TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

If you are located within the greater Los Angeles areas, give us a call with some basic info:
1) How many feet of retaining wall,
2) Approximate Height
and we can give you an approximate cost.
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Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are ground retaining systems that use their own mass, the mass of its backfill
or anchoring systems to sustain the terrain behind, these walls are usually constructed with
heavy blocks, angled stones, offset cinderblocks, wood or reinforced concrete frames
backfilled or filled with well graded stone designed to create the geological resistance or mass
required to counteract the earth pressures and surcharge loadings. Retaining walls can also
be anchored into the ground with steel I beams vertically inserted into the ground and
reinforced with concrete and linked in between with planks or reinforced, pre-fab concrete
blocks. Often these retaining walls are designed to receive the weigh of the previously
excavated soil as backfill and estimated movements of all soil behind and to stop further
downward movement of the entire terrain.
Retaining walls built in Los Angeles have to follow strict rules and city ordinances that can be
only specified by experienced local engineers and approved by LADBS.
Retaining wall construction is an exact science that requires specific data to be designed and
built. All dimensions and materials have to be determined based on each specific physical
settings and critical geological information that can only be obtained, respectively from a
topographic survey and from a soil report. — If you do not have these required steps already
taken, we can help you by handling the geo and structural engineering for you. These two
steps alone may cost at least a couple of thousands of dollars!

Here are the types you need to consider depending of your requirements:

Gravity Retaining Walls

- Brick or block Retaining Walls

- Modular blocks: A16 and A22, Allan Blocks, Anchor wall blocks http://www.anchorwall.com,
Keystone blocks, Versalock blocks.
- Unreinforced Gravity Block Walls

From the late 50′s to early 80′s, Los Angeles contractors used to build unreinforced cinderblock
retaining walls. Earthquakes have taken care of most of them, but here is a rare instance where
the wall survived.
Gravity walls depend on the weight of their mass (stone, concrete or other heavy material) to
resist pressures from behind and will often have a slight setback, to improve stability by
leaning back into the retained soil. For short landscaping walls, they are often made from
mortarless stone or segmental concrete units (masonry units). Dry-stacked gravity walls are
somewhat flexible and do not require a rigid footing in frost areas. Home owners who build
larger gravity walls that do require a rigid concrete footing can make use of the services of a
professional excavator, which will make digging a trench for the base of the gravity wall much
easier.
Earlier in the 20th century, taller retaining walls were often gravity walls made from large
masses of concrete or stone. Today, taller retaining walls are increasingly built as composite
gravity walls such as: geosynthetic or with precast facing; gabions (stacked steel wire baskets
filled with rocks); crib walls (cells built up log cabin style from precast concrete or timber and
filled with soil); or soil-nailed walls (soil reinforced in place with steel and concrete rods).

Cantilevered

Steel-Reinforced Cantilevered Concrete Retaining Walls

Steel-Reinforced Cantilevered Masonry Retaining Walls
Properly designed and engineered retaining walls are constructed of concrete block or poured
concrete and provided with steel reinforcement. Steel-reinforced retaining walls have the
greatest potential for long term favorable performance. In hillside areas, retaining walls are
normally required to be engineered. The geologist and soils engineer must recommended the
design pressure that the wall must support as well as the foundation system to be
employed. The structural engineer then uses this information to engineer the wall and
provide a set of construction plans to be used by us.

Conterfort/Buttress on Cantilevered Wall

Cantilevered retaining walls are made from an internal stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-place
concrete or mortared masonry (often in the shape of an inverted T). These walls cantilever
loads (like a beam) to a large, structural footing, converting horizontal pressures from behind
the wall to vertical pressures on the ground below. Sometimes cantilevered walls are
butressed on the front, or include a counterfort on the back, to improve their strength
resisting high loads. Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the
wall. These walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth. This type of wall
uses much less material than a traditional gravity wall.

