P/S Full Review Notes

 True experimental methods require an experimental AND control group AND must have random assignment; it’s quasi-
experimental if assignment isn’t random
 Social learning theory = modeling behavior and observation; AKA observational learning
 Environmental Psychology Paradigm = behavior explained through environmental stressors
 Specific Real Area Bias = using people from one area alone fails to explain if results are generalizable
 Self Serving Bias = attributing your successes to talent and your failures to circumstance
 Berkson’s Fallacy = the control group is likely different than standard if they’re also hospital patients
 Systematic desensitization = method used in CBT and by behaviorists to expose people to their triggers to rid them of the
phobias
 Psychoanalytic = unconscious mind issues
 Humanistic = Rodgers and Maslow’s ideas, related to self fulfillment and unconditional positivity
 Social cognitive = Bandura’s ideas on behavior by modeling
 Socialization is the way that a society instills values and norms into members of the group
 Meritocracy is social stratification totally based on merit not structural conditions
 Reliability is reproducibility of results, the ability of a machine to make the same measurements repeatedly
 Validity is meeting requirements of the scientific method including randomization and consistency, the accuracy of
measurement like measuring a 70 lbs man to be 70 lbs
 Social facilitation is the positive effect on performance of well practiced things in front of a crowd
 Social loafing is the fact that everyone puts in less effort in a group
 Deindividuation is the loss of self awareness and sense of responsibility when in a crowd
 Drive Reduction Theory is the idea that motivation for behavior is to reduce drive to meet unmet needs
 Arousal Theory motivation for behavior is to obtain optimal arousal not too much or too little
 Incentive Theory motivation for behavior is to receive an award
 The anterior pituitary secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone to induce glucocorticoid release (cortisol)
 Thermoregulation is done by the hypothalamus and the brainstem
 Long term potentiation is the strengthening of synapses which causes more signal transmission
 Within subject design takes repeated measurements with the same subject to reduce variability and increase power;
Between subject design compares the measurements of participants
 Non Parametric Statistical Analyses are used when working with nominal/categorical or ranked data
 Unbalanced design uses unequal sized treatment groups
 Neuronal migration is the movement of new neurons from ventricular zones during embryo development
 Informational Social Influence causes a willingness to accept others opinions and uncertainty in our own perceptions
 Merton’s Strain Theory a person is deviant when there’s unequal ability achieve social goals
 Retreatism people reject conventional paths and cultural goals and drops out of society
 Ritualism rejecting cultural goals but acception conventional behaviors
 Folkways are casual informal societal norms
 Mores are common formal norms related to morality
 Gambler’s Fallacy is the belief that the probability of independent events change depending of the sequence of events
preceding them
 Predictor Variable this is the correlation study equivalent of an independent variable
 Ciliary muscles control the bend of the lens
 Masking hypothesis latent variables can be masked when you are measuring something if what you’re testing is too general
 Other Race Effect inability to distinguish the faces of people of other races
 Attribution is inference about the causes of an event or someone’s behavior
 Correspondence Bias is the tendency to make dispositional attributions to others when situational attributions are
appropriate
 Eysenck’s concept of personality is PEN, Psycoticism, extraversion, neuroticism
 Fatigue Effects: the decrease in performance of participants after repeated measures
 Practice Effects: increase in performance after repeated measures
 Gibson’s Visual Cliff development of baby’s depth perception
 Demand Characteristics if a person figures out the point of the experiment they may behave how they think the researcher
wants them to behave to support the hypothesis
 Framing the way we think about a situation affects our decisions pertaining to it
 Insight a sudden realization of how to solve a problem
 Na+ starts and action potential
 Diagnostic Expansion extending medical diagnoses to a larger group
 Role strain difficulty fulfilling demands of a particular role
 Role Conflict difficulty fulfilling demands of multiple roles simultaneously
 Serial Processing is processing information one at a time in order
 Parallel Processing processing multiple things at the same time like auditory and visual stimuli
 Difference Threshold is the same as Just Noticeable Difference
 Hidden Curriculum the non class information that is delivered to students about social norms and cultural attitudes
 Manifest Function intended function Latent Function the byproducts of social structures
 Functionalism can also be called structural functionalism
