DESIGN PROJECT MEMO 1

Date: 16/08/2018
To: Dr. Tan Yie Hua
From: Ng Kok Vui, Naik Hsian Ming, Chin Pei San, Daniel Chin, Shu Jun
Re: DP 19 – Plant design for the production of urea from ammonia

Summary
Urea was acknowledged as one of the most commonly used material for fertilizing in Asia compared to other
regions across the world. It is also used in pharmaceutical and plastic making industry. Urea manufacturing was
deemed to provide high profitability, thus a plant design for producing urea using ammonia and carbon dioxide
as raw materials was decided to be built at Pulau Indah Industrial Park, Port Klang. The urea would be produced
using Snamprogetti Ammonia and self-stripping process in two chemical reactions where the first reaction
forms ammonia carbamate and second reactions dehydrate the carbamate to form urea. The estimated economic
potential for the manufacturing of urea can reach up to MYR 1.75 million annually with the production rate of
urea up to 500 tonnes per day.
Project Background
Urea which is also known as carbamide consist the most convenient form for fixed nitrogen. Due to its high
nitrogen content of 46 percent, it is widely used as fertilizer (Kumar and Pratap 2007). Additionally, its
utilization is increasing steadily in areas such as the medical and textile industry. Urea was first discovered in
human urine in 1773. In 1828, it was successfully synthesized by Friedrich Wohler, a German chemist/pioneer
in organic chemistry. Urea was the first organic compound to be synthesised from inorganic raw materials. The
technology for production of urea by dehydration of ammonium carbamate was invented in 1870 and this
technology acts as the basis of the industrial process up until today. The production of urea requires two raw
materials; carbon dioxide and ammonia. This process involves two reactions where the first reaction is the
formation of ammonium carbamate and the second reaction is the decomposition of ammonium carbamate.
Scope
The project’s scope includes production of urea from raw materials; carbon dioxide and ammonia. However,
packaging of the final product and the production of the raw materials are excluded from the project’s scope.
Design Constraints
The constraints of the project include the formation of biuret during the process. This substance is highly
undesirable as it would cause negative effect on the growth of certain plants. During the manufacture of urea, it
should be concerned that the biuret content should not be more than 1.5% by weight (Kumar and Pratap 2007).
In addition, low residence time of the urea reaction accounts to one of the constraints as well, hence it must be
ensured that sufficient time is provided to achieve high product conversion. In this aspect, variables such as
temperature, pressure and concentration should be considered for the design of the reactor. Moreover,
temperature and pressure are also considered as the constraints as certain range of temperature and pressure
must be achieved to maintain good conversion of ammonium carbamate. The last constraint would be water
concentration as dehydration of carbamate produce urea means lesser water to carbon dioxide ratio results to
higher urea conversion (Kumar and Pratap 2007). Hence, it must be ensured that water intake to the reactor is
minimum.
Objective
The design project’s objective is to create a process plant model which is capable of producing 500 tonnes of
urea per day with 300 plant working days per year for the agricultural industry in Malaysia. As high
concentration of nitrogen content in urea is crucial to be utilised as fertilisers, the process plant model is to be
ensured that it could produce 46% of nitrogen content and it is also important that the process can achieve 90
percent or above efficiency to minimize waste and energy consumption. The required standard size of the prilled
urea is 2.4 mm to 3.5 mm with a maximum moisture of 0.3 percent (Rahmanian et al. 2015).
Market Survey
The main usage of urea is for agriculture purpose. The targeted market for selling the produced urea would be
focused on local farmers. According to the Fertilizer Industry Association of Malaysia, nearly 90% of Malaysia
production of urea used as fertilizers, while the other is for industrial purpose (used as plastic or animal feeds),
as shown in Figure 1. World Bank Collection of development indicator reported that fertilizer consumption in
Malaysia was 243% in 2016. The market survey shows that farmers in East Asia will be the targeted buyers as
presented in Figure 2 (International Fertilizer Industry Association 2014). The entire Asia has the highest
consumption of urea as shown in Figure 3. Furthermore, it estimated that the demand for urea will reach 188
million metric tons in 2022 as presented in Figure 4. Crop production (oil palm) increase would led to the uprise
for demand of urea fertilizer. Additionally, favourable weather in Malaysia will also increase the demand for

