Nebosh IGC2 Part 4 PDF

Element 4
Chemical and
Biological Hazards and
Control
© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 1 of 54

wpc/SJ/ae/IGC2 Element 4 Chemical and biological health hazards and controls Sales Ref: sc/639/v3
Contents
Page No
Introduction 5
The Human Body 6
Physiology and Anatomy 6
The Respiratory System 7
The Digestive System 7
The Cardiovascular System 8
The Urinary System 8
The Skin 9
Target Organs 10
Body Defences 11
Occupational Hygiene 14
Identification of Health Hazards 14
Measurement of Health Hazards 20
Assessment of Health Hazards 26
Control of Health Hazards 28
Specific Agents 35
Chemical Agents 35
Biological Agents 38
Pollution Control – The Environment 41
Global Concerns 41
Pollution 42
Managing Waste 47
References 52

Introduction
Health is defined by the World Health Organisation as:
‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity’. (WHO 1946).
Occupational health is as important as occupational safety but generally receives far

less attention from managers. There is a greater incidence of ill-health caused or
exacerbated by work compared to workplace injury. However, its low profile is due
to its potential long-term nature and the difficulty in linking the ill-health effect directly
to the workplace cause. Illnesses, such as asthma or back pain, may have their
origins outside of the workplace. A review of the available statistics point to death
from occupational disease in Britain possibly being ten times higher than the deaths
from industrial accidents (usually about 350 people a year are killed in work related
accidents).
In the UK it is estimated that:
N 750,000 people took 13 million days off work in 1989-90 because of what they
regarded as work related disease;
N 730,000 people in work were affected by ill-health but took no time off; and
N 820,000 retired and unemployed people reported that they were affected by
the longer-term consequences of work-related illness. (HMSO, 1990).
An American study has suggested that 30% of disease is occupationally related.

The Human Body
Physiology and Anatomy
Physiology is the study of the function of the body, whereas anatomy is the study of
the structure of the body.
Detailed knowledge of physiology and anatomy is not required for the NEBOSH
Certificate; however, a basic understanding will assist in achieving the intended
learning outcomes, e.g. the effects of hazardous substances in the body, their routes
/ modes of entry, and body defence mechanisms.
The body consists of millions of cells, which form ‘tissues’, e.g. muscular tissue and
nervous tissue, and organs, e.g. the heart, brain and kidneys.
Nerve cells have long fibres, which are capable of carrying electrical impulses; some
cells in the stomach wall produce hydrochloric acid to digest food and cells in the
glands produce chemicals, which influence other cells, such as the thyroid gland that
produces adrenalin.
The work of each cell is controlled. If something affects the control of a cell, it may
grow rapidly or react in an unusual way. This sort of cell behaviour occurs in cancer
when a group of cells grow abnormally and invade adjacent tissues.
There are five main functional systems within the human body and each of these
systems comprises one or more organs. If one organ of the body is not functioning
correctly then others may also be affected and affect the health of the individual as a
whole. The five systems are the:
1. respiratory system;
2. digestive system;
3. cardiovascular system;
4. urinary system; and
5. skin.

The Respiratory System
The respiratory system consists of the Figure 1: The Lungs and Alveoli
respiratory tract (nose, mouth, larynx,
trachea and bronchi), and lungs
(bronchioles and alveoli).
The lungs are expanded by means of the

diaphragm and draw in air that reaches the
tiny air sacs (alveoli).
The wall of the alveoli is so thin that air

passes through it and enters the fine blood
vessels surrounding the alveoli.
The blood absorbs oxygen from the air and

gives up the waste product (carbon dioxide)
into the alveoli, from where it is exhaled as
the lungs contract. This process is termed
the gaseous exchange. The oxygen-
enriched blood is returned to the heart from
where it is pumped around the body.
The Digestive System Figure 2: The Digestive System

The digestive tract is made up of the mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, large and small
intestine, colon and rectum.
Food and water pass into the stomach for

digestion. They then pass to the small
intestine where nutrients and energy from the
food are absorbed into the blood stream and
distributed around the body. Almost all
absorption into the body takes place in the
small intestine.
Undigested matter and water passes to the

large intestine where most of the water is
absorbed into the bloodstream. Waste
material finally passes to the rectum and is
expelled from the body.

The Cardiovascular System
The heart pumps blood, which consists of Figure 3: Blood Cells
plasma, red, and white blood cells, around the
body.
The plasma assist in the clotting and scar

forming (fibrosis) processes.
The red blood cells contain haemoglobin, which

delivers oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
from the body.
The white blood cells are of several kinds and

form part of the body’s defence mechanism
against bacteria and viruses. The yellow fluid
(pus) which can form pimples or is seen around
a splinter or cut, consists of many dead cells
and is the remains of an attack by the white
blood cells on an invading organism.
The bloodstream also transports harmful

chemical and biological agents.
The Urinary System

The urinary system extracts waste products from the blood stream. The principal
organs of this system are the liver, the kidneys and the bladder. Of these the liver
and the kidneys are the most important.
The Liver
The main function of the liver is to neutralise toxic substances and regulate body
temperature. The liver will try to convert these substances into a less harmful
substance, this process can result in damage to the liver, but it has a great deal of
spare capacity.
Sometimes the liver alters a substance to something that will affect another organ,
e.g. beta-naphthylamine (a toxic substance in rubber fumes) is converted by the liver
into a substance that can cause cancer of the bladder. The liver also maintains the
blood in a clean and efficient state.

The Kidneys
Figure 4: The Urinary Tract
The main function of the kidneys is to regulate the
quantity of water in the body.
They also maintain a constant balancing of the

various salts and electrolytes essential for the health
of the body and filter out those that are either harmful
or non-essential.
Unwanted water and dissolved substances are

passed to the bladder and then leave the body.
The Skin
The skin is the largest organ of the body and its Figure 5: The Skin
function is to provide a barrier to protect the body
against the environment and to exert a degree
of body temperature control.
There are two main layers of the skin, the

dermis, and the epidermis.
The epidermis contains no blood vessels or

nerve endings and its outer surface is
essentially dead cells, which are constantly
being rubbed off and replaced.
The epidermis plays an important role in

protecting the organs of the body including the
dermis. The epidermis allows liquids (sweat) to
pass outwards through sweat glands in order to
cool the body. The inner layers of the
epidermis also generate melanin, a pigment that is darkened by sunlight, providing
some protection from ultra violet light.
The dermis contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, sensory nerve endings, sweat
glands and ducts, hair roots and follicles and sebaceous glands, which secrete an
oily substance, called sebum. Sebum helps in maintaining hair condition but also
waterproofs the skin and prevents it from cracking. Sebum also acts as a
bactericidal and fungicidal agent.

Target Organs
A target organ is part of the body, e.g. lungs, brain, kidneys, liver, skin, which
sustains an adverse effect when it is exposed to, or is contaminated by, a particular
harmful agent. Harmful agents include:
N chemical agents, e.g. dusts, fumes, gases, mists, vapours and liquids; and
N biological agents, e.g. fungi, bacteria and viruses.
Harmful agents can cause both local and systemic effects.
Local effects occur when the site of the damage is at the point of contact with the
substance, e.g. a corrosive burn on the skin.
Systemic effects occur when the site of damage is at a point other than the point of
contact, such as a target organ, e.g. the effect of inhaled lead fumes on the brain.
Figure 6: Main Body Organs and Examples of Hazardous Agents, Which Have
an Effect on Them
Brain – Lead
Eyes - Ammonia
Nasal Passages –
Organic solvents
Lungs – Asbestos,
chlorine, carbon dioxide,
ammonia, isocyanates,
silica, organic solvents,
Liver – legionella
Solvents
Kidneys – Leptospira
Skin – Detergents,
isocyanates, mineral Blood –
oils, acids, alkalis Carbon
and organic solvents monoxide
Nerves – Organic
solvents, lead

Body Defences
The various functional systems have as their main function the maintenance of a
healthy body. The systems are constantly regulating conditions inside the body to
balance the activities of the person with the environmental conditions outside the
body.
The response of the body to a variety of environmental conditions, sometimes called

‘environmental stresses’, will range from the harmless, such as sweating or
coughing, to a variety of diseases.
Respiratory Defences
Figure 7: The Nasal Cavity
The defence mechanisms of the respiratory

system include:
N the hair and wetness of the nose, which

takes air in an upwards direction;
N the change of direction to the larynx. This

results in dust above 10 microns being
deposited in the nasal cavity;
N sneezing and coughing to remove inhaled

harmful substances;
N centrifugal (outward) motion. The

respiratory tract is so shaped that air
travelling through it is given a turbulent
motion, which tends to throw dust (5 to 10
micron) outwards to stick on the surface of the tract;
N tiny hairs in the tract (cilia), which wave back and forth and carry any particles
back up to the larynx. This is known as the ciliary escalator. The particles
are either spat out or swallowed;
N white blood cells in the alveoli, which attack foreign bodies by either ingesting
them or surrounding them; and
N fibrosis – although scarring of the lungs will inhibit their capacity.
Dust particles reaching the alveoli are of the range 0.5 to 7 micron or fibres of less
than 5 micron in diameter. Although the majority of these particles will remain
suspended in the air and exhaled from the lungs, some will remain attached to the
wall of the lungs and cause chronic disease.
Substances that enter the blood stream from the respiratory system will eventually
reach the liver. Although the liver can deal with many toxic substances, damage to
other organs of the body may be caused before reaching the liver.