 Language Acquisition Theories
o Learning perspective is the behaviorist approach by operant conditioning
o Nativist perspective is chomsky’s idea that there’s an innate mechanism that allows kids to learn language easily
biologically
o Interactionist perspective is that both biological and social factors contribute to acquisition
 Instinctive Drift is the phenomenon that learned behavior reverts to innate behavior when the reward is removed
 Flashbulb memory gets worse with age
 Cognitive dissonance theory says that we change the way that we think about things to align with our actions due to
discomfort caused by incongruity between our values and our actions
 An Aggregate is a collection of people that live near each other but don’t identify as a group
 Primary group closely emotionally attached people Secondary members linked by a common goal
 Tetrads are the most unstable groups they become two dyads in most cases
 Generational Status is the status referring to whether a person was born in the country they reside and how many
generations their family has lived their if they were, first generation means parents are foreign
 Differential Association Theory interactions with people who do deviant things causes deviance in that person
 Conflict theory says that deviance is a protest of the lower classes against structures that benefit the priviledged
 Expectancy Violation Theory when a person’s expectations for an interaction are violated it causes an arousal that the
person interprets as either positive or negative depending on their past relations with the person and affects the way that they
interact with that person. A violation of expectation could be making eye-contact with the person next to you on an elevator
 Ego Depletion is when you’re finite mental resources have been exhausted and your self control is low
 Eidetic Memory is the rare ability to store very detailed visual memories
 Habituation is when you get used to a repeat stimulus
 Episodic Buffer is the portion of the working memory that provides the sequencing for auditory and visual working memory
for the central executive
 Feminization of Poverty a fact that the proportion of the worlds poverty is increasingly held by women in part due to an
increase in the number of single parent female led households and restriction on jobs that women can hold
 Generalized Other is the idea of society as a whole and is useful for when people are thinking about how society might view
them
 Hegemony is when elites legitimate their dominance and secure the support of those beneath them
 Emic Approach is when you take the interpretations individuals have of the situation as a matter of fact in psychological
research
 Anhedonia the inability to feel pleasure
 Mysophobia is the fear of germs or contamination
 If somebody is doing something that continues or propagates a cultural practice then they are actively involves in the
promotion or reproduction of it
 Obedience requires an explicit demand or expectation it can’t be unspoken
 If observation of participants if part of data collection then the researcher must be involved in the phenomenon being studied
 Symbolic Racism is not supporting overt racism, but not believing in structural or institutional racism
 Prejudice Theory is the idea that racism comes from competition with outgroups
 Social Control Theory is a functionalist theory that socialization and social learning/modeling of behaviors causes people
not to want to break the rules because that would be antisocial and that’s how people gain the self control not to be deviant
 Second Shift the unequal division of labor within the household toward women, this is a part of conflict and feminist theory
 Increasing average income is the bigest thing you can do to improve health outcomes in less developed countries
 Measurement Bias when the means of quantifying a phenomenon targets the qualities of a certain group you are no longer
measuring what you set out to measure and making it seem like that thing is more common in the group that is targeted by
this process
 Depressive Realism the idea that people who are depressed are so because they think more realistically
 fMRI measures cerebral blood flow to isolate neuron activity in specific brain regions
 Stereotype threat doesn’t apply to surverys it has to be a performance or behavior related thing
 PET Scan measures regional cerebral bloodflow
 Galvanic skin response is the skin conductivity test used to measure stress or sympathetic arousal
 Thalamus is the sensory relay center of the brain
 Precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe is involved in the motor cortex
 PostCentral gyrus of the parietal lobe is involved with the somatosensory cortex
 Subject Variable is the characteristics of individuals that make participants unique
 The Path of Visual cues from eyes to brain
o Receptor → Optic Nerve → Lateral Geniculate Nucleus → Striate Cortex
 Medial Geniculate Nucleus is a part of the auditory pathway whereas the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus is a part of the visual
pathway
 Positive Illusions Bias is having an inflated assessment of your own abilities
