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Tables of values may often be naturally represented as matrices, and operations performed on
them.
The table below shows the results achieved by four teams in twelve events of an athletics
match. In each event, 1st place scores 5 points, 2nd place scores 3 points, 3rd place scores 2
points and 4th place scores 1 point.
Then the total number of points awarded to each team is given by the product of the two
matrices:
This is possible because the places in the table occupy the columns and the place values in the
column vectors occupy the rows. When we multiply as above we sum the total points for each
team.
This method is applicable to a wide variety of situations and suitable for calculation by
computers. It is widely used in spreadsheets.
The period and frequency of each curve above are the same since the coefficient of is the
same. The normal transformation rules apply. Adding 1 to sin x moves the curve up 1 and
The task is to find the shaded area above between the two curves and which intersect at the
points I labelled the curves top and bottom. Using this sophisticated notation, the area is
Sometimes it is not quite so obvious what the equation of either the top or bottom curve is.
Differentiation
We often have to differentiate functions. For functions of the form it is as simple as
multiplying by the power and subtracting one from the power.
Example:
This extends to multiples and sums of powers of If we remember that and that
when differentiating for these functions too we multiply by the power and subtract one from
the power then,
The process is the same for all powers of fractions and negative powers included:
Whatever form the question is given it we must expression the function to be differentiated in
the form For example,
The graph on the left has increasing – it goes from negative to zero to positive. This means
The graph on the right has decreasing – it goes from positive to zero to negative. This means
In both cases at the actual turning point (maximum or minimum) the gradient is zero. To
find and classify the turning points we first differentiate and set equal to zero. We solve this
equation to find the x values of the turning points, then differentiate to find and put
the values we have found into this expression. If the value we obtain here is positive then we
have found a minimum for If the value we obtain is negative then we have found a maximum
for If we need to find the – coordinate too we can substitute the – values of the minimum
into the original expression for
To summarise:
To classify a turning point, put the values of the turning point into the expression for
If this value is positive, we have a minimum, and if it is negative we have a maximum. To find
the – value of the turning point, substitute the – values of the turning point into the
expression for
Solve
Solve
When
When
At therefore this is a minimum.
Example:
Multiplying Matrices: Multiplying is a little more complex. Remember that you multiply
rows by columns.
Example:
Example:
Inverses of Matrices
Example:
So for example suppose we have the velocity and we want to find the acceleration. We
differentiate. If we have the velocity and we want to find the displacement, we integrate.
Example:
a) so when
b}
The Binomial
Binomial Expansion.
The binomial Theorem allows us to expand many brackets without multiplying each bracket
out one by one. It states:
which simplifies to
and further to
We may be asked to solve questions involving the coefficients. For example, the coefficient
of in the binomial expansion of is equal to 3 times the coefficient of .Find n.
Practical Vectors
Planes rarely fly in the direction they are pointing. If the wind is blowing and the world is turning the pilot
has to take account of these when he plots a course. Even with modern gps systems available, , it is
beneficial to the pilot to take these into account because of the resulting increase in fuel efficiency. It is
worse though for the sailor, who has to take the tide into account as well
We can deal with these problems by representing the velocities of the wind, tide and boat as vectors, then
using trigonometry to find the course to take or the velocity to travel at.
For example:
A motor boat travels in a straight line across a river which flows at 3m/s between straight parallel banks
200 m apart. The motor boat, which has a top speed of 6m/s in still water, travels directly from a point A
on one bank to a point B, 150m downstream of A, on the opposite bank. Assuming that the motor boat is
travelling at top speed, find, to the nearest second, the time it takes to travel from A to B.
We need to calculate V, the resultant velocity. Using the sine rule we can find x:
Then
as
It is important to choose and the right way round. If there is an term, then is usually
chosen to be this power, so that the resulting integral term is easier to integrate than
the original integral. It is useful to write down all the terms of the equation first then it becomes
very easy to substitute them all into the formula.
Example: Find
Example:
It is usually the case that if this is possible but there are exceptions. The best example is
when we have to integrate a
Example: Find
Example: Find
There is only so much to go around, even more so now with the Earth's resources running low
and the price of everything. We have to make the most of what we have, and decide what
things should be used for so that the most use can be got out of them.. W will consider the very
simplest type of problem – how to enclose the most area for a fixed length of fencing. Suppose
then that we have 100m of fencing. The fencing is to enclose a rectangle shaped field, but one
side of the field will be made up of a hedge so we will not need to use the fencing for this side.
From the diagram above the area of fencing is and we have to find
the maximum area and the value of that gives this maximum.
The graph of against Area is shown above. The maximum Area seems to be and the
value of is 25. We could have solved this problem by completing the square:
so when
Simple differential equations take the form We have to solve the equation to find as
a function of We do this by putting all the 's on the right and integrating. Normally when
we integrate we have to add a constant. We can find the value of this constant if we are told a
point on the curve.
For example, dy over The point lies on the curve. Find as a function of
We now have to find C. We are told in the question that y=0 when x=5. Hence
We now have to find C. We are told in the question that when Hence
Example The point lies on the curve. Find as a function of
We now have to find C. We are told in the question that when Hence
gradient function and substituting the value into this expression. Sometimes however
we don't have so is not given explicitly as a function of In these cases typically we
have to differentiate implicitly and find as a function of both and and then substitute a
point into the expression for to find the gradient at that point. Finally substitute into
the equation to find the equation of the line.
Example: Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point
is
Example: Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point
We differentiate implicitly to get We have to make the subject of
this equation.