Ingestion Defences
If any ingested substance is to harm the body it has to survive the acids in the
stomach and the various enzymes and bacteria within the digestive tract, which
attack and try to break down such substances. Some harmful substances or micro-
organisms will cause an immediate reaction in the body causing the defence
mechanisms of vomiting and diarrhoea.
Skin Defences
The skin provides an excellent defence against most substances. The epidermis
provides a protective outer layer while the dermis contains a number of defence
mechanisms:
Sebum The sebum secreted by the sebaceous glands of the dermis will
provide protection against water and against weak acids and
alkalis. Sebum also prevents the skin drying out when subject to
heat and friction. This protection can be broken down by high
concentrations of corrosive substances, excessive abrasive
action, burns or de-fatting. It can also be removed by the use of
solvents, unintentionally or deliberately.
Sensory nerves The sensory nerve cells are also an important defence
mechanism, alerting the brain to temperature changes and
prompting involuntary defence action by the muscles (shivering).
Melanin Protection against ultra violet light is provided by the melanin

pigment cells, which tan on exposure to sunlight.
Blisters, rashes Blisters, rashes and inflammation are all examples of the body
and inflammation defence system reaction to damage or attack and result from
increased flow of blood, antibodies and white blood cells to the
affected area.
Table 1: Skin Defences
The most common disease of the skin due to workplace activities is dermatitis.
Dermatitis
Figure 8: Example of Dermatitis Symptoms
Most occupational dermatitis is
non-infective and starts with a mild
irritation and develops into
blisters, which may weep,
inflammation, dryness and
cracking of the skin, often
appearing as a rash. There are
two types – irritant and sensitive.

Irritant or contact dermatitis can affect any person and is a result of prolonged
exposure to a substance. Factors that affect onset of the condition are the
concentration and duration of exposure.
Cement, mineral oils and de-fatting agents such as detergents and solvents, e.g.
weak acids or alkalis and petrol, can cause it.
The degree of effect depends upon skin dryness, sweating, pigmentation, integrity of
the epidermis, presence of hair, presence of dirt, pre-existing disease, temperature,
humidity and friction.
Once contact from the agent is removed, full recovery will occur.
Allergic or sensitive dermatitis causes similar symptoms and results from the
sensitisation of a person to a substance - sometimes because of a single exposure
but more commonly following repeated exposure.
It can be caused by isocyanates and latex. This results in an allergic reaction on

subsequent exposure.
Allergic dermatitis will occur after exposure to very small quantities of a substance
(even below the occupational exposure limits) once a person becomes sensitised to
it.
Other Defences
The body has a range of other defences against harm, such as:
N tears and blinking of the eye to protect against foreign bodies;
N pain, e.g. manual operations involving repetitive movements, etc. will result in
pain. Continuing the operations in spite of the pain can lead to permanent
damage; and
N hormones, e.g. adrenalin released when the body is stressed.

Occupational Hygiene
Occupational hygiene has been defined as the science of the protection and
preservation of the health of people while they are at work. Therefore it is concerned
with health hazards and involves the following four processes:
1. identification of health hazards;
2. measurement of health hazards;
3. assessment of health hazards; and
4. control of health hazards.
1. Identification of Health Hazards

Forms of Chemical Agent
Chemical agents may be solid, liquid, and gas. A substance can be any one of these
forms depending on the pressure and temperature, e.g. at normal ambient pressure
and temperature, water is a liquid, but when frozen is solid ice, and when heated
above its boiling point becomes a gas, i.e. steam.
Dust
Dust is a cloud of solid particles ranging up to 150 micron in diameter. Anything over
75 micron is classed as grit and is unlikely to remain airborne. A micron is one
thousandth of a millimetre and is abbreviated to µm. A human hair is about 50
micron in diameter. Dusts are produced mechanically by grinding or similar actions,
e.g. silica, flour, wood dust or general dust.
Dust is divided into two categories, depending on size:
N ‘Total inhalable dust’ is the total dust that will enter the nose and mouth and
lungs during breathing.
N ‘Respirable dust’ is dust of such a size that it is able to enter the lower levels
of the lung during normal breathing (approx. 0.5 to 7.0 micron). Respirable
dust is often in the form of long particles with sharp edges which cause
scarring of the lung lining (fibrosis). This limits the capacity of the lungs and,
therefore, the amount of air in the lungs.
Fume
Fume is made up of small metallic particles of a size from 0.001 to 1 micron

produced by, for example, combustion during the welding process.

Smoke
Smoke is made up of particles from 0.01 to 1 micron and is produced by incomplete

combustion of carbonaceous materials, e.g. oil, wood, tobacco, etc.
Mists
Mists are fine airborne liquid droplets such as oil mist and water mists, which may
contain legionella.
Vapour
Vapours are formed above liquids at or above their boiling temperature. This
temperature might be at, or near room temperature. Many solvents fall into this
category, e.g. toluene.
Forms of Biological Agent
Biological hazards may be transmitted by any of the following small organisms:
N fungi: small organisms that produce spores. Spores may be inhaled or enter
the body through the skin. In both cases an infection and / or allergic reaction
may be caused, e.g. farmer’s lung. Most fungal infections are treatable using
antibiotics. Moulds are very small fungi, which are particularly active in warm
and damp conditions;
N bacteria: very small single-cell organisms, which invade and infect human
cells. Many bacteria may be destroyed by the use of antibiotics. However
antibiotic resistant bacteria are developing, e.g. MRSA, which are becoming
increasingly difficult to treat; and
N viruses: minute organisms, which develop within the cells of the body, e.g.
hepatitis, HIV and the common cold. Viruses are not treatable with antibiotics
and only the immune system of the body can destroy them. Therefore, in
many cases, only the symptoms of an infection are treatable.
Routes of Entry into the Human Body
The main routes of entry of substances into the body are:
N inhalation: this is the most important route of entry as it allows the substance
to directly attack lung tissue and, in some cases, to enter the blood stream
and attack other organs of the body. The lungs are an active pump, drawing
in air from the environment and the majority of occupational ill-health
produced by agents is caused by inhalation. Gases, such as carbon
monoxide, enter the body by inhalation;
N ingestion: occurs through the mouth. This can be accidental – such as by

drinking from an unlabelled container or by poor hygiene – eating, drinking or
smoking in a contaminated environment. Respiratory defence mechanisms
also push inhaled particles, such as dusts, into the throat and mouth, most of

which will then be swallowed;
N absorption: occurs through the skin and across membranes, e.g. ammonia
into the eye. Many solvents will penetrate unbroken skin and can enter the
blood stream. Other substances can enter via cuts or abrasions;
N direct entry: occurs through open wounds on the skin, such as dermatitis,
tetanus infection and leptospirosis (Weil’s disease) from female rat urine; and
N injection (skin puncture): caused by contact with liquids or gases under

pressure or accidental puncture of the skin with contaminated sharp objects,
e.g. HIV.
The effects on health on hazardous substances may be either acute or chronic.
Acute effects are adverse health effects resulting from a single or short-term
exposure, producing an immediate or rapid effect, which is usually reversible, e.g.
the intoxication effects of alcohol, an acid burn.
Chronic effects are adverse health effects resulting from prolonged or repeated
exposure with a gradual or latent, often irreversible, effect that may be
unrecognised for a number of years, e.g. liver disease from long-term alcohol
exposure, systemic effects of lead.
Classification of Hazardous Substances
Irritant : (Xi) non-corrosive substances, which, through

immediate, prolonged or repeated contact with the skin or
mucous membrane, may cause inflammation, e.g. petrol,
detergent, nuisance dusts.
Corrosive: (C) substances, which, on contact with living tissue,

may destroy it by burning, e.g. hydrochloric acid or strong
alkalis such as ammonia.
Harmful: (Xn) substances, which, if swallowed, inhaled or

penetrate the skin, may cause damage to health.
Category 3 carcinogens, mutagens and teratogens.
Very Toxic: (T+) poisonous substances, which, in very low

quantities, may cause death, acute or chronic damage to
health.
Toxic: (T) a poisonous substance, which, in low quantities,

may cause death, acute or chronic damage to health.