Sheet piling
Soldier Pile Retaining Walls

Sheet pile wall

Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soils and tight spaces. Sheet pile walls are
made out of steel, vinyl or wood planks which are driven into the ground. For a quick
estimate the material is usually driven 1/3 above ground, 2/3 below ground, but this may be
altered depending on the environment. Taller sheet pile walls will need a tie-back anchor, or
“dead-man” placed in the soil a distance behind the face of the wall, that is tied to the wall,
usually by a cable or a rod. Anchors are placed behind the potential failure plane in the soil.

Anchored

Wood Retaining Wall with tie-back

 Completelly illegal in Los Angeles!
Railroad Tie Retaining Walls with tie-back
An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the aforementioned styles but also
includes additional strength using cables or other means to stay anchored in the rock or soil
behind it. Usually driven into the material with boring, anchors are then expanded at the end
of the cable, either by mechanical means or often by injecting pressurized concrete, which
expands to form a bulb in the soil. Technically complex, this method is very useful where high
loads are expected, or where the wall itself has to be slender and would otherwise be too
weak.

UNREINFORCED MASONRY WALLS

Concrete retaining walls which have not been provided with steel reinforcement were
commonly constructed in hillside areas during the 1920′s through the 1940′s. Unreinforced
walls are more susceptible to damage due to soil pressure, water pressure and seismic
shaking. Here is a list of some of the unreinforced retaining walls, keep in mind that some of
these options could be reinforced with steel and concrete as well in a hybrid-type installation:

Criblock Retaining Walls

Criblock is a type of Unreinforced retaining wall.
Unreinforced Criblock retaining walls consist of interlocking concrete “cribs”. The individual
cribs lock together and the interior cells are commonly filled with compacted fill. Criblock
walls have the attraction of being able to be planted, as the image demonstrates. Criblock
retaining walls are a form of gravity wall, lacking steel reinforcement and a conventional type
foundation. Criblock walls have experienced some dramatic failures in the city of Los Angeles,
damaging slopes and structures. Criblock retaining walls are considered best suited to
support planter areas. Criblock walls are not considered to be suitable for support of slopes
or structures, which could be damaged in the event the wall fails. Failure of criblock walls
typically occurs due to faulty installation or buildup of hydrostatic pressure behind the wall
due to improper subsurface drainage provisions. Various governmental agencies have
differing views on the appropriateness of criblock walls. The city of Los Angeles has
historically been reluctant to issue permits for criblock walls. When the city has issued
permits, they often require that the cells be filled with concrete, eliminating the main
aesthetic appeal of the criblock system. Caltrans and Public Works, who are not under the
jurisdiction of the Department of Building and Safety, often employ criblock retaining systems
along roadways and in public developments.
Brick Retaining Walls
Brick retaining walls are also commonly employed on hillside properties for low walls or
planter walls. Brick retaining walls lack steel reinforcement and usually are not provided with
a proper foundation but unlike gravity, it has mortar bonding in between blocks providing
some added strength over simple gravity walls. Surface and subsurface drainage control
devices are also not usually provided efficiently for brick walls. Water pressure behind brick
walls is a common source of distress and/or failure of brick walls. Brick retaining walls are
also not permitted under the current building codes in Los Angeles.

Railroad Tie Retaining Walls

Another commonly employed method of retaining soil or slopes is the use of railroad
ties. The Los Angeles Department of Building and Safety specifically prohibits construction of
retaining devices out of wood (Section 1819.6). Wood walls are susceptible to water and
termite damage and can fail catastrophically. When used as planter walls and not supporting
structures, slopes or neighboring properties, the risk involved with maintaining wood railroad
tie planter walls is relatively low. Railroad tie planter walls tend to last longer and perform
better than other wood retaining devices due to the thickness of the ties and chemical
treatment that this kind of wood is submitted in order to resist the weathering.

OTHER WOOD RETAINING DEVICES

Other types of wood can sometimes be employed on hillside properties to retain soil and
slopes. As with railroad tie walls, all types of wood walls are prohibited under the Los Angeles
building codes. Thin wood retaining devices are highly susceptible to failure when exposed to
water, termites and soil pressure.