 Anchoring Bias initial info causes you to make judgements about later info, this is what causes a lot of bias in studies,
because data collected in preliminary experiments will flavor the way that you think about and construct the rest of the
project
 The 2 dimensions of emotion are arousal, the deactivated/activatedness of the emotion and valence, the range of
unpleasant/pleasantness of the emotion; an emotional state high in arousal and valence would be a very positive very
activated emotion like extreme excitement about something happy
 Social Obedience is obeying orders against your personal views or morals
 Miscegenation is mixing racial or ethnic groups by intimate relations
 Glutamate activates the postsynaptic receptors involved with long term potentiation
 Fragile X and Turner’s Syndrome are developmental disorders
 Huntington’s Disease is a heritable brain disorder
 The inner hair cells of the cochlea transduce auditory signals
 Hair cells in the semicircular canals transduce vestibular info about balance and orientation
 The outer hair cells of the cochlea amplify auditory signal mechanically
 Assimilation theory is the idea that immigrants take on the cultural traits of their new country
 Social Desirability Bias is that people have a tendency to report things that make them look better
 Overgeneralization is when a researcher sees a pattern as much broader than it actually extends, so the pattern is there for
the study that they’ve done, but their study is less generalizable than they believe
 Maturation of subjects can cause errors due to adolescents changing over time
 Selection Bias is when the way that you chose people for the experimental and control group causes error
 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis is Lou Gehrig’s Disease which causes the nerves controlling voluntary muscle control to
degenerate
 Multiple Sclerosis is an autoimmune disorder in which the myelin sheaths of the CNS neurons are eaten up
 1 in 4 people have a diagnosable mental disorder if you include drug abuse
 Schizophrenics have excess dopamine
 Conversion Disorder is when psychological symptoms convert to unexplained somatic ones
 Approach Avoidance Test is an estimate of the strength of aversion by starving subjects and offering them food connected
with an aversive stimulus
 Working Memory is controlled by the frontal lobe
 Medical institutions aren’t designed to treat those who don’t consider themselves sick
 Urbanization is bad for health
 Archival Research is coming through old data to find patterns
 Elaborative Rehearsal is repeating something to rote memorize it
 Maintenance Rehearsal is repeating something to keep it memorized
 Tactful Blindness is an idea of Goffman that says that people ignore other’s blunders and farts especially in cases that
would threaten their presented self
 Face is the mask that we maintain in order to present ourselves in the way we want to be perceived
 Contact Hypothesis is Gordon Allport’s idea that the more we come in contact with a group the less prejudice we feel
toward them
 Stigma Extension is when we assume limitations of a person beyond their disability, like if someone is in a wheelchair then
their boss might think that they are incapable of mental tasks as well
 Epistemic Authority is the idea that for certain situations only certain people who have experience with something can claim
knowledge about what the experience is like; think racism or sexism, you don’t know what it’s like until you’re in the
position
 Liminal means in a state of transition
 Eclectic means that something is pulled from a wide variety of fields
 Gestalt principle of Figure Ground is that the way that we view an image depends on what we consider to be the
background and the foreground
 Culture of Poverty is Oscar Lewis’ idea that sometimes social systems trap people in poverty, because they don’t get the
training or education necessary to escape poverty, poverty and the behaviors that go along with it are the only thing they
know
 Cultural Capital are the resources a community provides that allow social mobility or cultural acceptance; think about
learning a new language or travelling, a good example of this would be the rich freeman in that greek story that doesn’t
understand the culture of the rich properly so he makes a lot of mistakes and they won’t accept him because of it
 Karen Horney is the one who critiqued Penis Envy
 The Stress Response has 3 steps:
o Alarm Reaction → Resistance → Exhaustion
 Secularization Thesis is the idea that religion becomes less important as nations gain more income
 Antidepressants are serotonin/epinephrine agonists or reuptake inhibitors
 Psychomotor stimulants are dopamine agonists
 Anxiolytics are norepinephrine antagonists or GABA agonists
 Antipsychotics/Neuroleptics are dopamine antagonists
 The Glass Escalator is specific to men getting quick promotion is female-dominated fields, it is when men enter a pink
collar job and quickly move up the ranks relative to their female peers
 You must have the symptoms for 2 weeks before you can be diagnosed with major depressive disorder
 Continuity Theory says that old people maintain the activities and traits of earlier in life when old