Carcinogenic: (Carc Categories 1 and 2) substances, which
cause disorders to cell growth that may lead to cancer or
increase its incidence.
Mutagenic: (Muta Categories 1 and 2) substances, which

induce heritable genetic defects or increase their incidence.
Toxic for reproduction (Teratogenic): (Repr Categories 1

and 2) substances, which produce or increase the incidence of
non-heritable effects in progeny and / or impairment in
reproductive functions or capacity.
Sources of Information
The principal sources of information are:
N manufacturers’ safety data sheets, which should be provided by the supplier

of the hazardous product. It is important to note that the data sheets by
themselves do not constitute a risk assessment because they do not
consider how the substance is to be used. The 16 pieces of information
required on a data sheet are:
1. identification of the substance or 9. physical and chemical

preparation and the company; properties;
2. composition of the ingredients; 10. stability and reactivity;
3. hazard identification; 11. toxicological information;
4. first-aid measures; 12. ecological information;
5. fire-fighting measures; 13. disposal considerations;
6. accidental release measures; 14. transport information;
7. handling and storage; 15. regulatory information;
8. exposure controls / personal and
protection; 16. other information.
N product labels, which should include the

chemical name of the product, a
pictogram showing the classification
symbol and an indication of the risk and
safety phases (see Table 2);
N Governmental or State organisations and /

or Enforcement Agency publications, e.g.
The UK HSE guidance note EH 43
Carbon monoxide - Health hazards and
precautionary methods;

N ILO Codes of Practice, e.g. Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work;
N trade association publications;
N worker unions and insurance companies; and
N professional occupational health technical journals.
Risk Phrases Safety Phrases

These are standard phrases giving These are standard phrases giving
simple information about the hazards of simple advice on safety precautions,
a chemical in normal use. which may be appropriate when using
the chemical.
R22 Harmful if swallowed. S1 Keep locked up.
R45 May cause cancer. S24 Avoid contact with the skin.
R46 May cause heritable genetic S30 Never add water to the product.
damage.
R49 May cause cancer by inhalation. S51 Use only in well ventilated areas.
Table 2: Example Risk and Safety Phrases
Occupational Exposure Limits

An occupational exposure limit is an airborne concentration measurement of a
substance that is hazardous to health, measured over a reference time period, which
should not be exceeded.
Different countries have adopted various frameworks for setting upper permissible
concentrations for airborne substances within the workplace. The first standard list of
exposure limits were put together in the former Soviet Union in the 1930s. In the
USA, the ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists)
was formed in 1941 and formed a Threshold Limit Values Committee. A range of
limits was set, known as hygiene limits, and has been used as the basis for
determining limits elsewhere.
Not all substances are assigned an occupational exposure limit and differences in
assignation and limits occur, from country to country, as there is no international
agreement on limits, although harmonisation of standards, Indicative Occupational
Exposure Limit Values (ILV), was recently agreed in Europe. Limits are published
as, e.g.:
N Threshold Limit Values (TLV) in the USA;
N Indicative Limit Values (ILV) in Europe; and

N Workplace Exposure Limits (WEL) in the UK.
Hazardous substances assigned an occupational exposure limit typically fall into two
groups:
N high risk substances: substances which are carcinogenic, e.g. having a risk
phase R45, R46 or R49, or could cause occupational asthma or similar
severe health effects. The level of exposure to these substances should be
reduced as far as is reasonably practicable; and
N all other hazardous substances: which have been assigned an

occupational exposure limit. Exposure to these substances by inhalation
should be controlled adequately to ensure that the limit is not exceeded.
Most occupational exposure limits:
N are subject to a long-term exposure limit (LTEL) and a short-term exposure

limit (STEL), which cover exposure over 8 hours and 15 minutes respectively.
The LTEL may be exceeded proportionately if exposure is less than 8 hours
and provided that the STEL is never exceeded; and
N are measured:
- in milligrams per cubic metre of air (mg/m3), (airborne particles, dust,

fume, etc.);
- in parts per million of air (ppm), (airborne vapours and gases); and
- in fibres per millilitre of air (fibres/ml), (airborne fibres, e.g. man made
mineral fibres).
The long-term exposure limit (LTEL) is intended to protect against chronic effects, to
reduce the accumulation of harmful substances in the body that would enhance a
disease risk on continuing contact.
A short-term exposure limit (STEL) is intended to prevent against acute effects such
as:
N excessive irritation;
N irreversible tissue damage; and
N narcosis to the extent that it could impair the worker such that they have an
increased accident-proneness.
Many substances have both long-term and short-term limits, which reflect the
different hazardous effects that the material has on the body.

Substance Formula CAS LTEL (8-Hour STEL (15-Minute
Number TWA Reference Reference Period)
Period)
ppm mg/m3 ppm mg/m3
Acetone CH3COCH3 67-64-1 500 1210 1500 3620
Table 3: Example of a UK WEL (HSE, 2005)
Each substance has a unique number known as a ‘Chemical Abstract Service’ or

CAS number, which can be referenced for measurement and risk assessment.
Limitations
Although occupational exposure limits are a useful guide, there are a number of
limitations, which should be borne in mind:
z the actual doses received by workers may vary due to factors such as the
work rate, which will cause more air to be inhaled. This is not allowed for in
the exposure limit framework;
z chemicals can enter the body by routes other than inhalation, e.g. skin
absorption, the airborne concentration may not be fully indicative of the dose
received;
z toxicological data on which limits are based are not necessarily infallible;
z errors in estimating exposures may be significant; and
z many substances do not have a limit set, which leaves organisations, which
may have little technical expertise, with the difficult task of setting an ‘in-
house’ limit.
2. Measurement of Health Hazards

Survey Techniques for Health Risks
The measurement of hazardous substance concentrations in the atmosphere will be
required when there are likely to be serious risks to health in the event of a failure or
deterioration of control measures. Therefore, measurement would be necessary if
there were uncertainty that workplace exposure limits had not been exceeded or that
particular control measures were not working properly. Survey techniques include:
N an initial appraisal, e.g. information gathering and observation;
N a basic survey, e.g. qualitative or quantitative indication (short-term ‘grab’

sampling); and

N a full survey, e.g. detailed quantitative long-term sampling.
Initial Appraisal
At first an initial appraisal of the hazards and risks needs to be undertaken, taking
into account all of the relevant factors such as:
N substances used, including physical forms and properties;
N processes involved, including points of release;
N persons who could be affected;
N work practices, including means by which substances could be released;
N whether RPE or other forms of PPE is worn and its effectiveness or

ergonomic concerns; and
N relevant Occupational Exposure Limits.
From this information and some qualitative observations a decision can then be
made regarding the need for measuring (monitoring).
Basic Survey
Qualitative observations may be made to give an indication of whether there are

grounds to require quantitative measurement, e.g. using smoke tubes or dust
observation lamps.
The smoke tube will give an indication of the direction and relative speed of air
movements. It is often used to observe the effectiveness of a ventilation system.
The dust lamp will allow dusts, which are normally invisible to the naked eye, to be
observed in a manner similar to a beam of sunlight in a darkened room.
Neither device can estimate the concentration of the dust cloud but may indicate that
air monitoring is required.

Figure 9: Use of a Dust Lamp
Observer, or
Lamp - either camera, viewing
traversed by hand to towards lamp
illuminate dust source whilst shielding
or mounted on a stand Dust eyes from glare
A quantitative indication of a gas or vapour can be achieved using a stain tube

detector (grab sampler). A sample of air is drawn over crystals in a calibrated tube
via a hand pump. The gas or vapour needs to be identified before this method is
used as the specific tube for the substance should be obtained.
The presence of a hazardous substance causes the crystals to change colour. The
tube is calibrated so that the extent of the crystal colour change along the tube
indicates the concentration in parts per million (ppm) of the hazardous substance in
the air sample.
There are over 200 tubes available, e.g. oxygen, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide,
hydrogen sulphide, acetone, etc.
Figure 10: Example of a Grab Sampler and Tubes

Figure 11: Stain Detector Tube
Glass tube Direction of flow

READ
1 2 3 5 1020
Porous
Fused tip Pre-layer granules, Fused tip
e.g. silica gel,
chemical
reagent Scale
divisions
An extension tube is available to permit sampling in a confined space without the

tester having to enter the space.
Advantages of grab sampling Disadvantages of grab sampling
N low cost; N inaccurate;
N takes little time; N results depend upon positioning of

the tube;
N immediate result;
N only a ‘snap shot’ is taken during a
N operators need little experience; small amount of time;
N gives indication during N the pump may be inefficient or

emergency spillages, etc.; and inaccurate in each sample;
N good for ‘coarse’ indication of N chemical use only (no dusts); and
measurement.
N substance specific – the substance
sampled must be known.

