DR09051 DR09051

COMMITTEE EL-052
DR 09051
(Project ID: 8326)
Draft for Public Comment

Australian/New Zealand Standard
LIABLE TO ALTERATION—DO NOT USE AS A STANDARD
BEGINNING DATE 29 June 2009

FOR COMMENT:
CLOSING DATE 31 August 2009

FOR COMMENT:
Overhead line design

Part 1: Detailed procedures
COPYRIGHT
The committee responsible for the issue of this draft comprised representatives of organizations
interested in the subject matter of the proposed Standard. These organizations are listed on the
inside back cover.
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STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND
Committee EL-052—Electrical Energy Networks, Construction and Operation
Subcommittee EL-052-05 — Design of Overhead Electrical Lines
DRAFT
(To be AS/NZS XXXX:200X)
Comment on the draft is invited from people and organizations concerned with this subject.
It would be appreciated if those submitting comment would follow the guidelines given on
the inside front cover.
This document is a draft Australian/New Zealand Standard only and is liable to alteration in
the light of comment received. It is not to be regarded as an Australian/New Zealand
Standard until finally issued as such by Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand.
DRAFT ONLY 2 DRAFT ONLY
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Joint Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand
Committee EL-052-05, Electrical Energy Networks, Construction and Operation—Design
of Overhead Electrical Lines.
The objective of this Standard is to provide Electricity Industry network owners, overhead
line maintenance service providers, design consultants, construction contractors, structure
designers, and pole manufacturers with an industry standard, that replaces all previously
used reference guidelines.
This Standard is Part 1 of a series of four document—
Part 1: Overhead line design Standard—Detailed procedures, which is a Standard that sets
the detailed design requirements for overhead lines.
Part 2: Overhead line design Standard—Simplified procedure, which is a Standard that sets
simplified design requirements for overhead lines, which are typically at distribution
voltages and applying to commonly used pole construction.
Part 3: Application guide for the design of overhead lines, which is a Handbook providing
supporting information, commentary, worked examples and supporting software (where
applicable) for the design of overhead lines.
Part 4: ENA guidelines for the construction, maintenance and work practices of overhead
lines, which is an Electricity Industry guideline for the purpose of facilitation of standard
work practices throughout the electricity supply industry.
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CONTENTS
Page
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE AND GENERAL ............................................................................................ 6
1.2 REFERENCED AND RELATED DOCUMENTS....................................................... 6
1.3 DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................. 6
1.4 NOTATION............................................................................................................... 14
SECTION 2 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES

2.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 17
2.2 LIMIT STATE DESIGN............................................................................................ 17
2.3 DESIGN LIFE OF OVERHEAD LINES ................................................................... 19
2.4 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AN OVERHEAD LINE....................... 19
2.5 OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES.................................. 19
2.6 RELIABILITY........................................................................................................... 19
2.7 COORDINATION OF STRENGTH.......................................................................... 19
2.8 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS............................................................... 20
SECTION 3 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS

3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 21
3.2 CURRENT CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................. 21
3.3 INSULATION SYSTEM DESIGN ........................................................................... 21
3.4 LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES........................................ 21
3.5 ELECTRICAL CLEARANCE DISTANCES TO AVOID FLASHOVER ................. 22
3.6 DETERMINATION OF STRUCTURE GEOMETRY............................................... 24
3.7 SPACING OF AERIAL CONDUCTORS.................................................................. 25
3.8 INSULATOR AND AERIAL CONDUCTOR MOVEMENT AT STRUCTURE .... 35
3.9 LIVE LINE MAINTENANCE CLEARANCES ........................................................ 38
3.10 CLEARANCES TO GROUND AND AREAS REMOTE FROM BUILDING,
ROADS, RAILWAYS AND NAVIGABLE WATERWAYS ................................... 38
3.11 POWER LINE EASEMENTS.................................................................................... 43
3.12 CORONA EFFECT ................................................................................................... 43
3.13 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS ................................................................... 44
3.14 SINGLE WIRE EARTH RETURN (SWER) POWERLINES.................................... 44
SECTION 4 AERIAL CONDUCTORS AND OVERHEAD EARTHWIRES (GROUND