 Disengagement Theory says that old people withdraw from society and past relationships as they age
 MARXISM IS NOT A SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY IF IT SEEMS LIKE MARXISM ITS CONTROL THEORY
 Cerebellum is involved in coordinated motor tasks and muscle memory
 The Cochlea itself is not a part of the nervous system but the cochlear nerve is
 If a person is comparing themselves or modifying themselves to fit into a certain group then that group is a reference group
not a peer group
 Peer Group is basically anyone that is your age
 Reference Group is a group of people that you compare yourself to or aspire to be like; it seems like this is the answer more
often than not when it’s one of the options
 Misinformation Effect the effect that information received after an event will cause a memory to be reformed inaccurately
 Core nations provide goods to every level of nation and the other two provide material resources to the core nations
 Benzodiazepines are commonly prescribed depressants; short acting ones are for insomnia and long acting ones are for
anxiety
 The Conceptual Act Model of Emotion says that there are 2 fundamental components to emotion; core affect which is like
energetic, or feeling good/bad, which can exist independent of the specific emotion and a cognitive component which is
some interpretation of the current situation that causes the emotion; shame would be feeling bad about oneself (core
affect:feels bad; about oneself:cognitive component)
o Event → Label Core Affect → Emotion + Physiological Response
 Glutamate: The most common excitatory neurotransmitter, required for consciousness, provided by the Reticular
activating system which itself is super responsible for consciousness
 GABA: Used in the brain, it is the most common inhibitory Neurotransmitter
 Glycine: Used in the spinal cord, it is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter outside of the brain
 Acetylcholine: Basilis and septal nuclei in the frontal lobe secrete this to the lower motor neurons, also this is the
neurotransmitter used to trigger muscle contractions
 Histamine: hypothalamus secretes this on the cerebral cortex
 Norepinephrine: This is released from the locus coeruleus in the Pons and is released on the cerebral cortex
 Serotonin: released all over the brainstem by raphe nuclei to the cerebral cortex and other parts of the nervous system; most
important to note it comes from the brainstem
 Dopamine: from the Ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra; dopamine from the hypothalamus controls the pituitary
gland by the tuberoifundibular pathway to regulate prolactin secretion by inhibiting its release from the anterior pituitary;
o Issues with dopamine secretion in the substantia nigra affect motor planning and cause parkinsons
o Dopamine issues in teh ventral tegmental area affect the prefrontal cortex and cause schizophrenia by issues with all
parts of the mesolimbic pathway
 Functionalism is a macro perspective by Durkheim and Parsons
 Conflict theory is a macro perspective of Marx and Weber
 Social Constructionism is a macro or micro perspective
 Symbolic interactionism is a micro perspective by Cooley and Mead
 Rational Choice and Exchange Theory is a micro perspective
 Feminism is a macro or micro approach
 Mead’s “Me” is the person that others expect you to be like the well behaved part of you and the “I” is the one that does what
is best for them
 James Lange theory: emotions are interpretations of physiological arousal
 Cannon-Bard Theory: you feel the arousal and emotion at the same time
 Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) Theory: The body is aroused you interpret the situation and decide what emotion that is; so if
you had the same arousal but saw a cat vs an alligator you would be excited vs afraid
 Lazarus (Cognitive Appraisal) Theory: emotional experience depends on whether we label the situation as good or bad. In
this theory the appraisal precedes the cognitive labeling of the emotion, and simultaneously stimulates the physiological
arousal and emotional experience
 MC,M,R,P goes from superficial to deep describing the level of mechanoreceptors in the skin, MC Meissinheiner’s
corpuscles M merkel disk R ruffini endings P pacinian corpuscle or lamellar corpuscle
 Meissinheiner’s corpuscles are in the papillary dermis, needs changing stimuli to fire, senses light touch or stretch and is
important for grip control
o A hair follicle receptor is like a meissinheiner’s corpuscle but for hairy skin instead of hairless skin
 Merkel Disks are in the papillary dermis or stratum basale, needs sustained stimuli to fire, and senses light touch, pressure,
and fine details
 Ruffini endings are in the reticular dermis, needs sustained stimuli to fire, senses deep stretch and has a large receptive field
 Pacinian Corpuscle/Lamellar Corpuscle is in the hypodermis, need constantly changing stimuli to fire, senses deep vibration
and deep pushes or pokes
 Hemisphere differences
o Left
 Language
 Analysis
 Logic
 Math
o Right
 Emotional tone of language
 Creativity
 Spatial processing
 Big picture