Full Survey
Where accurate measurements are required the long-term sampling method is

used.
Long-term does not necessarily refer to a long time period, it could be based on a
few minutes, or several days of sampling.
Unlike grab sampling, which just measures an instantaneous concentration, long-

term sampling enables a ‘Time Weighted Average’ (TWA) concentration to be
determined, which allows for comparison against an occupational exposure limit and
appropriate judgements to be made whether control is achieved.
‘Direct reading and indirect reading’ are the two principal methods of long-term
sampling.
Direct Reading Instruments
These are very technical instruments, e.g. portable infra-red gas analyser used to
test for gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide,
chlorine, which are usually operated by specialists. They are very accurate and
provide a quick reading. Some of these instruments will provide a print out of the
various levels during the sampling period as well as converting the reading to the
Time Weighted Average (TWA).
Permanent direct reading static sampling equipment is used in some industries. This
is more properly defined as ‘Monitoring Equipment’, which will normally give an alarm
if certain levels of oxygen or a toxic gas are encountered and does not provide any
facility for a direct reading of concentration in air; these are also used for monitoring
during work rather than evaluation of levels.
There is a range of direct reading instruments available to indicate the levels of

flammable gas or vapour in air, sometimes termed ‘Explosimeters’. These will either
be set for the specific Upper Flammable Limit or Upper Explosive Level (UFL / UEL)
and Lower Flammable Level or Lower Explosive Level (LFL / LEL) of the particular
gas or vapour, e.g. methane. Commonly direct reading instruments used in industry
include ‘three in one’ or ‘four in one’ multi-gas instruments, which continually
measure oxygen level, flammable gas and one or two toxic gases such as carbon
monoxide and / or hydrogen sulphide. This type of instrumentation can be used to
monitor atmospheres for work within confined spaces.
Indirect Reading Instruments
These provide methods of sampling the atmosphere, which is then analysed in a

laboratory to determine the amount of material collected. They have the advantage
that the results are accurate and give a TWA, however it takes time to obtain a result.
Various forms of equipment are used depending on the material being sampled:
N passive samplers. These are usually in the form of a badge or tube

samplers, onto which the contaminant diffuses. The monitoring time is noted
and the badge is then sent to an approved laboratory for analysis where a
calculation is made to produce a TWA for comparison with the appropriate

LTEL / STEL. The advantage of this method is that no pump is required and
the sampler can be left for several days or weeks if necessary; and
N active samplers. A pre-set volume of sample air is continuously drawn

through a collection medium or filter housed in a sampling head connected to
a pump via tubing. The monitoring time is noted and the filter is sent to an
approved laboratory for analysis where a calculation is made to produce a
TWA for comparison with the appropriate LTEL / STEL. It is more accurate
than a stain tube detector and can be used for both gases and dusts.
The sampling can be either:
N personal sampling. These may be passive or active samplers:
- for passive sampling the badge or tube sampler is placed in the

worker’s breathing zone; and
- for active sampling the sampling head is placed in the worker’s
breathing zone with the pump strapped to the worker’s waist; or
N static sampling. These may be passive or active samplers. They are placed
at static points, usually operator stations, and are used for environmental
sampling.
Figure 12: Passive and Active Personal Sampling
Passive Sampling Active Sampling

3. Assessment of Health Hazards
Employers should identify, risk assess and control workers’ exposure to hazardous
substances. A hazardous substance is a substance, which:
N has a chemical health hazard label: very toxic, toxic, harmful, corrosive or
irritant;
N is a carcinogen, mutagen or is toxic for reproduction;
N has an assigned occupational exposure limit;
N is a biological agent;
N is a dust in substantial concentration, e.g.:
- total inhalable dust 10 mg/m3;

- respirable dust 4 mg/m3; and
N is any other substance defined as hazardous to health, e.g. pesticides.
The employer should:
N carry out suitable and sufficient risk assessment;
N adequately control exposure of employees to hazardous substances;
N ensure that control measures provided should be used properly;
N regularly maintain control measures;
N monitor employee exposures to hazardous substances where:
- failure or deterioration of the control measures could result in a

serious health effect;
- measurement is necessary so as to be sure an occupational exposure
limit is not exceeded; and
- necessary as an additional check on the effectiveness of control
measures;
N provide health surveillance for employees where:
- an identifiable disease or adverse health effect may be related to the

exposure;
- there is a reasonable likelihood of disease or adverse health effect;
- a valid detection technique exists; and
- the detection technique is of low risk to the employee;
N provide employees affected by the hazardous substances with sufficient

information, instruction and training.
Risk Assessment

The stages of a hazardous substance risk assessment are very similar to those of a
general risk assessment:
1. Look for the hazards
The safety data sheet and / or hazard warning labels will indicate whether the
substance is hazardous. Some hazardous substances may be produced by
the process itself, e.g. welding or soldering fume.
Information will be required on the:
N work activity: duration and frequency;

N identity of the substance;
N toxicity of the substance, e.g. whether it is assigned an occupational
exposure limit;
N form of the substance;
N concentration of the substance;
N routes of entry into the body;
N results of personal or static monitoring;
N information about incidents / accidents / ill-health; and
N results of health surveillance.
2. Decide who might be harmed and how
The operator and others who may be affected, especially vulnerable people,
e.g. pregnant and young workers, those with health problems such as
asthma, etc.
3. Evaluate the health risks and decide whether existing precautions are
adequate or more should be done
The likelihood and severity of the risk should be established.
The existing control measures should be identified and considered, to

ascertain whether they are used and adequately control exposures to the
substance.
A judgement about the need for further control measures will need to be
made. The hierarchy of control should be considered to establish the most
effective means of control.
4. Record the findings
The significant findings of the assessment should be recorded.
Personal monitoring and health surveillance records should be kept for 40

years, whereas static monitoring records, where individuals are not named,
should be kept for at least 5 years.

5. Review the assessment and revise it if necessary
The assessment should be reviewed:
N periodically;
N whenever there is reason to believe an assessment is no longer valid;
N where there has been a significant change in the work;
N where there has been a case of ill-health, a spillage or excursion
above occupational exposure limits; and
N when the occupational exposure limits change.
4. Control of Health Hazards

Hierarchy of Control
Eliminate the hazard;
Safe Place
Reduce the risk by substitution;
Isolate the people from the hazard;
Control;
Personal protective equipment; and

Safe Person
Discipline use of control measures.
(ERIC Prevents Death).
Eliminate the Hazard

The most effective way to prevent exposure to a substance is to eliminate the
substance, e.g. unblock drains using rods rather than a toxic substance.
Reduce the Risk by Substitution

Substitution of a hazardous substance for a less hazardous one is becoming easier
and easier as more and more benign products are developed, e.g. the use of water
based rather than solvent based paints or glues will reduce the hazard from vapours.
Isolate the People from the Hazard

Total Enclosure
Total enclosure of the process will isolate the process from the employee, e.g.
enclosing a conveyor transporting silica to prevent employee exposure.

Segregate the People
Barriers and ventilated control booths are often provided in molten metal processes
to protect employees from fumes and heat, etc.
Control
Control by engineering control, e.g. LEV, pumping chemicals instead of manually
pouring them; and by changing work patterns or methods, e.g. limiting the time,
frequency (job rotation) and number of persons exposed.
Engineering Control
Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV)
LEV is a mechanical system of ventilation designed to remove a specific contaminant

from its source, e.g. welding fume. It consists of the following:
N a receptor or capture hood;
N ducting to remove the contaminant;
N an air cleaning device, e.g. filter to remove the contaminant from the air;
N a fan to ensure an adequate ventilation rate for the contaminant. This will be
dependent on the size of the particles and the size of the LEV system; and
N a discharge point.

Figure 13: LEV
Discharge to atmosphere
Main duct
Filter
Branch Fan
Hood ducting
Dust collection
bags
Circular saw
LEV is an effective way to control exposure from a specific source of contaminant,

however, the following must be considered:
N the system should be designed to remove the specific contaminate;
N the initial performance of LEV should be checked against design specification

by a competent person;
N the LEV should be examined / tested annually. The test results should then
be compared with the design specification to detect deterioration in
performance. Records of examinations / testing should be kept, e.g. for 5
years;
N LEV may become inefficient because of:
- blocked filters; - wear / corrosion of fan blades;

- lack of maintenance; - incorrect setting;
- positioning the hood too far away - increased contaminant levels;
from the contaminant; - inadequate design; and
- unauthorised alterations; - failure of operators to use it.
- broken ducting;
N there should be regular user checks to ensure performance, e.g.:
- clean ducting;
- repair physical damage;
- reposition hoods to correct angles;
- check the condition and correct installation of filters;

- examine fan blades to ensure there is no build up of contaminant;
- tightening and cleaning of drive belts; and
- general lubrication of moving parts.
Employers should ensure employees:
N make proper use of control measures provided; and
N report defects in them.
Dilution or General Ventilation
General or ‘dilution’ ventilation is designed to induce a flow of air through a room to

dilute or displace contaminants.
Its use is only appropriate when dealing with low toxicity, low density contaminants
(not dusts), which are uniformly evolved in small quantities. It is suitable where it is
not practicable to extract the contaminant close to its point of origin, e.g. where there
is no specific point of contaminant release or heat source.
Figure 14: General Ventilation
Maintenance of Controls
Systems of adequate control should be in place for normal operations, emergencies

and maintenance. Engineering control measures will only remain effective if there is
a programme of preventative maintenance available. Maintenance will involve the
cleaning, testing and, possibly, the dismantling of equipment. It could involve
entering confined spaces. It will almost certainly require hazardous substances to be
handled and waste material to be safely disposed. It may also require a permit-to-
work procedure to be in place since the control equipment will be inoperative during
the maintenance operations. Records of maintenance should be kept for at least 5
years.