WIRES) WITH OR WITHOUT TELECOMMUNICATION CIRCUITS
4.1 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................ 46
4.2 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS .......................................................................... 48
4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS .................................................................. 53
4.4 AERIAL CONDUCTOR CONSTRUCTIONS .......................................................... 54
4.5 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SELECTION .................................................................... 54
SECTION 5 INSULATORS
5.1 INSULATION BASICS............................................................................................. 56
5.2 LINE AND SUBSTATION INSULATION COORDINATION ................................ 56
5.3 ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN ....................................................... 57
5.4 RELEVANT STANDARDS, TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
INSULATORS........................................................................................................... 58
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SECTION 6 BASIS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN

6.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 59
6.2 REQUIREMENTS..................................................................................................... 59
6.3 LIMIT STATES......................................................................................................... 61
6.4 ACTIONS .................................................................................................................. 65
6.5 MATERIAL PROPERTIES....................................................................................... 66
6.6 MODELLING FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND RESISTANCE................... 66
SECTION 7 ACTION ON LINES

7.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 68
7.2 ACTIONS, GENERAL APPROACH ........................................................................ 68
7.3 LOAD COMPONENTS............................................................................................. 72
7.4 LOAD COMBINATIONS ......................................................................................... 73
SECTION 8 SUPPORTS
8.1 INITIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS................................................................... 75
8.2 MATERIALS AND DESIGN .................................................................................... 75
8.3 CORROSION PROTECTION AND FINISHES........................................................ 76
8.4 MAINTENANCE FACILITIES................................................................................. 77
8.5 LOADING TESTS .................................................................................................... 77
SECTION 9 FOUNDATIONS
9.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 81
9.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES.............................................................................................. 81
9.3 POLE AND TOWER FOUNDATIONS .................................................................... 82
9.4 SOIL INVESTIGATION ........................................................................................... 82
9.5 BACKFILLING OF EXCAVATED MATERIALS ................................................... 82
9.6 FOUNDATION DISPLACEMENTS......................................................................... 82
9.7 LOAD TESTING OF FOUNDATIONS .................................................................... 82
9.8 CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION .............................................................. 83
SECTION 10 EARTHING SYSTEMS

10.1 GENERAL PURPOSE............................................................................................... 84
10.2 EARTHING MEASURES AGAINST LIGHTNING EFFECTS................................ 84
10.3 DIMENSIONING WITH RESPECT TO CORROSION AND MECHANICAL
STRENGTH ............................................................................................................. 84
10.4 DIMENSIONING WITH RESPECT TO THERMAL STRENGTH .......................... 85
10.5 RISK BASED EARTHING - PERMISSIBLE VALUES ........................................... 85
10.6 ELECTRICAL ASPECTS OF STAYWIRE DESIGN ............................................... 90
10.7 CHOICE OF EARTHING MATERIALS .................................................................. 91
SECTION 11 LINE EQUIPMENT—OVERHEAD LINE FITTINGS

11.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 92
11.2 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................ 92
11.3 RIV REQUIREMENTS AND CORONA EXTINCTION VOLTAGE....................... 92
11.4 SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT AND POWER ARC REQUIREMENTS .................. 92
11.5 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS .......................................................................... 92
11.6 DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................ 93
11.7 MATERIAL SELECTION AND SPECIFICATION.................................................. 93
11.8 CHARACTERISTICS AND DIMENSIONS OF FITTINGS ..................................... 93
11.9 TEST REQUIREMENTS........................................................................................... 95
SECTION 12 LIFE EXTENSION (REFURBISHMENT, UPGRADING, UPRATING) OF

EXISTING OVERHEAD LINES
12.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 96
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12.2 ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURES ......................................................................... 96

