Chapter 8

Convection: Internal Flow

Internal Flow 1
 Introduction
In Chapter 7 we obtained a non-dimensional form for the heat transfer
coefficient, applicable for problems involving external flow:
Ø  Calculation of fluid properties was done at surface temperature,
bulk temperature of the fluid, or film temperature

•  In this chapter we will obtain convection coefficients for geometries

involving internal flow, such as flow in tubes

Ø  Recall Newton’s law of cooling: qs" = h(Ts − T∞ )

Ø  For flow inside a tube we cannot define T∞
Ø  Must know how temperature evolves inside the pipe and find alternative
expressions for calculating heat flux due to convection.

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 Flow Conditions for Internal Flow

∂u / ∂x = 0
Hydrodynamic entry length

•  Onset of turbulent flow at ρum D

Re D = ≈ 2300
µ
•  Hydrodynamic entry length:
–  Laminar flow x fd ,h / D ≈ 0.05 Re D

–  Turbulent flow x fd ,h / D > 10

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 Mean Velocity
•  Velocity inside a tube varies over the cross section. For every differential
area dAc:

dm! = ρu(r, x)dAc ∫ ∫

∴ m! = dm! = ρu( r, x )dAc
A A
(8.1)
•  Overall rate of mass transfer through a tube with cross section Ac:
m!
m! = ρum Ac and um = where um is the mean (average)
ρAc velocity

Combining with (8.1):

∫ ρu( r, x )dAc
2 ro
∫ (8.2)
Ac
um = = 2 u( r, x )rdr
ρAc ro 0

v  Can determine average velocity at any axial location (along the x-

direction), from knowledge of the velocity profile
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 Velocity Profile in a pipe
•  For laminar flow of an incompressible, constant property fluid in the
fully developed region of a circular tube (pipe):

⎛ ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞
2
⎤
1 dp 2 ⎢ r ⎥ (8.3a)
u(r) = − ⎜ ⎟ ro 1− ⎜ ⎟
4 µ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎢ ⎝ ro ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
ro2 dp
um = − (8.4)
8µ dx
⎡ ⎛ ⎞2⎤
u(r) ⎢ r ⎥
= 2 1− ⎜ ⎟ (8.3b)
um ⎢ ⎝ ro ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
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 Pressure Gradient and friction Factor
•  Remember from Mech 301 that the friction factor is defined as

−(dp /dx)D ρu 2
f≡
ρum2 /2
Δp = p2 − p1 = f
2D
x 2 − x1
m
( )

Pressure drop
•  It is given by

64 Laminar flow
f= if ReD ≤ 2300 (exact solution)
ReD

Turbulent flow
1 ⎡e /D 2.51 ⎤ (correlation based
= −2.0log ⎢ + ⎥ if ReD > 2300 on experimental
f ⎢⎣ 3.7 ReD f ⎥⎦ data-Moody Chart)

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 Moody’s Chart

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 Thermal Considerations: Mean Temperature
•  We can write Newton’s law of cooling
inside a tube, by considering a mean q"x = h(TS − Tm ) (8.5)
temperature, instead of T∞

•  Thermal Energy transported

per differential area is: dE! = dm! cυT (r, x) = (ρudAc )cυT (r, x)

!
•  Integrating over the entire cross section: E = ∫ dE! = ∫ ρucυT(r ,x)dAc
A A
Mass flux İnternal energy per
•  Overall rate of energy transfer : Unit mass

E!
E! = m! cυTm and Tm = where Tm is the mean (average)
m! cυ velocity
Combining ∫ρucυT ( r, x )dAc
2 ro (8.7)
∫
Ac
with (8.6): Tm = = 2
uT ( r, x )rdr
m! cυ um ro 0
Internal Flow 8
 Fully Developed Conditions

Can we claim that dT ( r ) = 0 ?

dx

•  For internal flows, the temperature, T(r), as well as the mean temperature,
Tm always vary in the x-direction, ie.

dT(r) dTm
≠ 0, ≠ 0.
dx dx
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 Fully Developed Conditions
•  Although T(r) changes with x, the relative shape of the temperature profile
remains the same: Flow is thermally fully developed.