Change the Work Pattern or Method
Reduced time and frequency of exposure can be achieved by:
N allowing employees to have several breaks during the working day;
N job rotation; and
N providing exclusion zones to reduce the number of persons exposed to a

hazard.
The work method can be changed by:
N purchasing substances in small containers rather than bulk drums to prevent

the need for decanting; and
N developing safe system of work and review methods of working, e.g.

vacuuming dusts rather than sweeping.
Hygiene and Housekeeping
All eating, drinking or smoking should be prohibited in the area where hazardous
substances are used. Adequate welfare arrangements, particularly washing and
first-aid facilities should be situated near to the area where hazardous substances
are used and good hygiene practices followed. Personal hygiene is very important
for workers exposed to hazardous substances and they should wash their hands
thoroughly before eating, drinking or smoking.
Contaminated clothing and overalls need to be removed and cleaned on a regular

basis.
Good housekeeping measures will reduce the risks from hazardous substances, e.g.
by ensuring that only the minimum quantity of the substance is kept at the
workstation and that all infection, contamination and inhalation hazards are removed.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Personal protective equipment used for protection from hazardous substances

include:
N respiratory protection, e.g. chlorine;
N hand and skin protection, e.g.

detergents and solvents;
N eye protection, e.g. corrosives and

ammonia; and
N protective clothing, e.g. chemical splash

suits to protect against acids and
biological agents.

Discipline
If the wearing of personal protective equipment is required, then supervisors should

enforce the rule and lead by example. Ultimately disciplinary procedures should be
invoked for non-compliance.
Other Controls
Information, Instruction and Training
Employees will require sufficient information and instructions on the:
N nature of the substances they work with and the risks created by exposure to
those substances;
N control measures, their purpose and how to use them;
N use of personal protective equipment and clothing;
N results of any exposure monitoring and health surveillance (which should be

anonymous); and
N emergency procedures.
Emergency Controls
Emergencies can range from spillages to major fires involving serious air pollution
incidents. The following points should be considered when an emergency arises
involving hazardous substances:
N loss of ventilation, if this poses a risk to health then the ventilation system
should be fitted with an audible and a visible alarm;
N availability of personal protective equipment;
N provision of emergency showers and eye-wash facilities;
N spillage and leakage, e.g. spillage booms, sawdust, and a spillage procedure;
and
N evacuation procedures including the alerting of neighbours.
A spillage procedure would involve:
N isolation of the area;
N evacuation of employees at risk; the provision of bunding to contain the

spillage;
N issue of appropriate PPE to those carrying out the task, e.g. filter face mask;

N contact with emergency services (in high risk situations); and
N the safe disposal of the spilled substance and any absorbent material used.
Health Surveillance
Environmental monitoring measures the level of substance in the workplace before

people have been exposed and suffered any harm. Health surveillance detects the
start of an ill-health problem and collects data on ill-health occurrences. It gives an
indication of the effectiveness of the control procedures, but this is not its primary
function. This might involve examinations by a doctor or trained nurse. But in some
cases trained supervisors could, for example, check employees’ skin for dermatitis,
or ask questions about breathing difficulties where work involves substances known
to cause asthma.

Specific Agents
Chemical Agents
Ammonia is a strongly alkaline colourless gas with a pungent odour. It is a corrosive
substance, which even in small concentrations can cause irritation to the eyes and
upper respiratory tract. In large concentrations it can cause blindness and pulmonary
oedema (fluid in the lungs). Therefore, when maintaining equipment containing
ammonia the wearing of good eye and respiratory protective equipment is essential.
It is readily soluble in water, which can lead to severe burns if concentrated solutions
are splashed onto the skin or into eyes.
It is widely used in the printing industry and in the manufacture of fertilisers and
refrigerants. Most work on ammonia plant requires a permit-to work procedure.
Asbestos is a term used to describe a group of fibrous silicates. They are naturally
occurring minerals, which are highly resistant to
temperature, pressure and acids. Asbestos was very
much in demand for its fire resistant properties and
was used in insulation materials, brake linings and fire
proofing devices.
Fibres, such as asbestos fibres and man made mineral

fibres, have difference characteristics to dust particles.
The sizes that are important are the length, the
diameter and the length to diameter ratio.
There are three main types of asbestos commonly

called:
N blue (crocidolite);
N brown (amosite); and
N white (chrysotile).
All are dangerous, but blue and brown asbestos are considered to be more
hazardous than white.
Asbestos will only pose a risk to health if asbestos fibres are released into the air.
They form a very fine dust that is often invisible to the naked eye.
Breathing in air containing asbestos dust can lead to chronic asbestos-related

diseases, e.g.:
N asbestosis (a chronic fibrotic lung disease);
N lung cancer; and

N mesothelioma, a cancer of the lining of the lung.
The combined effect of smoking tobacco and working with asbestos increases the
risk of development of lung cancer.
Asbestos related diseases often take many years to manifest after exposure, and
currently kill an estimated 3,000 people a year in Great Britain. Although exposure to
asbestos fibres should now be strictly controlled, over the next 25 years it is
estimated that 250,000 employees will die from asbestos exposure. (Professor
Julian Peto, 1999).
Asbestos may be encountered in a building in:
N pipe lagging;
N wall and roof panels;
N ceiling tiles;
N textured coatings, e.g. fire resistant encapsulation of metal beams;
N insulation materials; and
N gaskets and other seals.
Carbon dioxide is a colourless and odourless gas, which is heavier than air. Low
levels of carbon dioxide increase the rate of respiration, whereas high levels depress
the rate of respiration leading to rapid unconsciousness and possible death. It is
produced in fermentation processes such as in bakeries and breweries.
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas usually found

wherever incomplete combustion occurs, e.g. in domestic boilers, vehicle exhausts,
furnaces and steelworks.
Inhalation of the gas results in headaches, drowsiness, flushed ‘pink’ appearance

and ultimately in asphyxiation. Because carbon monoxide is more readily absorbed
by the haemoglobin in the red blood cells than oxygen, forming carboxyhaemoglobin,
it is termed a chemical asphyxiant. The supply of oxygen to all body organs,
including the brain is therefore impaired.
Chlorine is a greenish, toxic gas with a pungent smell, which is highly irritant to the
respiratory system. It may also cause abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting. It is
used as a disinfectant for drinking water and swimming pool water.
Dusts, e.g. nuisance dust can cause rhinitis, asthma, bronchitis, emphysema or,
depending upon the agent a more specific condition, e.g. asbestosis (asbestos),
silicosis (silica), byssinosis (cotton fibres), farmer’s lung (mould spores in hay).
Dusts may be measured using visual signs of dust on objects, dust lamps, direct
reading instruments and static or personal sampling followed by laboratory analysis.

Control measures include:
N elimination, e.g. do not carry out grinding processes on site;
N substitution, e.g. of powders for pellets,
N enclosure of the process,
N local exhaust ventilation (LEV) to extract close to the source;
N vacuuming instead of sweeping;
N damping down;
N limiting the time of exposure;
N limiting the numbers exposed; and
N PPE, e.g. filter facemask, if the dust cannot be eliminated or reduced.
Lead is a heavy, soft and easily worked metal. It is used in many industries but is
most commonly associated with plumbing and roofing work. It can enter the body by
eating contaminated food but more probably by breathing lead fumes or dust. The
greatest number of lead poisoning cases in recent years have occurred to workers
involved in cutting up lead painted steel work with gas cutting equipment.
Acute lead poisoning can result in nausea, headaches, and effect on the nervous
system and sometimes death in severe cases. Lead is stored in the body and
accumulates, although over a long period the body will excrete it. Prolonged
exposure to lead will result in the chronic effects of loss of muscle strength, anaemia,
and mental disorders. It is an inhalation and ingestion health hazard.
Organic lead (tetra-ethyl lead) is used as an anti-knock additive in petrol and is