12.3 COMPONENT CAPACITY ...................................................................................... 97
12.4 PROOF LOADING.................................................................................................... 97
12.5 UPGRADING OF OVERHEAD LINE STRUCTURES ............................................ 97
SECTION 13 PROVISIONS FOR CLIMBING AND WORKING AT HEIGHTS
SECTION 14 CO-USE OF OVERHEAD LINE SUPPORTS (SIGNAGE, BANNERS,

COMMUNICATIONS CARRIER CABLES, TELECOMMUNICATIONS REPEATERS)
14.1 SIGNS AND BANNERS AND TRAFFIC MIRRORS .............................................. 99
14.2 COMMUNICATIONS CARRIER CABLES ........................................................... 101
14.3 TELECOMMUNICATIONS REPEATERS EQUIPMENT AND TRAFFIC
MIRRORS .............................................................................................................. 101
APPENDICES
A REFERENCE AND RELATED DOCUMENTS ..................................................... 103
B WIND LOADS ....................................................................................................... 110
C SPECIAL FORCES ................................................................................................. 127
D SERVICE LIFE OF OVERHEAD LINES ............................................................... 134
E DESIGN FOR LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE ..................................................... 143
F TIMBER POLES ..................................................................................................... 145
G LATTICE STEEL TOWERS (SELF SUPPORTING AND GUYED MASTS)........ 151
H ELECTRICAL DESIGN ASPECTS ....................................................................... 156
I CONCRETE POLES ............................................................................................... 159
J COMPOSITE FIBRE POLES .................................................................................. 162
K STEEL POLES ........................................................................................................ 163
L STRUCTURE FOOTING DESIGN AND GUIDELINES FOR THE
GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF SOILS AND ROCKS ............................... 166
M APPLICATION OF STANDARDIZED WORK METHODS
FOR CLIMBING AND WORKING AT HEIGHTS ................................................ 193
N UPGRADING OVERHEAD LINE STRUCTURES ............................................... 198
O WATER ABSORPTION TEST ............................................................................... 207
P INSULATION GUIDELINES ................................................................................ 210
Q MID SPAN SEPARATION CALCULATIONS ..................................................... 213
R INSULATION SWING ANGLE CALCULATIONS ............................................. 215
S AERIAL CONDUCTOR SAG AND TENSION...................................................... 219
T AERIAL CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND SAG
MEASUREMENT .................................................................................................. 234
U RISK BASED APPROACH TO EARTHING ......................................................... 237
V AERIAL CONDUCTOR PERMANENT ELONGATION....................................... 251
W AERIAL CONDUCTOR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY ........................................ 254
X AERIAL CONDUCTOR COEFFICENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION ................ 257
Y AERIAL CONDUCTOR DEGRADATION and SELECTION FOR DIFFERING
ENVIRONMENTS .................................................................................................. 258
Z AERIAL CONDUCTOR STRESS AND FATIGUE................................................ 262
AA AERIAL CONDUCTOR SHORT TIME AND SHORT-CIRCUIT RATING.......... 268
BB AERIAL CONDUCTOR ANNEALING AND OPERATING TEMPERATURES .. 271
CC MECHANICAL DESIGN OF INSULATOR - LIMIT STATES.............................. 278
DD EASEMENT WIDTH .............................................................................................. 279
EE SNOW AND ICE LOADS....................................................................................... 280
FF DETERMINATION OF STRUCTURE GEOMETRY............................................. 287
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STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND

SECTI ON 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL
1.1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