 Spreading of activation theory is the one where basically there's a sematic hierarchy or network and things that you remember
pull up other memories as well
 actor-observor bias applies even when the person is close to you
 The human stress response isn't specific to a certain type of stressor
 If something increases compliance then it is likely to increase obedience too
 If two different measures of the same trait/behavior/idea have converging values, then the validity of the tests is increased
 If two measurements by the same method measuring the same thing produce the same value then the reliability of the
measure is increased
 Social activities are not the same as social ties and cannot explain social benefits
 Neighborhood segregation creates physical boundaries between people causing closed networks to develop their own cultures
 Cerebellum controls coordinated motor tasks and habit forming
 The Cochlea is not a part of the nervous system, but the cochlear nerve is
 Race and gender discrimination manifest in similar ways


 Dysthmia is persistent depressive disorder and you have to have it for 2 years to be diagnosed
 Dopamine is a catecholamine
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 House money effect is that when people have made money they’re more willing to assume risk because they don’t view the
new money as theirs yet
 The baby boomers were caused by increased fertility rate after world war 2
 If a person is missing memories from events that they find stressful but everything else is fine then its probably due to a
dissociative disorder and is not some kind of amnesia
 If the us health disadvantage existed for all social classes that would contradict the socioeconomic gradient in health, because
the premise is based on the idea that each step up in class is associated with a rise in health, so if everyone has a disadvantage
that would go against it
 Implicit attitudes tests are based on the idea that if your memory schemas hold an implicit attitude that it will take longer for
you to answer, most importantly remember that this is caused by a schema and information that goes against the schema or
along with it. Memory schemas are organized clusters of knowledge
 The way that people think about things is the cognitive component of their attitude, their justifications for their actions and
emotions basically. So if someone is questioned about what they think about fat people and how they get the way they are
then they are showing the cognitive component of their attitudes about fat people
 Social desirability is an issue that sometimes makes online responses better than in person interviews or telephone surveys
because people will want to seem better than they are if they’re interacting with someone
 Hallucinogens are the least addictive type of drugs
 Conflict theorists are obsessed with class, so stratification is really important to them when determining the reason for things,
usually disparities
 Response bias is also called survey bias and its when people don’t answer surveys or stuff like that honestly
 Hindsight bias is when you think that you had a suspicion about something all along once you know that something was a
certain way even though you didn’t like someone thinking that they thought their neighbor was weird after they find out he
was a serial killer but really they thought he was a normal dude
 Music perception, visuospatial skills and emotion processing are mainly done on the right side of the brain
 Language including vocabulary skills is in the left side of the brain
 A person with high emotional intelligence is able to delay gratification for long term rewards, because they are self aware and
can perceive express, understand and manage their emotions enough to know what is best to do
 CBT is the systematic modification and assessment of individual behavior
 Dopamine does have euphoric effects so if there was a dopamine agonist it would increase the intensity of euphoria,
dopamine is more related to euphoria than hallucinations
 Group norms of critical evaluation and dissent are good for preventing group think
 If someone was studying how something affects escape learning they would see how long it took for a participant to perform
a response that would terminate an undesirable stimulus not avoid it
 Acquisition is the beginning phase of an classical conditioning experiment, its when you are making the association between
two things/ I think this is the analog of shaping in operant conditioning
 Something becomes medicalized when there is an official medical definition of it and a medical treatment option for it, so
smoking would be medicalized as an addictive behavior that can be treated with pharmaceuticals
 The Thomas Theorem is that the way that if a person defines a situation as real then they are real in their consequences,
basically the way that people interpret things determines the actions that they take not the way that things actually are. Ex: If
a drunk guy at a bar thinks that people are talking shit about them when they’re really just laughing about a work story, it
doesn’t matter that they weren’t actually talking about him he’s still gonna deck them.