primarily associated with psychiatric effects such as insomnia, hyper-excitability and
mania.
Organic solvents dissolve other substances. They can also be used as a cleaning
and degreasing agents.
Most solvents are volatile, evaporating quickly at room temperature. Because many
solvents evaporate readily their vapours can be drawn into the lungs.
The acute effects of solvent exposure include irritation of the eyes, skin, throat, and
lungs. Certain solvents can also affect the brain. The effects of single and continued
exposures will vary with the particular solvent and its concentration, but can range
from headaches, nausea, and dizziness to loss of consciousness (narcosis) and
even death. These reactions can increase the risk of accidents. Recovery from such
effects is usually fairly rapid provided that the employee is removed from exposure to
the vapour. However, deaths have resulted from exposure to high solvent levels in
confined spaces.
The chronic ill-health effects of solvents are less clear. Some medical research has

shown the development of mental illness and brain disease after long-term exposure
to solvents. Prolonged or repeated exposure to solvents such as trichloroethylene,
n-hexane, methyl butyl ketone and carbon disulphide may damage peripheral nerves.
Symptoms of such damage include disturbance of sensation and weakness or partial
loss of limb movement. These effects are serious but rare.
Solvents also dissolve fats and greases so they can penetrate the natural barrier of
the skin, particularly the hands, arms and face, causing dermatitis or other skin
disorders. They are an inhalation, ingestion and absorption health hazard.
Isocyanates are volatile organic compounds widely used in industry for products
such as surface coatings; especially spray painting vehicles, production of
polyurethane rubbers and foams, printing and lamination work and the manufacture
of footwear (soles and synthetic uppers).
They are irritants and sensitisers. Inflammation of the nasal passages and throat,
bronchitis leading to asthma and rhinitis, are typical reactions to many isocyanates.
They are an inhalation, ingestion and absorption health hazard.
Silica is present in substantial quantities in sand, sandstone and granite and often
forms a considerable part of clay, shale and slate. Concrete and mortar may also
contain crystalline silica. The health hazard comes from breathing in the very fine
dust, which can lead to silicosis. Silicosis involves scarring (fibrosis) of the lung
tissues leading to breathing difficulties. The disease may be acute arising from short-
term exposures to high concentrations or more usually chronically due to exposure
over a long period of time. Fibrosis of the lung tissue from chronic silicosis leads to a
corresponding loss of function. Sufferers usually become housebound and often die
prematurely due to heart failure. Fibrosis of the lung tissue has also been linked to
lung cancer. Work activities, exposing workers to the dust include stone masonry,
sand blasting, demolition and tunnelling. It is an inhalation health hazard.
Biological Agents
Leptospirosis or Weil’s disease is caused by a bacteria found in the urine of
female rats. It is a form of jaundice attacking the kidneys and liver causing high
temperatures and headaches and may be fatal. It enters the body either through
puncture of the skin or by ingestion. The most common source is contaminated
water in a river, sewer or ditch and workers, such as canal or sewer workers are
most at risk. It is an ingestion and absorption health hazard.
Controls include vermin control, housekeeping and removal of waste, personal

hygiene, covering damaged skin and the provision of information, training and
instruction.
Legionella is an airborne bacterium and is found in a variety of water sources, e.g.

cooling towers, water distribution pipework, stagnant water, etc. It is caused by
inhalation of airborne droplets of water containing the legionella bacteria, leading to a
form of pneumonia (Legionnaires’ disease) caused by the bacteria penetrating to the
alveoli in the lungs. The symptoms are similar to pneumonia, i.e. breathing
difficulties, high temperature and possible death.
Death is most likely in middle-aged smokers, although those with a suppressed

immune system and the elderly are also vulnerable. The non-pneumonic version of
the disease, which is less serious, is known as Pontiac Fever.
The conditions in air conditioning systems, if not properly maintained and treated,
can be ideal for the bacteria to breed and then enter the atmosphere in the building.
Controls include temperature control and monitoring, maintaining a regular flow of

water, avoiding ‘dead-legs’ in pipework, biocide treatment, effective cleaning and
maintenance regimes and provision of information, training and instruction.
Hepatitis is a disease of the liver and can cause high temperatures, nausea and
jaundice. It can be caused by hazardous substances (some organic solvents) or by a
virus. The virus can be transmitted from infected faeces (Hepatitis A) or by infected
blood (Hepatitis B and C). Health workers, care workers, and any workers handling
bodily fluids are particularly at risk from the disease. It is an ingestion and direct
entry health hazard. The normal precautions include good personal hygiene
particularly when handling food and in the use of blood products.
Biological organisms can enter the body by inhalation, ingestion, injection and direct
contact though wounds.
Key control measures include:
N cleaning / disinfection;
N water treatment, e.g. chlorination to prevent legionella in water systems;
N vermin control, e.g. to prevent leptospirosis from rats;
N containment of the biological agent, e.g. microbiological safety cabinets;
N avoidance of sharp implements, e.g. glass containers that could break,

scalpels;
N proper disposal of contaminated waste;
N immunisation, e.g. against hepatitis;
N personal hygiene; and
N PPE, e.g. visors to prevent splashes entering the eyes and mouth.

Figure 15: Contaminated Waste Disposal

Pollution Control - The
Environment
Global Concerns
The five major environmental problems, on a global scale, are generally considered
to be:
N climate change, e.g. global warming;
N ozone depletion, e.g. by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetrachloride,

and halons;
N acid rain, e.g. pollutant gases deposited directly onto vegetation and soil;
N resource depletion, e.g. fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil; and
N biodiversity, i.e. living organisms that make up the fabric of the planet Earth
and allow it to function as it does.
The UN, and its agencies such as the United Nations Environmental Programme
(UNEP) have a vital role to play in providing a forum for discussion and co-operation
on global environmental problems.
UNEP was created in 1973 following the UN Conference on the Human Environment
in Stockholm in 1972.
UN Treaties, Conventions, or Protocols are legally binding. Examples include:
N Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Montreal, 1987);
N UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York, 1992); and
N Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change (Kyoto, 1997).
In many instances however, no legally enforceable obligations arising as

Recommendations, Charters and Agendas, which seek to influence state actions,
e.g.:
N Stockholm Declaration (1972); and
N Agenda 21 (Rio de Janeiro, 1992).
Aspects and Impacts
ISO 14001, the international environmental management system (EMS) standard,

considers an organisation’s effects on the organisation in terms of aspects and
impacts:

Environmental Aspect An element of an organisation’s activities, products and
services that can interact with the environment.
Environmental Impact Any change to the environment, whether adverse or

beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an
organisation’s activities, products or services.
Different organisations have different environmental aspects (interactions) and

impacts. The aspects and impacts will depend on factors such as:
N the activity, product and service mix of the organisation;
N the location of its operations (proximity to sensitive environments, means of

access to markets and distribution choices); and
N the choice of its essential suppliers (location, distance, nature of the materials
/ energy supplied, environmental sensitivities and the environmental
performance of the supplier).
Direct environmental aspects are those that arise directly from the organisation’s
operations. They are interactions over which the organisation has direct control and
responsibility. For example, within a manufacturing company, they would arise from
manufacturing processes and activities taking place on-site.
Indirect environmental aspects are those that arise from the activities of others
with whom the company deals, typically along the supply chain. Indirect aspects will
be subject to varying degrees of influence from the manufacturer. Indirect aspects
can be extremely important to manufacturing operations, but they can have particular
significance in service organisations, e.g. banking.
Pollution
Environmental considerations are becoming more and more important to
organisations, since environmental issues can affect occupational health. Therefore,
there should be an interaction between the health and safety policy and the
environmental policy an organisation.
Pollution of the environment occurs when material or energy is released (into any
environmental medium) from any process in quantities, which are capable of causing
harm to man or any other living organism supported by that part of the environment.

Effects of Pollutants on Human Health
The health effects associated with pollutants may be acute (i.e. immediate and short-
term) or chronic (i.e. long-term). They can also be caused directly or indirectly.
Direct Effects
Workers can be exposed to pollutants directly by different routes or contaminant

pathways. These are:
N inhalation: by breathing in the substance. Contaminants, such as micro-

organisms or dusts and fibres such as asbestos, can be inhaled when land
and / or badly sealed waste containers are disturbed.
Gases can also be released from fires, for example fires in waste skips, i.e.
combustion products, or from landfill sites, e.g. landfill gas, which contains a
high proportion of methane.
N ingestion: by eating the substance. A good example of this is eating dust

and other particles deposited on plants from vehicle emissions, although
washing may reduce this. Children are particularly sensitive to pollutants
such as lead.
According to a 1995 World Bank study, contaminated water (lack of clean

drinking water and sanitation) causes about 80% of the diseases in
developing countries, kills about 10 million people annually, and an average
of 27,000 premature deaths per day, more than half of them children under
the age of 5.
N skin contact: some materials, by direct contact, can irritate the intact, i.e.
unbroken, skin or even be absorbed through skin, e.g. phenols and coal tars.
Some of these materials are also carcinogenic.
N injection: materials that cannot get through intact skin can be carried through
the skin via puncture wounds and cuts for example from old drums.
Demolition and landfill site workers are at particular risk.
Indirect Effects
These include:
1. Air pollution.
2. Water pollution.
3. Land pollution.
Air Pollution
Two of the most significant global environmental issues are associated with air
pollution.