∂ ⎡ Ts ( x ) − T ( r, x ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥ =0
∂x ⎣ Ts ( x ) − Tm ( x ) ⎦ fd ,t

•  A fully developed thermally region is possible, if one of two possible

surface conditions exist :
–  Uniform temperature (Ts=constant)
–  Uniform heat flux (qx”=const)
•  Thermal Entry Length:

(x fd ,t / D)lam ≈ 0.05ReD Pr
(x / D)turb = 10
fd ,t
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 Fully Developed Conditions
•  It can be proven that for fully developed conditions, the local
convection coefficient is a constant, independent of x:

h ≠ f (x )

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 Mean temperature variation along a tube
We are still left with the problem of knowing how the mean temperature Tm(x),
varies as a function of distance, so that we can use it in Newton’s law of cooling
to estimate convection heat transfer.

Ø  Consider an energy balance on a differential control volume inside the tube:

dqconv = m
! c p dTm
P=surface perimeter
dqconv = qs" Pdx

qconv = m! c p (Tm,o − Tm,i )

dTm q s" P P
= = h(Ts − Tm )
dx m! c p m! c p

v  Integration of this equation will result in an expression for the variation of Tm

as a function of x.
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 Case 1: Constant Heat Flux
where P = surface perimeter
qconv = qs" A = qs" ( P ⋅ L) = πD for circular tube,
= width for flat plate
qs" = const
•  Integrating equation (8.10):

qs" P (8.11)
Tm ( x) = Tm,i + x
m! c p

v  Tm varies linearly with x.

v  (Ts-Tm) is initially small, but increases
with increasing x.
v  In the fully developed region (Ts-Tm) is
also independent of x
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 Case 2: Constant Surface Temperature, Ts=const.
dTm d (ΔT ) P
From eq.(8.10) with Ts-Tm=DT: =− = hΔT
dx dx m! c p
Integrating from 0 to L:

ΔTo PL Ts − Tm,o ΔTo ⎛ PL ⎞

ln =− hL = = exp⎜ − h⎟
ΔTi ! p
mc Ts − Tm,i ΔTi ⎜ m! c p ⎟
⎝ ⎠
General Equation: (8.11)

Ts − Tm ( x) ⎛ Px ⎞
= exp⎜ − h ⎟ (8.12)
Ts − Tm,i ⎜ m! c p ⎟
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the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x
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Combining Eq. 8.11 and

ΔTo − ΔTi (8.14)
qconv = h As ΔTlm (8.13) where ΔTlm =
ln(ΔTo / ΔTi )
As is the tube surface area, As=P.L=pDL
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Case 3: Uniform External Temperature

Ø  Replace Ts by T∞ and h by U (the overall heat transfer coefficient,

which includes contributions due to convection at the tube inner and
outer surfaces, and due to conduction across the tube wall)

ΔTo T∞ − Tm,o ⎛ U As ⎞
= = exp⎜ − ⎟ (8.15) q = U As ΔTlm (8.16)
ΔTi T∞ − Tm,i ⎜ m! c p ⎟
⎝ ⎠

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 Summary (8.1-8.3)
•  We discussed fully developed flow conditions for cases involving
internal flows, and we defined mean velocities and temperatures
•  We wrote Newton’s law of cooling using the mean temperature,
instead of T∞ "
q = h (TS − Tm )
•  Based on an overall energy balance, we obtained an alternative
expression to calculate convection heat transfer as a function of mean
temperatures at inlet and outlet.
qconv = m
! c p (Tm,o − Tm,i ) (8.9)

•  We obtained relations to express the variation of Tm with length, for

cases involving constant heat flux and constant wall temperature

qs" P Ts − Tm,o ΔTo ⎛ PL ⎞

Tm ( x) = Tm,i + x = = exp⎜ − h⎟
m! c p Ts − Tm,i ΔTi ⎜ m! c p ⎟
⎝ ⎠
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 Summary (8.1-8.3)
•  We used these definitions, to obtain appropriate versions of Newton’s
law of cooling, for internal flows, for cases involving constant wall
temperature and constant surrounding fluid temperature

qconv = h As ΔTlm q = U As ΔTlm

ΔTo − ΔTi
ΔTlm =
ln(ΔTo / ΔTi ) (8.13-8.16)

•  We can combine equations (8.13-8.16) with (8.9) to obtain values of

the heat transfer coefficient (see solution of Example 8.3)
Ø  In the rest of the chapter we will focus on obtaining values of the heat
transfer coefficient h, needed to solve the above equations

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Heat Transfer Correlations for Internal Flow
Knowledge of heat transfer coefficient is needed for calculations
shown in previous slides.
Ø  Correlations exist for various problems involving internal flow,
including laminar and turbulent flow in circular and non-circular
tubes and in annular flow.
Ø  For laminar flow we can derive h dependence theoretically
Ø  For turbulent flow we use empirical correlations
Ø  Recall from Chapters 6 and 7 general functional dependence