1
fertilizers. The Malaysia production of urea is 650 000 tonnes (Potash Corporation 2013). The raw material used
to manufacture synthetic urea is ammonia and carbon dioxide. Ammonia will be purchase from the supplying
ammonia plant just beside the urea plant; CO2 is supplied from the natural carbon dioxide reservoir or produced
as a by-product from different industry. The cost and specifications for ammonia and carbon dioxide are
presented in Table 1. The cost of urea among competitors is around Rm850 per metric ton (Index Mundi 2018).
Process Technologies
The chosen technologies for the plant design is Snamprogetti Ammonia and self-stripping process. In terms of
product quality, the produced urea can achieve a purity of 99.8% (Mason 2017). Any unconverted by-products
would be either recycled or purged off which makes the process very eco-friendly and resource-savings. In
terms of safety and environmental sustainability, the operation is safe and easily operable whereas the
sustainable environmental pollution as close to zero. The plant itself would be easily maintainable especially the
stripper equipment itself can last for a very long time (Mason 2017). The process has very high conversion,
which consumes lesser amount of raw materials and produces large amount of urea in return. Snamprogetti
process uses minimum amount of energy however has high stripping efficiency and heat recoveries (Meessen
2010). The process comparison is tabulated in Appendix C.
Preliminary Evaluation
Plug flow reactor will be utilised due to the involvement of high exothermic reaction in the process (Savvas et
al. 2017). It is able to ensure safe heat transfer between the surrounding and instrument. The main reasons of its
utilisation are that it can ensure static mixing of the reactants and able to prevent the escape of gaseous carbon
dioxide which must be reacted in the lower part of the reactor. Due to the unsatisfied urea concentration which
is only 30 percent, a carbamate stripper will be installed to increase the urea concentration which will result in
roughly 45 percent concentration. Carbon dioxide content of the solution will be reduced by the stripping action
of ammonia. A shell and tube heat exchanger is installed to condense the overhead gases from the stripper and
the recovered solutions from the absorber. The condensed materials will be recycled back to the reactor. The
shell and tube heat exchanger is utilised because it can withstand high pressure applications. A vacuum
evaporator will be installed to increase the concentration of urea solution up to 99.8 percent by weight for the
purpose of urea prilling. Lastly, prilling tower is required as it can solidify the molten urea produced by the
vacuum evaporator into granule form. Prilling tower is easy to install and able to work in high process
efficiency. In addition, it can achieve high product quality which is very important for dry blending and soil
application (Mason 2017).
Storage and Transportation
The production of urea requires two types of raw materials, namely ammonia and carbon dioxide. Since the
production of raw materials are not included in the project scope, hence the raw materials are bought and
transported to the plant site. Ammonia is stored as liquid in refrigerated storage tanks at negative 33 degree
Celsius under atmospheric pressure. The storage tank must be able to store at least 190 tonnes of ammonia
liquid on a weekly basis to achieve the production of 500 tonnes of urea per day. The design of the storage tanks
is constructed according to suitable design code such as API 620 and its constructing material is carbon
manganese steel which satisfy the requirements in the design codes. As for carbon dioxide, storage tanks made
from low temperature carbon steel with weather proof jacket installed are used. Both materials can be
transported from the port to the plant site via truck mounted tankers with storage tanks constructed in
conformity with ISO standard. In addition, pipelines will be installed for any form of transportation required
within the plant.
Site Selection
Site selection is one of the essential procedures in planning a commercial-scale processing industry. In this
process, several factors such as location, price, weather, material supply, utilities, environmental and indigenous
issues were taken into account in order to filter out the best candidate. Three ideal location for the plan to be
built; Pulau Indah Industrial Park, Bukit Jelutong and Kolombong were compared side by side with respect to a
few criteria in Appendix E. From Table 3, Pulau Indah Industrial Park reigns over with a score of 80 followed
by Kolombong at 71 and Bukit Jelutong at 65. Pulau Indah Industrial Park featured well-rounded balance among
environmental conservation, public safety as well as profit due to the short distance from the port. Kolombong
placed second due to high costs and environmental safety while Bukit Jelutong was least favoured in most of the
factors considered. In short, Pulau Indah Industrial Park was chosen as our ideal site location for the urea plant.
Several safety considerations were taken into the designing process. As such, the storage tanks were ensured to
be at least 70m from the site borders as well as 20m distant from human populated buildings. The process units
were also placed at best approximately 30m for each other. Appendix F shows the site layout design for Pulau
Indah Industrial Park.