This Standard specifies the general requirements that shall be met for the design and
construction of new overhead lines to ensure that the line is suitable for its intended
purpose, and provides acceptable levels of safety for construction, maintenance, operation,
and meets requirements for environmental considerations.
This Standard is only applicable to new overhead lines and is not intended to be
retrospectively applied to the routine maintenance, and ongoing life extension of existing
overhead lines constructed prior to the issue of this Standard. Such maintenance and life
extension work ensures that lines continue to comply with the original design standards and
remain safe and ‘fit for purpose’.
However, where existing overhead lines are proposed to be upgraded or refurbished
including installation of larger aerial conductors, modified to provide tee-offs, diversions or
the erection of additional communication cables and antennae, such that the original
structure design loadings are increased to a point that elements of the support structures
may be overloaded or overstressed to the original design standard; then the overhead line
structures shall be required to be structurally assessed by a competent person for
compliance with the provisions of this Standard.
This Standard is applicable to overhead lines supporting telecommunication systems or
where they are used on overhead lines either attached to the aerial line conductor/earth wire
systems or as separate cables supported by the supports such as optical ground wires
(OPGWs) and optical aerial conductors or all dielectric self supporting (ADSS) conductors.
It is also applicable to overhead line structures supporting telecommunications equipment.
This Standard does not apply to catenary systems of electrified railways.
1.2 REFERENCED AND RELATED DOCUMENTS

See Appendix A for a list of documents referenced in this Standard and for a list of related
documents.
1.3 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this Standard the definitions below apply.
1.3.1 Accidental action
Action, usually of short duration, which has a low probability of occurrence during the
design working life.
NOTE: An accidental action can be expected in many cases to cause severe consequences unless
special measures are taken.
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1.3.2 Action
(a) Force (load) applied to the (mechanical) system (direct action).
NOTE: An action can be permanent, variable or accidental.
(b) An imposed or constrained deformation or an imposed acceleration caused for
example, by temperature changes, moisture variation, uneven settlement or
earthquakes (indirect action).
1.3.3 Aerial bundled cable
Two or more cores twisted together into a single bundled cable assembly. Two types of
aerial bundled cable are used—
(a) low voltage aerial bundled cable (LVABC) means a cable which meets the
requirements of either AS/NZS 3560.1 or AS/NZS 3560.2 as applicable; and
(b) high voltage aerial bundled cable (HVABC) means a cable which meets the
requirements of either AS/NZS 3599.1 or AS/NZS 3599.2 as applicable.
1.3.4 Aerial cable
Any insulated or covered aerial conductor or assembly of cores with or without protective
covering, which is placed above ground, in the open air and is suspended between two or
more supports.
1.3.5 Aerial conductor
Any bare conductor which is placed above ground, in the open air and is suspended between
two or more supports.
1.3.6 Bonding conductor
Conductor providing equipotential bonding.
1.3.7 Calculated breaking load (CBL)
In relation to a conductor, means the calculated minimum breaking load determined in
accordance with the relevant Australian/New Zealand Standard.
1.3.8 Characteristic value of a material property
Value of a material property having a prescribed probability of not being attained in a
hypothetical unlimited test series. This value generally corresponds to a specified fraction
of the assumed statistical distribution of the particular property of the material. A nominal
value is used as the characteristic value in some circumstances.
1.3.9 Clearance
The shortest distance between two objects that may have a potential difference between
them.
1.3.10 Coefficient of variation
Ratio of the standard deviation to the mean value.
1.3.11 Component
One of the different principle parts of the overhead electrical line system having a specified
purpose.
Typical components are supports, foundations, aerial conductors, insulator strings and
hardware.
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1.3.12 Conductor temperature