These are:
N climate change - the enhanced greenhouse effect (global warming); and
N depletion of the ozone layer.
Climate Change
Figure 16: Greenhouse Effect
EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE ENERGY ESCAPING
BACK INTO SPACE
HEAT
GREENHOUSE
GASES
INCOMING
RAYS FROM
THE SUN
A balance between energy coming in from the sun in the form of visible radiation
(sunlight) and energy constantly being emitted from the surface of the earth to space
determines the temperature of the earth. The energy coming in from the sun can
pass through the atmosphere almost unchanged and warm the earth, but the infra-
red radiation emanating from the earth’s surface is partly absorbed by some gases in
the atmosphere and some of it is re-emitted downwards. This further warms the
surface of the earth and the lower atmosphere. The gases that do this naturally are
mainly water vapour and carbon dioxide. An analogy is made with the effect of a
greenhouse, which allows sunshine to penetrate the glass that in turn keeps the heat
in, hence the greenhouse effect.
Without a natural greenhouse effect, the average temperature of the Earth would be
about -18°C instead of its present 14°C. However, as greenhouse gas
concentrations, predominately from the burning of fossil fuels, rise well above their
natural levels, the additional warming that will take place could threaten the future
sustainability of the planet.
The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which represents the

vast majority of scientists internationally, predicts a temperature rise of between
1.4oC to 5.8oC over the next 100 years depending on the amounts of greenhouse
gases produced if no action is taken to reduce emissions. This could lead to
dramatic changes to the world’s weather patterns. Heat waves, floods, droughts and
storms would become more frequent and severe. Sea levels could rise between 150
and 950 mm, affecting water resources, spreading disease and requiring the
relocation of entire communities.
Among the important outcomes of the Earth Summit (Agenda 21), held in June 1992

in Brazil, was an agreed framework on climate change, which recommended
developed countries to:
N take appropriate steps to significantly reduce emissions of greenhouse gases

and especially carbon dioxide;
N help developing countries reduce their emissions of these gases;
N compile inventories of emissions; and
N produce and publish national programmes to limit emission and to promote

both research and public education with regard to climate change.
In December 1997, an agreement was made at Kyoto in Japan and gave rise to the
Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by
setting legally binding emissions reduction targets for developed countries. The
Protocol establishes different emission reduction targets for different countries and
allows emissions trading between countries to enable them to meet their final targets.
Depletion of the Ozone Layer

Figure 17: The Earth’s Atmosphere
Ozone is a molecule containing three oxygen
atoms (O3). It is a highly toxic and irritant gas,
which is blue in colour and has a strong
pungent odour, unlike the colourless and
odourless ‘normal’ oxygen molecule (O2),
which has two molecules.
The earth’s atmosphere is divided into several

layers. The majority of atmospheric ozone is
found within the stratosphere, between 15 and
30 km above the earth’s surface.
The ozone layer acts as a shield, protecting

the earth from the harmful effects of solar
radiation. In particular it filters out some of the ultra-
violet radiation known as UVB.
Researchers have now identified numerous ozone depleting substances (ODS), the
most notorious of which are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which were widely used as
refrigerants, propellants, solvents and foam blowing agents in the latter half of the
twentieth century. Other ozone depleting substances include methyl chloroform,
carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide, and halons.
The effect of the ozone depletion can be clearly seen in the ozone hole over
Antarctica, which has been visible every spring since the 1980s. It is not literally a
hole, rather an area of the stratosphere where the ozone levels are considerably
lower than normal. In some years, there has been a decrease of more than 60%
from expected levels.
Reduction in ozone levels has lead to an increase in the levels of UV radiation

reaching the earth’s surface. Whilst small quantities of UV radiation are essential for

human health, e.g. in the manufacture of vitamin D, and various hormones, in larger
doses it leads to adverse effects such as burns and skin cancers. Plant life can be
damaged due to interference with germination processes. Marine eco-systems may
be thrown into serious imbalance due to the effect of UV radiation on phytoplankton.
Synthetic materials can also be adversely affected.
The Montreal Protocol was signed in September 1987, with the specific aim of
protecting the stratospheric ozone from further damage, allowing it ultimately to ‘heal
itself’. It currently provides clear steps for the phasing out of certain ozone depleting
substances. However, the long life of these substances in the atmosphere means
that full recovery of the ozone layer is unlikely before 2050 (Source: European
Environment Agency).
Water Pollution
Water pollution can occur directly or indirectly, for example due to run off from
chemical storage areas, road traffic accidents or the escape of leachate (water
having percolated through the material, bringing contaminants with it) from landfill
sites. Some organic materials, especially those based on phenol can pass through
plastic water pipes, thus contaminating the water. If the water inside the pipe is
chlorinated water, this can produce chlorinated phenols. Chlorinated phenols are
even more difficult to taste or smell than phenols but are more toxic!
Other materials, like the famous pesticide DDT, can bio-accumulate (build up in living
matter) in the bodies of filter feeders such as shellfish and then cause harm to
humans and wildlife when the shellfish are eaten.
Land Pollution
Particles of contaminated soil may cause direct health problems if handled or
ingested by adults and particularly by children. Both particulate matter and vapours
can also be inhaled, notably when the land is disturbed.
Indirect effects can also occur, for example vegetable gardens located on polluted
land may produce crops which have been contaminated by the direct uptake of
toxins or the deposition of contaminate particles on the growing crops.
Cadmium is a heavy metal, which causes hypertension at levels below those

regarded as toxic. Long-term exposure leads to itai-itai disease, which is
characterised by severe joint pains and eventual immobility due to skeletal collapse
as excess cadmium leads to bone porosity and inhibition of bone repair mechanisms.
Abnormally high levels of cadmium have been found in the kidneys and livers of
sheep grazing on pasture fertilised for years with sewage sludge (Source: M
Wilkinson and J Hill, ‘Lamb’s liver with cadmium garnish’, New Scientist, 22 March
1997, p.4).
It is also important to remember that certain wastes, if mixed together, can react to
produce new materials that may be much more dangerous than the original wastes.
For example, in December 1982 a landfill site containing firework waste near
Edinburgh in Scotland exploded. It is believed that this was the result of the

exothermic reaction between magnesium, a common constituent of fireworks, and
water, which produced hydrogen.
Managing Waste
If organisations wish to minimise the waste produced by their activities and improve
their process efficiency, they must understand why and how wastes are produced
and what can be done to minimise and, where possible, eliminate them. However, it
is important to remember that waste is produced across all the activities of business,
for example in offices, canteens, vehicle maintenance facilities, laboratories,
warehousing and retail outlets as well as in production and manufacturing processes.
Legislative Controls
Most countries now have legislative controls on the management of waste. For
example, the Waste Framework Directive 91/156/EEC requires every EU Member
State to produce a statutory waste management plan. The core aims of this plan are
to:
N ensure that waste is managed without endangering human health or harming

the environment;
N to provide an integrated and adequate network of waste management

installations so that waste can be disposed of close to its point of production
(i.e. the so called proximity principle) with each Member State’s waste disposal
capacity meeting its own needs, although waste for recovery and recycling is
allowed to move freely between the Member States; and
N to promote waste reduction, reuse and recovery so that waste is moved up the
waste hierarchy.
Waste Hierarchy
PREVENT
PREVENT
REDUCE
REDUCE
RE-USE
RE-USE
RECOVER
RECOVER
DISPOSE
DISPOSE

The aim of all pollution control regimes should be to minimise and, where possible, to
prevent the release of substances which are potentially harmful or polluting to the
environment.
There are two main classes of pollution control:
N control at source where the process itself is considered and modifications or

changes made to reduce the productions of pollutants; and
N control at the point of effect where the ‘end of pipe‘ solution is considered,
i.e. the production of pollutants is allowed and then the treatment is applied
before emission to air, land or water. This is obviously a less preferable
option than control at source.
There are four key steps to controlling pollution at source. These steps form a
hierarchy and are:
1. Reformulate the product, e.g. develop a non-polluting or less-polluting

product or process by using different raw materials or feedstocks.
2. Modify the process, e.g. change the process to control by-product formation
or to incorporate non-polluting raw materials.
3. Change the equipment, e.g. make the equipment more efficient or allow it to
use by-products from another process.
4. Recover resources, e.g. recycle by-products for own use or use by others.
Wastes produced by one activity can be raw materials for another. In large
integrated chemical plants, reuse of materials in this way is normally an
inherent part of the design.
There are instances where one company’s waste materials can be of use to another
company. For example oil is widely recovered from oily wastes and reused. Rubber
is increasingly being reclaimed from scrap tyres by means of shredding and
crumbing and being re-used in manufacturing a range of products, including carpet
underlay as well as being used as a fuel in purpose built facilities.
Energy recovery is also possible in many modern incinerators. Virtually all organic
compounds have an energy content that can be utilised if they are burnt under
appropriate conditions. It is generally better to recycle solvents than to burn them for
energy production as their manufacture uses more energy than can be recovered by
burning and their selling price allows a profit to be made.
Significant environmental problems may also arise when waste is burnt. For
example, hydrogen chloride or dioxins may be produced.
If waste cannot be reduced, reused or recycled then the only options left are
treatment or disposal.