2
Appendix A: Market Survey

Figure 1: Usage of urea (FIAM 2015) Figure 2: Global fertilizer demand (IFA 2014)

Figure 3: World consumption of urea 2013 (IFA 2014) Figure 4: Forecasted total urea fertilizer demand
worldwide from 2014 to 2022 (in million metric tons) (Statista 2018)

3
Production rate = 500 tonnes / day = 20.83 tonnes / hour
NH3 required = 33.33 tonnes / day = 13.88 tonnes / hour
CO2 required = 16.67 tonnes / day = 6.94 tonnes / hour
Table 1: Specifications and costs for all materials
Ammonia Carbon Dioxide
Current market value USD 306.8 / tonnes USD 16 / tonnes
Reference (AMIS 2018) (World Bank Group 2018)
Specification
Density 0.73 kg/ m3 1.98 kg/ m3
Boiling point -33.34 °C -78.5 °C
Freezing point -77.7 °C -56.6 °C
Reference (PubChem 2018) (PubChem 2018)

Appendix B: Process Technologies

Process Description
Urea, or known as carbamide (CO(NH2)2), is synthesized from two ammonia molecules and one carbon dioxide molecule via 2-stage process at 450 K and 200
atm pressure. The production of urea took place through several operations such as urea synthesis & high pressure recovery, urea purification & low pressure
recovery, urea concentration and urea prilling. Carbon dioxide is first compressed in a centrifugal compressor from 1.6 atm to 162 atm pressure. The feedstock,
liquid ammonia obtained from an ammonia receiver tank is drawn and compressed at approximately 23 atm pressure. Partial of the ammonia is sent to medium
pressure absorber whereas the remains would enter the high-pressure synthesis loop. The ammonia within this loop is acted as the driving fluid in the carbamate
ejector, where the carbamate coming from carbamate separator is compressed upto synthesis pressure. Carbamate and the liquid mixture of ammonia would then
enter the reactor to react with the compressed CO2. In the plug flow reactor, NH3 and gaseous CO2 reacts to form ammonia carbamate, where a portion of
carbamate would be dehydrated to form urea and water. The mole ratio of NH3 : CO2 is expected to be 2 : 1 whereas the mole ratio for H2O and CO2 is
approximately 0.67 : 1. The involved reactions:
(a) 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) → NH2COONH4(s) is exothermic followed by;
(b) NH2COONH4(s) ↔ NH2CONH2(s) + H2O (l) which is an endothermic reaction
Reaction (a) occurs rapidly while reaction (b) occurs gradually to determine the reactor volume. The produced urea solution containing urea, carbamate, H2O with
unreacted CO2 and NH3 then enters the carbamate stripper. The content of CO2 would be reduced through the stripping action of NH3 as it boils out of the
solution. The overhead gases from stripper and recovered solution would then flows to the carbamate condenser to be liquefied and recycled back to urea reactor.
The desired solution is then sent to a high-pressure decomposer where the flash gases are released in the top separator while the residual carbamate is
decomposed. In the next low-pressure decomposer, the last remaining flash gases are then removed in the overhead section along with the remaining carbamate to
be decomposed as the product stream. The gas stream is then sent to a vacuum evaporator with two stages to reduce the water content of urea to as low as 1%. The
mixed phase stream is then had the vapour extracted in first stage vacuum while the remaining solution enters the second stage and flown as the product stream.
The molten urea coming out from the evaporator is then sent to the prilling bucket by means of centrifugal pump. The urea stream in form of drops would fall
along the prilling tower and encounters a cold air flow which allows solidification of urea to occur. The solid prills falling to the bottom of prilling tower is then
sent through the screeners to retain lumps only, then the prills are sent to a belt conveyor which carries the product to the automatic weighing machines and to
urea storage section. The urea lumps are then recycled to the underground tank where they are dissolved.