Means the temperature assumed for the purpose of calculation, the temperature determined
by the use of ESAA document D(b)5 or other appropriate Standard, or the temperature
measured at the core of a conductor by means of a thermometer or similar, whichever is
applicable.
1.3.13 Covered conductor
Means a conductor around which is applied a specified thickness of insulating material.
AS/NZS 3675 specifies two types of covered conductor—
(a) CC where the nominal covering thickness is independent of working voltage; and
(b) CCT where the nominal covering thickness is dependent on the working voltage.
1.3.14 Conductor
A wire or combination of wires not insulated from one another, suitable for carrying an
electric current.
1.3.15 Corona
Luminous discharge due to ionisation of the air surrounding an electrode caused by a
voltage gradient exceeding a certain critical value.
NOTE: Electrodes may be aerial conductors, hardware, accessories or insulators
1.3.16 Design working life or design life
Assumed period for which a structure, components and elements is to be used for its
intended purpose with anticipated routine maintenance but without substantial repair being
necessary.
1.3.17 Earth
Term for the earth as a location as well as for earth as a conductive mass, for example types
of soil, humus, loam sand, gravel and stone.
1.3.18 Earth current
Current flowing to earth via the impedance to earth.
1.3.19 Earth electrode
Conductor which is embedded in the earth and conductively connected to the earth, or a
conductor which is embedded in concrete, which is in contact with the earth via a large
surface (for example foundation earth electrode).
1.3.20 Earth fault
Conductive connection caused by a fault between an aerial phase conductor of the main
circuit and earth or an earthed part. The conductive connection can also occur via an arc.
Earth faults of two or several aerial phase conductors of the same electrical system at
different locations are designated as double or multiple earth faults.
1.3.21 Earth fault current
Current which flows from the main circuit to earth or earthed parts.
1.3.22 Earthing
All means and measures for making a proper conductive connection to earth.
1.3.23 Earthing conductor
Conductor which connects that part of the installation which has to be earthed to an earth
electrode.
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1.3.24 Earthing system

Locally limited electrical system of conductively connected earth electrodes or earthing
conductors and of bonding conductors, [or metal parts effective in the same way, for
example tower footings, armourings, metal cable sheaths].
1.3.25 Earth potential rise (EPR)
Voltage between an earthing system and reference earth.
1.3.26 Earth rod
Earth electrode which is generally buried or driven in vertically to a greater depth. For
example it can consist of a pipe, round bar or other profile material.
1.3.27 Earth surface potential
Voltage between a point on the earth surface and reference earth.
1.3.28 Earth wire
An aerial conductor connected to earth at some or all supports, which is suspended usually
but not necessarily above the aerial line conductors to provide a degree of protection
against lightning strokes.
NOTE: An earth wire may also contain non-metallic wires for telecommunication purposes.
1.3.29 Effective field strength
Square root of the sum of the squares of the three root mean square (r.m.s.) mutually
orthogonal components of the field.
1.3.30 Electric field
The electric field created in the vicinity of a charged aerial conductor is the vector
quantified by the electric field strength, E. This quantity is the force exerted by an electric
field on a unit charge and is measured in volts per metre (V/m).
1.3.31 Element
One of the different parts of a component. For example, the elements of a steel lattice tower
are steel angles, plates and bolts.
1.3.32 Equipotential bonding
Conductive connection between conductive parts, to reduce the potential differences
between these parts.
1.3.33 Everyday temperature (EDT)
The average temperature of the region.
1.3.34 Exclusion limit probability of a variable
Value of a variable taken from its distribution function and corresponding to an assigned
probability of not being exceeded.
1.3.35 Failure
State of a structure, component and element whose purpose is terminated, i.e. in which a
component has failed by excessive deformation, loss of stability, overturning, collapse,
rupture, buckling, etc.
1.3.36 Highest system voltage
Highest (r.m.s.) value of voltage which occurs at any time and at any point of the overhead
line under normal operating conditions and for which the overhead electrical line shall be
designed.
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1.3.37 Horizontal earth electrode