Nu = f (Re, Pr)

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20
 Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
1.  Fully Developed Region
We start from the energy equation, written for fully developed, flow in
one direction and substitute known velocity profile for flow in tubes

∂T ∂T α ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ where u=0 and

u +υ = ⎜r ⎟
∂x ∂r r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ u( r ) ⎡ ⎛r ⎞
2⎤
= 2 ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
um ⎢ ⎝ ro ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

For constant heat flux, the solution of the differential equation is:
11 qs" D
Tm ( x) − Ts ( x) = − qs" = const
48 k
Combining with Newton’s law of cooling: q"x = h(TS − Tm )
48
∴ h= (k / D )
11
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21
 Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
•  For cases involving uniform heat flux:

hD
Nu D ≡ = 4.36 qs" = const (8.17)
k

k should be evaluated
•  For cases involving constant surface temperature: at Tm

NuD = 3.66 Ts = const (8.18)

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 Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
2.  Entry Region: Velocity and Temperature are functions of x

•  Thermal entry length

problem: Assumes the
presence of fully developed
velocity profile

•  Combined (thermal and

velocity) entry length
problem: Temperature and
velocity profiles develop
simultaneously

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23
 Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
For constant surface temperature condition:
•  Thermal Entry Length case

0.0668( D / L) Re D Pr
Nu D = 3.66 + (8.19)
1 + 0.04[( D / L) Re D Pr]2 / 3
•  Combined Entry Length case
0.14
Ts = const
1/ 3
⎛ Re D Pr ⎞ ⎛µ ⎞ 0.48 < Pr < 16,700
Nu D = 1.86⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (8.20)
⎝ L/ D ⎠ ⎝ µs ⎠ 0.0044 <
µ
< 9.75
µs
All properties, except ms evaluated at average value of mean
temperature Tm ,i + Tm ,o
Tm =
2
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24
 Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
•  For a smooth surface and fully turbulent conditions the Dittus – Boelter
equation may be used for small to moderate temperature differences Ts-Tm:

0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 160 n=0.4 for heating (Ts>Tm)

NuD = 0.023 Re 4D/ 5 Pr n (8.21a) Re D ≥ 10,000 and 0.3 for cooling (Ts<Tm)
L / D ≥ 10

•  For large property variations, Sieder and Tate equation:

0.14
1/ 3 ⎛ µ ⎞
0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 16,700
4/5
Nu D = 0.027 Re D Pr ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (8.21b) Re D ≥ 10,000
⎝ µs ⎠ L / D ≥ 10

All properties, except ms evaluated at average value of mean

temperature
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25
 Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
•  The effects of wall roughness may be considered by using the
Petukhov correlation:

( f / 8) Re D Pr 0.5 ≤ Pr ≤ 2000
Nu D = (8.22a)
1.07 + 12.7( f / 8)1 / 2 (Pr 2 / 3 − 1) 104 < Re D < 5 × 106

•  For smaller Reynolds numbers, Gnielinski correlation:

( f / 8)(Re D − 1000) Pr 0.5 ≤ Pr ≤ 2000

Nu D = (8.22b)
1 + 12.7( f / 8)1 / 2 (Pr 2 / 3 − 1) 3000 < Re D < 5 × 106

Friction factors may be obtained from Moody diagram etc.

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26
 Example (Problem 8.57)
Repeat Problem 8.57. This time the values of the heat transfer
coefficients are not provided, therefore we need to estimate them.
Water at a flow rate of 0.215 kg/s is cooled from 70°C to 30°C by
passing it through a thin-walled tube of diameter D=50 mm and
maintaining a coolant at 15°C in cross flow over the tube.
(a)  What is the required tube length if the coolant is air and its velocity is
V=20 m/s?
(b)  What is the required tube length if the coolant is water is V=2 m/s?

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27
 Non-Circular tubes
Use the concept of the hydraulic
diameter:
4 Ac
Dh =
P
where Ac is the flow cross-sectional area and P the wetted perimeter.

Dh should be used to calculate parameters such as Re D and NuD

v  See Table 8.1 textbook for typical values of Nusselt numbers for
various cross sections

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28
 Summary
•  Numerous correlations exist for the estimation of the heat transfer
coefficient, for various flow situations involving laminar and turbulent
flow.
•  Always make sure that conditions for which correlations are valid are
applicable to your problem.

v  Summary of correlations in Table 8.4 of textbook

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