4
Appendix C: Process Technologies Comparison
Process comparison
Table 2: Process Technologies Comparison
ACES (Advanced Cost and Energy Saving) process
Technical Feasibility (25%) • Pressure: 175 bar; Temperature: 185 - 190°C
(Kojima et al. 2010)
• NH3/CO2 molar ratio: 4 (Kojima et al. 2010)
• Purity: 88.7% (Kojima et al. 2010)
• Conventional carbamate solution recycle process
with three pressure staged carbamate
decomposition and recovery systems (Kumar and
Pratap 2007)
• Easy maintenance due to low elevation layout
and less high pressure equipment (Kojima et al.
2010)
[13 marks]
Economic Viability (20%) • Process in full commercial status (Kojima et al
2010)
• Higher investment cost than other processes
(Morikawa et al. 2001)
• Low maintenance cost due to less corrosion risk
(Morikawa et al. 2001)
[13 marks]
Process Safety and • Easy operation with forced flow of synthesis
Environmental loop circulation by ejector and no gravity flow
Sustainability (20%) (Morikawa et al. 2001)
• Milder operating condition in synthesis loop
(Morikawa et al. 2001)
• Less corrosion risk (Morikawa et al. 2001)
• Less high pressure piping and construction
materials used due to horizontal layout vessels
(Kojima et al 2010)
• Clean effluents (Kojima et al. 2010)
[10 marks]
Energy Efficiency and • Low energy consumption and running cost
Process Data (20%) saving due to low operation pressure (Morikawa
et al. 2001)
• The heat generated in the first carbamate
condenser is used to generate 5bar steam, and the
heat formed in the second condenser is used to
heat the solution leaving the stripper bottom after
pressure reduction.
[15 marks]
Performance (15%) • Simple operation (Morikawa et al. 2001)
• Technically feasible (Morikawa et al. 2001)
• Economically advantageous (Morikawa et al.
2001)
[10 marks]
Total Ranking (100%) 61
Stamicarbon CO2 - stripping process
• Pressure: 145 bar; Temperature: 180°C (Van et
al. 2010)
• NH3/CO2 molar ratio: 3 (Van et al. 2010)
• Reactor volume is decreased by 30 - 40%
compared to conventional process (Van et al.
2010)
• Purity: 96 – 98.5% (Van et al. 2010)
• Reactor effluent stripped by carbon dioxide
gas in a steam heated vertical heat exchanger
(Kumar and Pratap 2007)
[15 marks]
• Licensed process
• Low investment and operational cost (Van et
al. 2010)
• Low maintenance cost (Van et al. 2010)
• Low raw material consumption (Van et al.
2010)
[15 marks]
• High on stream time and gravity flow (Van et
al. 2010)
• Biuret formation is minimized since
evaporation takes place in vacuum (Van et al.
2010)
• No corrosion (Van et al. 2010)
• Few high pressure equipment required (Van et
al. 2010)
• Treated condensate is used for water cooling
and boiler feedwater (Van et al. 2010)
• No waste water effluent (Van et al. 2010)
[15 marks]
• High pressure stripping for dehydration of
ammonium carbamate (Van et al. 2010)
• Heat evolving from condensation is used to
produce 4.5bar steam some of which can be
used for heating purposes in the downstream
sections of the plant.
[13 marks]
• Safe operation (Van et al. 2010)
• Fulfil environmental requirements (Van et al.
2010)
• Meet all quality standards (Van et al. 2010)
[12 marks]
70
5
Snamprogetti Ammonia and self-stripping process
• Pressure: 152 bar; Temperature: 186 - 189°C (Meessen
2010)
• NH3/CO2 molar ratio: 3.5 (Meessen 2010)
• Purity: 99.8% (Mason 2017)
• Unconverted carbamate is stripped by self-stripping agent-
ammonia, and recycled back to the reactor (Kumar and
Pratap 2007)
• Easy maintenance due to horizontal layout ejector (Mason
2017)
• Long life of stripper equipment; stainless steel lining and
tube material can withstand high erosion and corrosion
(Mason 2017)
[20 marks]
• Licensing directly or through authorized contractors
(Meessen 2010)
• Low investment and operational cost (Meessen 2010)
• Low maintenance cost due to horizontal layout (all the
heavy equipment is installed at ground level) (Mason 2017)
• Low raw material consumption (Mason 2017)
[18 marks]
• Easy and safe operation (Mason 2017)
• High on stream factor (Meessen 2010)
• Low biuret formation (Meessen 2010)
• Low corrosion risk (Mason 2017)
• Sustainable environmental pollution as nearly zero the
quantity of ammonia in the plant vents (Meessen 2010)
• Explosive inerts are discharged into atmosphere (Mason
2017)
• Urea dust emission lower than 40mh/Nm3 (Mason 2017)
• Process water discharged with 1ppm of urea and ammonia
(Mason 2017)
[18 marks]
• Low energy consumption (Meessen 2010)
• High conversion, high stripping efficiency and heat
recoveries (Meessen 2010)
• High heat transfer coefficients (Meessen 2010)
• Low utilities consumption (Meessen 2010)
[17 marks]
• High quality product (Meessen 2010)
• Easy handling downstream; least caking in bulk storage
(Mason 2017)
[15 marks]
88
Appendix D: Process Flow Diagram

C-100 B-100 R-100 E-101 R-104 T-101

R-101 P-101A/B
Carbon Dioxide Air Dryer Plug Flow Vacuum Prilling Tower Urea Prills Tank
Carbamate Pump
Compressor Reactor Stripper Evaporator

Off Gases

Water Vapour

C-100

R-104
Carbon Dioxide
E-16
Air
B-100
M-100 E-101

Ammonia R-100
R-102 R-103

P-100A/B
R-101
Urea Prills
T-100

P-101A/B P-102A/B
T-101

E-100 E-100 R-102

T-100 P-100A/B M-100 R-103
Carbamate Pressure P-102A/B
Ammonia Tank Pump Mixer Pressure
Condenser Decomposer Pump
Decomposer

Monarch Solutions Sdn, Bhd.