Although prohibited in LA, in a case of an emergency, where you don’t have the budget but a
storm is approaching, some form of soil stabilization is better than nothing. But have
professionals handle it because proper drainage is more important than the materials you use.
The wall above is a temporary device and is a safety concern. Wood batterboards are often
used on hillsides to help control erosion, as shown in the image above. These devices can be
helpful, but require maintenance and seasonal repairs and constant reinforcements. Long
term it may be cheaper to build it right in the first place! When a retaining wall is improperly
constructed, as shown in the image, the walls become a potential liability. These type of
walls typically fail catastrophically, potentially causing damage to downslope property and
structures. It is usually better to address the root cause of the slope erosion than to apply a
temporary solution. Slope erosion is usually caused by the lack of proper slope vegetation
and/or inadequate surface drainage control.
It is very important to note that the Los Angeles Department of Public Works employs the use
of wood retaining walls to support public walkways and streets. A battle often ensues
between Public Works and the Department of Building and Safety regarding reliability of wood
walls where hillside properties adjoin Public Works wood retaining walls.
Sometimes even telephone poles are used to build retaining walls by public works.

RETAINING WALL COMPONENTS

All possible components that can be specified separately, together in various combinations or
individually to complement existing retaining walls:

Foundation System
Retaining walls can be provided with a variety of different foundation support systems
depending upon the soil conditions and local topography. The geologist and soils engineer
must evaluate site conditions and provide the structural engineer with a recommendation of
the foundation system to use and the bearing material which is to provide support for the
foundation system.
Conventional Foundations – The most common form of support of retaining walls is
conventional footings. The geologist and soils engineer must determine the foundation
bearing material and the minimum depth of embedment. The structural engineer will
determine the actual depth of embedment and the width of the footing needed to support the
wall. A keyway is also sometimes employed in a conventional retaining wall foundation.

Deepened Foundations – Deepened foundations, consisting of either friction piles or caissons

are commonly used to support hillside retaining walls. Deepened foundations are necessary
when retaining walls are located over or near descending slopes or when necessary to
penetrate deep unsuitable earth materials. Deepened foundations are also sometimes used
to avoid surcharging lower walls or structures.

Tie Back Anchors – Tie back anchors are sometimes employed to resist lateral forces
imposed on retaining walls. Tie back anchors are drilled at an angle into the slope and spaced
at pre-determined intervals. Tie back anchors are commonly used in construction of
temporary shoring for high excavations. The Los Angeles Department of Building and Safety
does not allow the use of tie back anchors in the permanent design and construction of
retaining walls.

Subdrainage System
Several methods can be utilized to prevent the building up of hydrostatic (water) pressure
behind the retaining wall. Water pressure will exert 62.4 pounds per cubic foot of pressure on
a retaining wall. Typical retaining wall designs employ a 30 to 43 pound per cubic foot
equivalent fluid pressure. If water pressure is allowed to develop behind the wall, most walls
will experience rotation or failure. To prevent this condition from developing, several
methods can be employed which include weepholes, open headers in concrete block and
subdrains.

Subdrains:
Subdrains are a commonly used method of providing subsurface drainage control behind
retaining walls. A subdrain typically consists of a 4-inch diameter perforated PVC pipe. The
subdrain pipe must conform with ASTM standards. Flexible subdrain pipe is normally not
used due to its susceptibility to crushing when the wall backfill is placed. The approved
subdrain pipe is laid on a bed of 3/4 inch gravel at the base of the retaining wall. The
subdrain pipe is placed with the perforations pointing down, allowing the small trough at the
bottom of the pipe to conduct drainage. The perforated pipe is connected to solid drain pipe
which discharges to an approved location (street).

Weepholes:
A commonly employed method to allow subsurface water to drain through the retaining wall is
the use of weepholes. This image shows 3-inch diameter weepholes installed into the base of
the retaining wall. Weeholes can be installed at the time of wall construction or can be
provided later.
Open Headers:
When retaining walls are constructed from concrete blocks, the bottom course of block can
have the joints between the blocks left ungrouted. This allows drainage to seep through the
open grout spaces, often referred as “open headers”. Open headers are considered to be less
effective than conventional weepholes or subdrains.

