example of this
appropriation or, to be less euphemistic theft.
The distribution of information has social sequence. In the film industry forty
years ago, a famous actor removed his shirt and revealed that he was not wearing an
undershirt. This one scene nearly destroyed the undershirt industry almost
overnight. Website now offers the same potential to influence others. Tens of millions of
people have access to be Web today, and meant of them are impressionable young
people.

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 Suppose you are writing a paper in surgical techniques for repairing gunshot
wounds. The sites you visit show details of operations. Knowing that some people are
extremely squeamish at the site of blood or open wounds, it would be considerate of you
to visit these sites at a computer away from others. Notice that this behavior is just
common sense kindness, where you think about the welfare of others before you engage
in some Web use that may be upsetting.

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 5.0 CONCLUSION
The computer is used today for an almost unlimited range of applications. However,
irrespective of the application for which a computer is used we can identify a few basic functions
that are performed by all computers. All the computer applications are make use of this basic
function of computers in different ways and combinations. There are basically for basic functions
of computers - input, storage, processing and output. These are described below:
1. Input: Receiving or accepting information from outside sources. The most common way of
performing this function is through the information entered through the keyboard and the click of
mouse. Of course there are many other type of devices for receiving such information - for
example, the web cam. Computers are also able to receive information stored in other devices
like DVD disks and pen drives. Computers are also able to receive information from other
computers and similar devices. When we use computers for automatic control of machines and
processes, computers are also receiving information directly from such equipment’s and
processes.
2. Storage: Store information in the computer. The memory is stored in computer in in several
different ways depending on how the information is used. For simplicity we will classify in two
broad categories. First is the memory in the central processing unit of the computer, and second
is the auxiliary memory. The auxiliary memory includes devices such as fixed hard drives. The
information stored in computer can also be divided broadly used in two categories. The user data
and the instructions used for internal operation and processing in the compute. These instructions
are what we call computer programs or software.
3. Processing: This is really the core of computer operation. The computer processes the data that is
fed to the computer by various means and the data already contained in internal memory to
produce the results that is the core of all computer application.
4. Output: The results of the processing are made available for use by any user or other devices.
The most common ways of producing such outputs are through computer monitor, speakers, and
printers. When a computer is connected to other devices, including through Internet, this output
is in the form of electrical pulses. The output data can also be recorded on to an external
recording medium such as a DVD disk.

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REFERENCES

Duda R.O. and Gaschnig J.G.: "Knowledge-based Expert Systems Come of Age", Byte
(September 1981), pp. 238-281

Kobayashi K.: "Computer, Communications and Man: The Integration of Computer and
Communications with Man as an Axis", Computer Networks, vol. 5, no. 4 (July 1981).
pp. 237-250.

Rao Mikkilineni, Vijay Sarathy "Cloud Computing and Lessons from the Past", Proceedings of
IEEE WETICE 2009, First International Workshop on Collaboration & Cloud
Computing, June 2009.

Servan-Schreiber J.J.: "The World Challenge", Collins (1981).

Shapiro, Ehud Y. "The fifth generation project—a trip report." Communications of the ACM
26.9 (1983): 637-641.

Shapiro E. A subset of Concurrent Prolog and its interpreter, ICOT Technical Report TR-003,
Institute for New Generation Computer Technology, Tokyo, 1983. Also in Concurrent
Prolog: Collected Papers, E. Shapiro (ed.), MIT Press, 1987, Chapter 2.

Uchida S.: "Towards a New Generation Computer Architecture", Tech. Report TR/A-001,
Institute for New Generation Computer Technology (July 1982).

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