LOCATION DRAWING TITLE PREPARED BY: NG KOK VUI DRAWN BY: NG KOK VUI (COMPANY NO. 9009-6006)
LOT 10056, JALAN PERKASA
7A/B, SENADIN PHASE 7,
98009 MIRI, SARAWAK,
MALAYSIA.
CHECKED BY: DANIEL CHIN APPROVED BY: CHIN PEI SAN TEL: 085-9009666
FAX: 085-6669009
PulauLocation??
Indah Industrial Park,
Process Flow Diagram DATE: 14/08/2018 SCALE: NTS REV: 1
Port Klang This drawing and the copyright therein are the
property of MS and all information which it
contained are confidential. The drawing must not
DRAWING NO: DP2018_011 be reproduced or disclosed without prior consent
of MS.

6
Appendix E: Site Selection

Table 3: Site Selection Comparison

Pulau Indah Industrial Park, Port Klang Bukit Jelutong, Shah Alam Kolombong, Kota Kinabalu
Location • Coordinates: (2°56’50.0”N / 101°18’33.9”E). • Coordinates: (3°06’25.8”N / 101°31’42.3”E). • Coordinates: (5°59’02.3”N 116°07’23.8”E).
[15 Marks] • Size: 20 acres • Size: 21.6 acres • Size: 23.5 acres
• Soil: Suitable for industrial purposes. • Soil: Suitable for industrial purposes. • Soil: Suitable for industrial purposes.
• Distance from the nearest population centre: • Distance from the nearest population centre: • Distance from the nearest population centre:
2.4 km (Pulau Indah) (Google 2018c). 2.02 km (U8 Shah Alam) (Google 2018a). 1.59 km (Inanam) (Google 2018b).
[13 Marks] [10 Marks] [7 Marks]
Land Cost Price: RM 65,340,000.00 for leasehold Price: RM 103,670,000.00 for leasehold Price: RM 150,000,000.00 for leasehold
[20 Marks] (IndustrialSpace 2018). (IndustrialSpace 2018). (iProperty 2018).
[17 Marks] [13 Marks] [9 Marks]
Weather • Average temperature: 31℃ • Average temperature: 30 ℃ • Average temperature: 29 ℃
[10 Marks] (WorldWeatherOnline 2018a) (WorldWeatherOnline 2018c) (WorldWeatherOnline 2018b)
• Average annual rainfall: 310 mm • Average annual rainfall: 150 mm • Average annual rainfall: 100 mm
• Average relative humidity: 75 % • Average relative humidity: 74 % • Average relative humidity: 73 %
• Average wind speed: 6.5 mph • Average wind speed: 4.8 mph • Average wind speed: 7.8 mph
• No previous records on natural disasters. • Previous record of flooding in 2014. • Previous record of earthquake in 2018.
[7 Marks] [5 Marks] [6 Marks]
Raw materials The nearest suppliers from site (Google 2018c): The nearest suppliers from site (Google 2018a): The nearest suppliers from site (Google 2018b):
and utility • Ammonia: SPCI Sdn. Bhd, 46.7 km • Ammonia: BIS Chemicals Sdn. Bhd, 7.4 km • Ammonia: KLH Sdn. Bhd, 4.4 km
[20 Marks] • Carbon Dioxide: Hup Huat Sdn. Bhd, 24.9 • Carbon Dioxide: Poly Gas Sdn. Bhd, 8.3 km. • Carbon Dioxide: KLH Sdn. Bhd, 4.4 km.
km. • Power: TNB Connaught Bridge, 20.7 km • Power: Sutera Harbour Power Station, 9.5 km
• Power: TNB Connaught Bridge, 29.6 km • Water: Water Supply Department, 20.9 km • Water: Water Department KK, 2.1 km
• Water: Water Supply Department, 24.9 km [14 Marks] [17 Marks]
[11 Marks]
Transport The nearest port, Perlabuhan Barat is The nearest port, Perlabuhan Utara is The nearest port, Perlabuhan Kota Kinabalu is
infrastructure approximately 0.8 km from the site. (Google approximately 36.0 km from the site (Google approximately 7.0 km from the site (Google
[20 Marks] 2018c). Well-developed roads are available. 2018a). Well-developed roads are available. 2018b). Road access to the site is required.
[19 Marks] [10 Marks] [13 Marks]
Indigenous None. The area has long been an industrial None. The surrounding area is well-developed; None. The area has long been an industrial
issues hotspot; no cultural tribes will be harmed. no cultural tribes will be harmed. hotspot; no cultural tribes will be harmed.
[5 Marks] [4 Marks] [4 Marks] [4 Marks]
Environmental The land itself is empty. Hence, no wildlife or The land itself is empty. Hence, no wildlife or The trees planted on the land has to be cleared
considerations plants will be endangered. plants will be endangered. before any development work can be done.
[10 Marks] [9 Marks] [9 Marks] [5 Marks]
Total Marks 80 7 65 71
Appendix F: Plot Plan