Filter Fabrics:
In some applications, use of conventional sub drain systems is not possible. MiraDrain
Company offers a variety of filter fabrics which can be used to provide some degree of
drainage behind retaining walls which have not been provided with enough free space behind
the wall to employ a standard drainage system. Filter fabrics are not as effective as
conventional subdrains and weep holes, but in special circumstances, filter fabrics represent
an alternative which can provide some degree of protection.

Drainage Media:
Retaining walls must be properly backfilled. The backfill material must be selected and
approved by the geologist or soils engineer. Typically, the subdrain pipe or weepholes must
be covered with a minimum of 12 cubic inches of 3/4 gravel to allow free drainage to the
subdrain pipe and to help prevent clogging of the pipe with finer drained silt and clay
particles. The remaining height of wall is typically backfilled with compacted fill. Compaction
testing must be performed on the wall backfill to ensure the require degree of compaction. In
some circumstances, gravel is placed the entire height behind the wall to within 2 feet of the
top of the wall to provide better drainage conditions. The upper 2 feet must consist of a
compacted fill blanket to reduce surface drainage infiltration into the wall backfill.

Waterproofing
This exterior concrete block retaining wall has been constructed at the base of a compacted
fill slope and has not been provided with waterproofing. As a result, a significant amount of
moisture penetration has occurred through the face of the wall.

Surface Drainage System

This picture illustrates several surface drainage control features of a typical retaining wall
constructed at the base of an ascending slope. The wall has been provided with a concrete
drainage swale or “V” drain, to intercept upslope drainage. The drainage swale is designed to
collect and discharge slope drainage to an approved location, usually the street or storm drain
system. The retaining wall has also been provided with freeboard, which is the portion of the
wall, which extends above the drainage swale. The purpose of freeboard is to prevent
upslope drainage and debris from overtopping the wall. The height of freeboard is
determined by the geologist, but typically is 2 feet.

RETAINING WALL TYPES

This is another way to look at retaining walls by type as you see all around Los Angeles:
GRAVITY WALLS
Simple gravity retaining walls are commonly encountered on hillside properties. These walls
are often employed as landscape planter walls and are constructed with broken pieces of
concrete and stone. Sometimes the individual pieces are mortared together, and in some
walls the stones or pieces of concrete are simply stacked against each other. Department of
Building and Safety building codes do not allow the construction of simple gravity
walls. These walls are especially susceptible to damage during seismically-induced ground
shaking. Periodic maintenance and repairs are normally required when these walls are
present on the site. The main problem associated with gravity walls is the unpredictability of
long term performance. Some gravity walls can last for many years and show no signs of
distress, whereas other gravity walls can fail without notice. When supporting only planter
areas, the risk involved in maintaining these retaining devices on a site is relatively low. A
higher risk is associated with simple gravity walls which support structures (pools, decks,
additions, etc.) or offsite property and slopes.

BRICK RETAINING WALLS

Brick retaining walls are also commonly employed on hillside properties. Brick retaining walls
lack steel reinforcement and usually are not provided with a proper foundation. Brick walls
are commonly grouted together, providing some added strength over simple gravity
walls. Surface and subsurface drainage control devices are also not usually provided
efficiently for brick walls. Water pressure behind brick walls is a common source of distress
and/or failure of brick walls. Brick retaining walls are also not permitted under the current
building codes.