Example: Find the equation of the normal to the curve at the point
We may be given the curve and asked to find the set of values of for which
We can start by sketching the curve and obtain:
For the quadratic above, since the coefficient of is 1 which is positive, we know it will be a
“bum” curve,so the set of solutions for will come in two parts, or
The curve shown above is We are asked for example to find the set of values of
for which We can see from the graph that there is only one set of values: We
could have factorised the expression for to obtain and
solved to obtain hence we could write down the set of values
of
to solve The curve is a “breast” curve and we can read off the solutions or
We can also factorise the expression for to obtain and solve hence
finding the set of solutions just given.
The Remainder
Remainder Theorem
is If then is a factor of
Example:
therefore is a factor.
Example
Remainder of on division by is
Remainder when p(x) is divided by is
(1)
(2)
Then
Using Straight Line Graphs to Find the Relationship Between Two Quantities
A linear relationship is the easiest relationship to decode ie. find a relationship for. It may be that even if
two quantities are not in a linear relationship, functions of the quantities can be found that do bear a linear
relationship. We may then plot graphs of the functions, and if the relationship appears linear we may write
down a linear relationship between the two functions over the range of observations.
In attempting to find a straight line relationship we may try logarithmic, reciprocal or power relationships.
We can plot products of powers of and against logs of functions of and We are looking to obtain a
straight line relationship. Towards this end we make the following observations:
since both increase together, but the relationship is not linear since the gradient between
for
We can take the reciprocals of both and and plot against The transformed data is
10.0 8.0 6.3 5.0 2.5
The graph below shows an excellent fit to a straight line with equation
equivalently,
Solve to get
therefore is a factor of
Example: Find the polynomial with with integer coefficients whose roots are
If these are the roots, the factors are or or and hence we
expand and simplify to get #
(1)
(2)
Hence
Logarithms
There are several “Laws” of Logarithms. They are:
Example:
We must make the bases the same for both logs. We can do this with the
So,
or
Differentiation – The Product Rule
You may know hoe to differentiate a simple function such as or Generally functions
are built out of these simple functions to make more complicated functions and we must learn
to differentiate these more complicated functions too. The simplest way two functions can be
combined to make a more complicated function is to multiply them. Then they can be
differentiated using the product rule:
Example: Differentiate
It is a good habit to get into to write down and then you can just substitute them
Example: Differentiate
The product rule can be used repeatedly with any number of products.
Example: Differentiate
This topic deals with the numbers of ways ways we can pick a selection from a number of
possible combinations. For instance, suppose we have 10 people lined up and we have to pick a
team of 4.
Working from first principles we can pick the first from 10, the second from 9, the third from
8, the fourth from 7, hence 10*9*8*7=5040. But the order of the picking will not matter here.
The four people can be picked in any order and we have not taken account of this. To take
account of this objection we notice that 4 people can be arranged in 4*3*2*1=4!=24 ways, so
now we divide 5040 by 24 to get 210.
The order did not matter for the above question, but sometimes the order does matter, For
example 10 runners in a race will obviously differentiate between first, second and third place.
In this case we find different possibilities.
Sometimes we have combinations of combinations. Suppose we have 6 men and 5 women. We
have to form from these a team of 4 men and 3 women. We can pick the four men in
different ways and the 3 women in different ways. The choices of men and women are
completely independent. INDEPENDENT! That should ring a bell. If probabilities are
independent we multiply, and so with combinations. Hence the number of ways in which we
can pick four men and three women from 6 men and five women is
Sometimes though, we have to write down list of possible arrangements because not every
arrangement is acceptable.
Suppose a committee of 5 people is to be selected from 6 men and 4 women. We are required
to find the number of selections which has more men than women.
We might multiply this out to obtain Now we equate to this and solve for the
coefficients a, b, c.
Equating coefficients of
Equating coefficients of
Example: Complete the square for the expression Hence solve the equation
Equating coefficients of
Equating coefficients of
form
(1)
Proof:
At this point we perform the sort of trick common in maths. We take from the first
term and add it to the second. We can then factorise and simplify.
Example: Differentiate
It is a good habit to get into to write down and then you can just substitute them
Example: Differentiate
Solving Absolute Value Equations
Most equations of the form have two solutions. If we sketch the graphs
of the graphs will cross at two points which will be the solutions to the
equations. For the graphs
or
or
or
The equation has no simple integer solutions. This equation can only be solving by taking the log of
both sides:
and then using the power rule for logs:
to 4 significant figures.
Slightly more complicated are expressions where is a power on both sides, for example,
Now we can factorise this expression with x as a common factor on the left hand side to give
to 4 decimal places.
Sometimes an equation may have to be rearranged to express it in one of the above forms. For
Factorise to get
or
The above equation has two solutions. In general, as for quadratic equations, an exponential
which can be expressed as two factors can have one, two or no solutions. It is convenient to
make clear the connection by expressing the original equation as a quadratic using the
substitution Then and equation (1) above becomes This equation
factorises to give so Since the original equation was expressed in terms
of we still have to find but we can use the substitution with the values of that we
have found, to find
or
Example: Solve
Example: Solve
The basic and curves are given on the left below and on the right below:
– blue black
Now is the tricky part. There is more than one solution for We have found one. The other
solutions are given by using the symmetry of the cosine graph. It is symmetric about 180 We
are using degrees here. The solutions are
Example: Solve
Now we use the symmetry of the sin curve. The solutions are
Example: Solve
Now we we the property of the tan curve that it repeats every 180 degrees. The solutions are