Electrode which is generally buried at a low depth. For example it can consist of strip,
round bar or stranded conductor and can be carried out as radial, ring or mesh earth
electrode or as a combination of these.
1.3.38 Impedance to earth of an earthing system
Impedance between the earthing system and reference earth.
1.3.39 Insulated conductor
A conductor surrounded by a layer of insulation which provides resistance to the passage of
current, or to disruptive discharges through or over the surface of the substance at the
operating voltage, or injurious leakage of current. For clearance purposes a distinction is
made between insulated conductors with and without earthed screens operating at voltages
in excess of 1000 V.
1.3.40 Insulated with earthed screen
Includes aerial bundled cable (ABC) complying with either AS/NZS 3599.1 or
AS/NZS 3599.2 as applicable.
1.3.41 Insulated without earthed screen
Includes CCT cable complying with AS/NZS 3675.
1.3.42 Limit state (electrical)
State beyond which the electrical design performance is no longer satisfied.
1.3.43 Limit state (structural)
State beyond which the structure, components and elements no longer satisfies the design
performance requirements.
1.3.44 Load case
Likely combinations of design actions with defined variable actions and permanent actions
for a particular structure analysis.
1.3.45 Low velocity everyday wind
Laminar wind with velocity between approximately 0.5 m. sec-1 and 7 m. sec-1 which results
in the excitement of Aeolian vibration frequencies on the aerial conductor.
1.3.46 Maximum design temperature
The maximum steady state temperature under the influence of either steady state current or
short time current for an aerial phase conductor or short circuit current for overhead earth
wires.
1.3.47 Maximum design wind speed
Three second gust wind speed in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2 corresponding to the
overhead line design return period.
1.3.48 Maximum operating temperature
(a) Limiting temperature for electrical clearances and long term performance of the
conductor.
1.3.49 Magnetic field
Magnetic field generated by current carrying conductor. The magnetic field strength, H, is
expressed in amperes per metre (A/m).
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1.3.50 Magnetic flux density

The magnetic flux density, also known as the magnetic induction, is the force exerted on a
unit charge moving in the field and has the units of milliguass (mG) or microtesla (μT).
1.3.51 Maintenance
Total set of activities performed during the design working life of the system to maintain its
purpose.
1.3.52 Nominal voltage
Voltage by which the overhead electrical line is designated and to which certain operating
characteristics are referred.
1.3.53 Optical conductor (OPCON)
An electrical phase conductor containing optical telecommunication fibres.
1.3.54 Optical ground wire (OPGW)
An earth wire containing optical telecommunication fibres.
1.3.55 Overhead ground wire (aerial earth conductor)
An aerial wire which is grounded or earthed at multiple points.
1.3.56 Overhead line
Aerial conductors or cables together with associated supports, insulators and apparatus used
for the transmission or distribution of electrical energy.
1.3.57 Overhead service line
An overhead line operating at a voltage less than 1000 V generally located between the
electricity supply authority’s overhead line and the point of connection to an electrical
installation.
1.3.58 Permanent action
Action that is likely to act continuously and for which variations in magnitude with time are
small compared with the mean value.
1.3.59 Potential grading
Influencing the earth surface potential by means of earth (grading) electrodes.
1.3.60 Potential grading earth electrode
Conductor which due to shape and arrangement is principally used for potential grading
rather than for establishing a certain resistance to earth.
1.3.61 Power frequency flashover distance
Withstand airgap for highest anticipated short term power frequency voltage and is
typically 1.7 per unit voltage.
1.3.62 Pre-stressed concrete
Means concrete containing reinforcing steel, some or all of which has been tensioned prior
to the application of external working loads.
1.3.63 Prospective step voltage
Means the prospective or open circuit voltage that may appear between any two points on
the surface of the earth spaced one metre apart (measured with two driven electrodes and a
high impedance voltmeter).
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1.3.64 Prospective touch voltage