CRIBLOCK RETAINING WALLS

Criblock retaining walls consist of interlocking concrete “cribs”. The individual cribs lock
together and the interior cells are commonly filled with compacted fill. Criblock walls have
the attraction of being able to be planted, as the image demonstrates. Criblock retaining
walls are a form of gravity wall, lacking steel reinforcement and a conventional type
foundation. Criblock walls have experienced some dramatic failures in the city of Los Angeles,
damaging slopes and structures. Criblock retaining walls are considered best suited to
support planter areas. Criblock walls are not considered to be suitable for support of slopes
or structures, which could be damaged in the event the wall fails. Failure of criblock walls
typically occurs due to faulty installation or buildup of hydrostatic pressure behind the wall
due to improper subsurface drainage provisions. Various governmental agencies have
differing views on the appropriateness of criblock walls. The city of Los Angeles has
historically been reluctant to issue permits for criblock walls. When the city has issued
permits, they often require that the cells be filled with concrete, eliminating the main
aesthetic appeal of the criblock system. Caltrans and Public Works, who are not under the
jurisdiction of the Department of Building and Safety, often employ criblock retaining systems
along roadways and in public developments.

RAILROAD TIE RETAINING WALLS

Another commonly employed method of retaining soil or slopes is the use of railroad
ties. The Los Angeles Department of Building and Safety specifically prohibits construction of
retaining devices out of wood (Section 1819.6). Wood walls are susceptible to water and
termite damage and can fail catastrophically. When used as planter walls and not supporting
structures, slopes or neighboring properties, the risk involved with maintaining wood railroad
tie planter walls is relatively low. Railroad tie planter walls tend to last longer and perform
better than other wood retaining devices due to the thickness of the ties.

OTHER WOOD RETAINING DEVICES

Other types of wood can sometimes be employed on hillside properties to retain soil and
slopes. As with railroad tie walls, all types of wood walls are prohibited under the Los Angeles
building codes. Thin wood retaining devices are highly susceptible to failure when exposed to
water, termites and soil pressure. The first image shows a poorly constructed wood retaining
device holding up about 4 feet of loose soil under a house. The wall is in a state of failure and
is a safety concern. Wood batterboards are often used on hillsides to help control erosion, as
shown in the second image. These devices can be helpful, but require maintenance and
repairs. When improperly constructed, as shown in the image, the walls become a potential
liability. These type of walls typically fail catastrophically, potentially causing damage to
downslope property and structures. It is usually better to address the root cause of the slope
erosion than to apply a temporary solution. Slope erosion is usually caused by the lack of
proper slope vegetation and/or inadequate surface drainage control.
The Los Angeles Department of Public Works employs the use of wood retaining walls to
support public walkways and streets. A battle often ensues between Public Works and the
Department of Building and Safety regarding reliability of wood walls where hillside properties
adjoin Public Works wood retaining walls.
Here is a unique application of telephone poles. The wall supports about 4 to 5 feet of fill,
behind which is a 1950′s residence. Subsurface exploration at the site revealed that the
residence was not provided with a standard foundation, with the stem wall resting in fill
supported by the telephone pole retaining wall system. Recommendations were provided for
support of the residence foundation system into the underlying bedrock and ultimately
replacing the wood wall system.

CHAIN LINK FENCES

Either deliberately or not, chain link fences are sometimes employed as retaining
devices. Chain link fences are not constructed to retain soil and debris. Accumulated
material behind chain link fencing will eventually cause the fence to rotate and fail. Failure
can be catastrophic, causing damage to downslope structures and property.

STEEL-REINFORCED MASONRY RETAINING WALLS

Properly designed and engineered retaining walls are constructed of concrete block or poured
concrete and provided with steel reinforcement. Steel-reinforced retaining walls have the
greatest potential for long term favorable performance. In hillside areas, retaining walls are
normally required to be engineered. The geologist and soils engineer must recommended the
design pressure that the wall must support as well as the foundation system to be
employed. The structural engineer then uses this information to engineer the wall and
provide a set of construction plans to be used by us.

SOLDIER PILE RETAINING WALLS

When temporary shoring is required to construct a retaining wall, it may be advantageous to
incorporate the shoring system into the permanent design of the wall. Soldier piles are
commonly used in hillside development as a means of making high temporary vertical
excavations. Soldier piles are typically 24 to 36 inches in diameter and consist of a cylinder
of steel-reinforced concrete. Solider piles are typically spaced 8 feet on center, providing the
main support for the excavation. Shotcrete is used between the piles to cover the space
between. A block retaining wall can also be structurally connected to the soldier pile system.