Waste treatment is defined as:
‘Any chemical, biological or thermal process that destroys or neutralises waste or

reduces its volume and allows it to be transported or stored’.
The optimal treatment option obviously depends on the unique properties of each
particular waste material.
Incineration is an increasingly used option for most organic wastes. The technique
requires purpose-built plant and normally leaves a solid residue or ash that must be
disposed of at a landfill site. Some wastes may also need pre-treating, e.g. water
reduction, before it can be incinerated. Incineration plant is normally divided into two
main sectors:
N municipal, i.e. primarily domestic refuse; and
N high temperature, i.e. in excess of 1200oC.
High temperature is the preferred option for the disposal of hazardous wastes.
Landfill is currently the cheapest and most common waste disposal route in many
parts of the world. The sites are typically old quarries created as a result of mineral
extraction. High standards of site management and operation are vital especially
with regard to leachate and landfill gas.
Developing a Strategy
The Environment Agency in the UK has developed nine steps to help companies
manage their waste more effectively in line with the above waste hierarchy. These
nine steps are based on internationally recognised good practice and are as follows:
Step 1: Scope to save using basic cost data from the purchasing and accounts
departments estimate the potential savings associated with waste raw
materials, waste water, waste energy, trade effluent and solid and liquid
waste.
Step 2: Get commitment, i.e. from senior management and staff at all levels.
Where possible establish waste minimisation teams with ‘project
champions’.
Step 3: Process mapping, i.e. identify how key resources are used in the
company and also the key areas of wastage.
Step 4: Data collection and analysis, i.e. quantify the materials, utilities and
wastes at each processing stage. This should take the form of a historical
audit followed by a live audit spread over an appropriate period of time.
The data produced by this audit will then need to be turned into useful
information.
This is also an important element in identifying process efficiency

improvements and in establishing a comprehensive list of environmental
aspects for the whole site. It is extremely helpful to have both a site plan
and one or more relevant process diagrams to help ‘map out’ the use of

key materials and the associated generation of waste.
The following information should be obtained from this process as a

minimum:
N the quantity of each waste produced over a reference period, e.g.

litres, kilograms, tonnes per day, week, month or year. These may
have to be estimated, for example based on the weight of an
average skip load of that type of solid waste or the average number
of full drums of that particular liquid waste sent for disposal per
annum;
N the activity or activities producing each type of waste;
N the composition of each type of waste including its physical
properties, e.g. solid, sludge or liquid, chemical properties, e.g.
flammable, corrosive, toxic, etc., or other special considerations, e.g.
whether it is putresible (can be rotted) perhaps to form compost; and
N the way in which the waste is categorised on site.
Step 5: True cost of waste is always much higher that just the cost of disposal
due to the hidden costs such as stock losses, disposal costs, the cost of
the plant and equipment to handle the waste and PPE.
Step 6: Prioritising issues, i.e. everything cannot be done at once. Priorities

should be ranked in terms of cost, ease of implementation, capacity
constraints, risk reduction and of course environmental benefit.
Step 7: Problem solving and options for improvement, i.e. using techniques
such as root cause analysis and brainstorming.
Step 8: Opportunity assessment, i.e. assess the technical and economic

feasibility and the environmental impact of the solutions identified in the
previous stage.
Step 9: Implementation and maintaining momentum, e.g. by writing a carefully

structured action plan, involving staff at all levels and involving customers
and suppliers.
Segregation of Waste
Waste should be segregated into the relevant different categories as close as
possible to the source of waste generation, to avoid secondary handling, which may
involve health and safety risks as well increased operational costs. Clearly identified
collection points should therefore be identified for each of the categories in the waste
stream. It is vitally important not to mix waste streams as:
N certain wastes may react with each other giving rise to a serious event with
both health and safety and environmental implications;
N the mixing of even small quantities of hazardous with non-hazardous waste

normally makes the whole consignment hazardous in the eyes of the law and
thus subject to additional stringent and expensive requirements;

N the mixing of non-inert waste with inert waste for landfill will make all the
waste non-inert and therefore may be subject to a higher rate of landfill tax;
N waste for different disposal routes is clearly identified, more effectively

handled and efficiently dispatched to the correct repressor or disposal facility;
and
N data collected and the completion of all relevant paperwork, legal and
otherwise is made simpler and quicker.
In addition, all waste in containers should be in appropriate secure, properly labelled

containers. The containers should also be stored in a manner that minimises the risk
of vandalism or of the unauthorised deposit of waste, e.g. by members of the public.
A nominated individual should have overall responsibility for waste management for a
given area or activity. There should be simple but effective procedures to ensure that
the risks of pollution are minimised and, where possible prevented. All those
involved in the management of waste should have received appropriate training that
specifically includes storage, segregation, handling controls, the duty of care, record
keeping and the need for regular, relevant inspections and audits.
There are ten simple rules for waste storage which are outlined below:
1. ensure the storage area is of sufficient size and is suitably located, i.e. away
from drains, water courses, etc.;
2. clearly label the storage area, and individual containers to advise of contents
and hazardous properties;
3. ensure the storage area is secure and protected from accidental or malicious
damage;
4. if necessary protect the storage area with bunds and rainwater collection
sumps to minimise the risk of water pollution;
5. store different waste types separately to avoid confusion;
6. never store incompatible wastes together;
7. select the appropriate container for the waste and ensure it is in good
condition;
8. keep quantities of waste and storage times to a minimum;
9. protect the waste from the elements (sunlight, rain and wind) if necessary;
and
10. do not dispose of unusual wastes in a general waste skip.

References
ILO 1993 Safety in the Use of Chemicals at Work (ILO Code of
Practice)
ILO 2001 Ambient Factors in the Workplace (ILO Code of Practice)
HSE 1993 HSG 97: Step-by-Step Guide to COSHH Assessment
HSE 1993 HSG 37: An Introduction to Local Exhaust Ventilation
HSE 1998 HSG 53: The Selection, Use and Maintenance of Respiratory
Protective Equipment

Notes

Notes


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Element 4

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 1 of 54

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 3 of 54

Occupational health is as important as occupational safety but generally receives far

In the UK it is estimated that:

An American study has suggested that 30% of disease is occupationally related.

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 5 of 54

4. urinary system; and

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 6 of 54

The lungs are expanded by means of the

The wall of the alveoli is so thin that air

The blood absorbs oxygen from the air and

The Digestive System Figure 2: The Digestive System

Food and water pass into the stomach for

Undigested matter and water passes to the

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 7 of 54

The plasma assist in the clotting and scar

The red blood cells contain haemoglobin, which

The white blood cells are of several kinds and

The bloodstream also transports harmful

The Urinary System

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 8 of 54

They also maintain a constant balancing of the

Unwanted water and dissolved substances are

There are two main layers of the skin, the

The epidermis contains no blood vessels or

The epidermis plays an important role in

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 9 of 54

N biological agents, e.g. fungi, bacteria and viruses.

Harmful agents can cause both local and systemic effects.

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 10 of 54

The response of the body to a variety of environmental conditions, sometimes called

The defence mechanisms of the respiratory

N the hair and wetness of the nose, which

N the change of direction to the larynx. This

N sneezing and coughing to remove inhaled

N centrifugal (outward) motion. The

N fibrosis – although scarring of the lungs will inhibit their capacity.

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 11 of 54

Melanin Protection against ultra violet light is provided by the melanin

Table 1: Skin Defences

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 12 of 54

It can be caused by isocyanates and latex. This results in an allergic reaction on

N tears and blinking of the eye to protect against foreign bodies;

N hormones, e.g. adrenalin released when the body is stressed.

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 13 of 54

1. identification of health hazards;

2. measurement of health hazards;

3. assessment of health hazards; and

4. control of health hazards.

1. Identification of Health Hazards

Dust is divided into two categories, depending on size:

Fume is made up of small metallic particles of a size from 0.001 to 1 micron

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 14 of 54

Smoke is made up of particles from 0.01 to 1 micron and is produced by incomplete

Forms of Biological Agent

Biological hazards may be transmitted by any of the following small organisms:

Routes of Entry into the Human Body

The main routes of entry of substances into the body are:

N ingestion: occurs through the mouth. This can be accidental – such as by

© CHSS Ltd 2006 Page 15 of 54

N injection (skin puncture): caused by contact with liquids or gases under

The effects on health on hazardous substances may be either acute or chronic.