C-100 B-100 R-100 E-101 R-104 T-101

R-101 P-101A/B
Carbon Dioxide Air Dryer Plug Flow Vacuum Site Coordinates:
Carbamate Pump Prilling Tower Urea Prills Tank
Compressor Reactor Evaporator (2°56'50.0"N /
Stripper
101°18'33.9"E)
Off Gases

Water Vapour

C-100

R-104
Carbon Dioxide
E-16
Air
B-100
M-100 E-101

Ammonia R-100
R-102 R-103

P-100A/B
R-101
Site
UreaMap:
Prills
T-100

P-101A/B P-102A/B
T-101

E-100 E-100 R-102

T-100 P-100A/B M-100 R-103
Carbamate Pressure P-102A/B
Ammonia Tank Pump Mixer Pressure
Condenser Decomposer Pump
Decomposer

Monarch Solutions Sdn, Bhd.

LOCATION DRAWING TITLE PREPARED BY: DANIEL CHIN DRAWN BY: DANIEL CHIN (COMPANY NO. 9009-6006)
LOT 10056, JALAN PERKASA
7A/B, SENADIN PHASE 7,
98009 MIRI, SARAWAK,
MALAYSIA.
CHECKED BY: CHIN PEI SAN APPROVED BY: NG KOK VUI TEL: 085-9009666
FAX: 085-6669009
PulauLocation??
Indah Industrial Park,
Site Plot Plan DATE: 14/08/2018 SCALE: NTS REV: 2
Port Klang This drawing and the copyright therein are the
property of MS and all information which it
contained are confidential. The drawing must not
DRAWING NO: DP2018_011 be reproduced or disclosed without prior consent
of MS.

8
Appendix G: Project Schedule

9
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Google. 2018a. “Bukit Jelutong, Shah Alam.”
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Mason, Melville Graham. 2017. "Nitrogenous fertilisers for cereal production." Journal of the
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Meessen, Jozef H. 2010. "Urea." Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry.
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Savvas, Savvas, Joanne Donnelly, Tim Patterson, Zyh S. Chong, and Sandra R. Esteves. 2017.
"Biological methanation of CO2 in a novel biofilm plug-flow reactor: A high rate and low
parasitic energy process." Applied Energy 202 (1): 238-247.
Statista. 2018. “Forecasted total urea fertilizer demand worldwide from 2014 to 2022 (in million
metric tons).” https://www.statista.com/statistics/438995/total-demand-for-urea-fertilizer-
worldwide-prediction/
United States International Trade Commission. 1986. Urea from the German Democratic Republic,
Romania, and the Union of the Soviet Socialists Republic.
Van Wijck, Julius GT, and Jozef H. Meessen. 2010. "Process for preparing urea." U.S. Patent
6,111,138, issued August 29.
World Bank Group. 2018. “State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2018.” Washington DC.
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/29687/9781464812927.pdf
WorldWeatherOnline. 2018a. “Klang Weather Averages.”
https://www.worldweatheronline.com/klang-weather-averages/selangor/my.aspx
WorldWeatherOnline. 2018b. “Kota Kinabalu Weather Averages.”
https://www.worldweatheronline.com/kota-kinabalu-weather-averages/sabah/my.aspx
WorldWeatherOnline. 2018b. “Kota Kinabalu Weather Averages.”
https://www.worldweatheronline.com/shah-alam-weather-averages/selangor/my.aspx

10