Means the prospective or open circuit voltage (measured with a driven electrode and a high
impedance voltmeter) which may appear between any point of contact with uninsulated
metalwork located within 2.4 m of the ground and any point on the surface of the ground
within a horizontal distance of one metre from the vertical projection of the point of contact
with the uninsulated metalwork.
1.3.65 Radio interference voltage (RIV)
Any effect on the reception of a required radio signal due to an unwanted disturbance
within the radiofrequency spectrum. Radio interference is primarily of concern for
amplitude-modulated systems (AM radio and television video signals) since other forms of
modulation (such as frequency modulation (FM) used for VHF radio broadcasting and
television audio signals) are generally much less affected by disturbances that emanate from
overhead lines.
1.3.66 Reinforced concrete
Means concrete containing reinforcing steel in the form of bar, rod or mesh. Tensile forces
within the concrete section are usually assumed to be resisted by the reinforcement.
1.3.67 Reliability (electrical)
Probability that an electrical system performs a given electrical purpose, under a set of
conditions, during a reference period.
Reliability is thus a measure of the success of a system in accomplishing its purpose.
1.3.68 Reliability (structural)
Probability that a structural system performs a given mechanical purpose, under a set of
conditions, during a reference period.
Reliability is thus a measure of the success of a system in accomplishing its purpose.
1.3.69 Return period
Mean statistical interval between successive recurrencies of a climatic action of at least
defined magnitude. The inverse of the return period gives the probability of exceeding the
action in one year.
1.3.70 Risk
Chance of or exposure to adverse consequences such as loss, injury or death.
1.3.71 Road
Means a public thoroughfare ordinarily used by motor vehicles.
1.3.72 Ruling span
Also known as the equivalent span or the mean effective span (MES), means that level
dead-end span in which the behaviour of the tension closely follows that of the tension in
every span of a series of suspension spans in a tension section under the same loading
conditions.
1.3.73 Safety
Ability of a system not to cause human injuries or loss of lives during its construction,
operation and maintenance.
1.3.74 Security
Ability of a system to be protected from a major collapse (cascading effect) if a failure is
triggered in a given component. This may be caused by electrical or structural factors.
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1.3.75 Serviceability limit state (electrical)

State beyond which specified service criteria for an electrical performance is no longer met.
1.3.76 Serviceability limit state (structural)
State beyond which specified service criteria for a structure or structural element are no
longer met.
1.3.77 Soil resistivity
Volume resistivity of the earth in Ohm metres.
1.3.78 Span length
Means the centre-line horizontal distance between two adjacent supports.
1.3.79 Strength
Mechanical property of a material, usually given in units of stress.
1.3.80 Structure
Organized combination of connected elements designed to provide some measure of
rigidity.
1.3.81 Support
General term for different structure types that support the aerial conductors of the overhead
electrical line.
1.3.82 Support, intermediate
Support for aerial conductors by pin, post or suspension insulators.
1.3.83 Support, suspension
Support for aerial conductors by suspension insulators.
1.3.84 Support, tension
Support for aerial conductors by tension or strain insulators.
1.3.85 Support, terminal (dead-end)
Tension support capable of carrying the total aerial conductor tensile forces in one
direction.
1.3.86 System (electrical)
All items of equipment which are used in combination for the generation, transmission and
distribution ofelectricity.
1.3.87 System (mechanical and structural)
Set of components connected together to form an overhead electrical line.
1.3.88 System that is solidly earthed
System (electrical) in which at least one neutral of a transformer, earthing transformer or
generator is earthed directly or via a low impedance.
1.3.89 System that is non-effectively earthed
System (electrical) with isolated neutral or resonant earthing.
1.3.90 System with resonant earthing
System (electrical) in which at least one neutral of a transformer or earthing transformer is
earthed via an arc suppression coil and the combined inductance of all arc suppression coils
is essentially tuned to the capacitance of the system to earth for the operating frequency.
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1.3.91 Television interference voltage (TIV)