 Hindbrain is Reticular formation, medulla oblongata, cerebellum and pons
o Reticular Formation regulates mood appetite sex and dreams with seratonin
o Medulla Oblongata regulates heart and lungs and monitors oxygen
 o Cerebellum: balance, muscle activity, habits
o Pons relays between medulla and thalamus
 Septal nuclei: pleasure seeking
 Hippocampus doesn’t deal in implicit memory
 Fornix is the relay system for the limbic system
 There are only four parts of the cerebral cortex: frontal, occipital, parietal, temporal
 Marginal poverty is when an individual can’t find or keep a job
 Structural poverty is poverty that is caused by society structures rather than individual decisions/traits/etc.
 Optic disk is a raised disk on the retina at the point where it connects to the optic nerve which has no receptors so it is a
blindspot
 Microglia are like macrophages for the central nervous system
 Astrocytes nourish brain in cns storing glucose and stuff like that
 Oligodendrocytes are glial cells like microglia or astrocytes or schwann cells, but they are used for myelination in the central
nervous system, so schwann cells for PNS; Oligodendrocytes for CNS
 Social reproduction is the perpetuation of inequalities through social institutions, i.e the poor stay poor and the rich get richer
 Anomie is when social norms break down leading to a disconnect between individual and community
 The I is the selfish one, the me is the good boi
 Social capital is the social network benefits that you have; like getting into the doctor quickly cause you know the guy even
though everyone else has to wait forever
 Proactive interference requires information previously stored in long term memory preventing new information
 Retroactive interference is when new information blocks old
 James lange theory of emotion is that arousal is followed by emotion it doesn’t require interpretation
 8-9 year olds are in the concrete operational stage, 5-6 is preoperational
 If a solid portion ~10% of individuals that could be in a study are taken out of an analysis due to any reason then that could
be a methodological limitation of the study
 Psychophysical discrimination testing is when you show how perceptual illusions impact our judgements of the nature of
stimuli
 Operational span testing is the test of the general capacity of working memory with something like having to solve a math
problem and then seeing a word in that order a bunch of times and in the end you have to say what words followed the
numbers that you’re shown again
 Feature detectors are groups or individual neurons that detect specific features of something like the color or the shape
 Context effects are how the environment that you find something in affects the way that you see it or understand it
 N1 hallucination, hypnic jerks, theta waves; N2 sleep spindle k complexes, theta waves; N3/4 delta waves, slow wave sleep,
this is when bed wetting happens if it does most of the time
 Neuroleptics exacerbate negative symptoms
 Shadowing is when you have to repeat information from an ear you’re paying attention to or not paying attention to
 Seeing a word with a missing letter and being able to identify it based on the sentence that it comes in is not a gestalt thing
 In operant conditioning studies the motivational state of the subject is operationally defined by depriving the subject of some
desirable stimulus item for a period of time
 The thing that causes the most loss in validity in survey questions is decay of episodic memory if they need to recount
memories of something that happened
 The theory that uses community values to explain behavior is incentive theory, because its about external drivers
 Researchers focused on an evolutionary perspective of human motivation in terms of eating behavior then they would want to
see hunger ratings while looking at pictures of food to see about how high calorie foods make you want to eat
 Place theory is that based on where a sound stops vibrating on the basilar membrane determines the pitch of the noise
 Negative priming requires implicit memory
 Alzheimer’s is bad for verbal fluency and negative priming
 Isolation from people being driven away would be a dependent stressor, because it is something caused by the person that has
negative impacts on the person
 If you want to know whether or not a behavior is modeled or already had you would need a detailed biography of the people
that you are testing
 The me is the socialized good boi, and the I is the bad boy who does what he wants
 Vertical mobility may be up or down
 Formal operational starts at 11/12, concrete operational starts ~8, preoperational starts ~2