Special case of radio interference for disturbances affecting the frequency ranges used for
television broadcasting.
1.3.92 Transferred potential
Potential rise of an earthing system caused by a current to earth transferred by means of a
connected conductor (for example cable metal sheath, pipeline, rail) into areas with low or
no potential rise to reference earth.
1.3.93 Ultimate limit state (electrical)
State associated with electrical failure, such as electrical flash over.
1.3.94 Ultimate limit state (structural)
State associated with collapse, or with other forms of structural failure.
It corresponds generally to the maximum load-carrying resistance of a structure or a
structural element.
1.3.95 Variable action
A time variable action.
1.3.96 Weight span
For a support, means the equivalent span which gives the vertical component of the aerial
conductor load and equals the span between the lowest points on the catenary curve of the
aerial conductor on either side of that support.
1.3.97 Wind span
For a support, means the equivalent span which gives the horizontal lateral component of
the aerial conductor load caused by wind and equals one half of the sum of the spans on
either side of that support.
1.4 NOTATION
The quantity symbols used in this Standard shall have the meanings ascribed to them below.
Symbol Signification
α = angle of wind to aerial conductor
φ = the strength factor which takes into account variability of
material, workmanship etc.
η = shielding factor
δ = solidity factor
γ = soil density (kN/m2 )
ϕ = soil angle of friction
γx = load factors which take into account variability of loads,
importance of structure, safety implications etc.
A = is the projected area of one structure section (panel) under (m²)
consideration in a vertical plane along the face for square towers
A* = is the projected area of the structure section under consideration (m²)
in a plane normal to the wind direction
A 1 , A3 = projected areas of the longitudinal faces on lattice structures in a (m²)
vertical plane along the face
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A2 , A4 = projected areas of transverse faces on lattice structures in a (m²)
vertical plane along the face
C = drag coefficient of wire
c = soil cohesion (kPa)
Cd = drag force coefficient for member
COV = coefficient of variation
CRF = component reliability factor
d = conductor diameter (mm)
D = ‘effective diameter’ of foundation (m)
En = Earthquake load corresponding to an appropriate return period (kN)
Fb = load on structure due to unbalanced aerial conductor tensions
resulting from abnormal conditions e.g. a broken aerial
conductor (kN)
Fc = aerial conductor loads resulting from wind action on the (kN)
projected area of aerial conductors
Fs = force on structural sections (panel) in the direction of the wind (kN)
Fsθ = force on structural sections (whole tower) in the direction of the (kN)
wind
Ft = load on the structure due to the intact horizontal component of (kN)
aerial conductor tension in the direction of the line for the
appropriate wind load
G = vertical dead loads
Gc = Vertical dead load related to aerial conductors (kN)
Gs = vertical dead loads resulting from non-aerial conductor loads (kN)
H = ground line lateral load (kN)
Hcalc = calculated value using recommended method (kN)
HL = nominal failure load (kN)
H max. = maximum lateral load (kN)
kθ = factor for angle of incidence θ of wind to frames (kN)
Ki = factor that is function of soil modulus of elasticity and
foundation geometry
Kq, Kc = factors that are a function of z/D and φ
Kx = represents factors accounting for aspect ratio, wind direction and
shielding of the member
L = aerial conductor length under consideration for determining (m)
aerial conductor loads due to wind action e.g. the wind span for a
structure
L = embedment depth or length for structural design (m)
LR = line reliability
M = bending moment at ground line (kNm)
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Md = wind direction multiplier. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2
Mrel = Reliability based load multiplier for wind loads
Mt = topographic multiplier for gust wind speed. Refer to
AS/NZS 1170
Mz,cat = gust winds speed multiplier for terrain category at height z. Refer
AS/NZS 1170.2
p = ultimate soil pressure (kPa)
Pc = aerial conductor natural and forced convection cooling
Pj = aerial conductor joule heating due to the resistance of the aerial
conductor
Pr = aerial conductor radiation cooling
Ps = aerial conductor solar heat gain
Q = maintenance loads
qz = dynamic wind pressure (kPa)
qz = vertical overburden pressure at depth z, qz = γz (kPa)
Re = component design strength based on the nominal strength of the (kN)
component for the required exclusion limit ‘e’
Rm = mean strength of the component (kN)
Rn = The nominal strength of the component (kN)
RP = return period (years)
S = snow and ice loads (kN)
Sγ = snow and ice loads corresponding to an appropriate return
period
SRF = span reduction factor to provide for spatial variation in wind
U = Nominal phase to phase voltage (V)
VR = regional wind speed. Refer AS/NZS 1170.2 (m/s)
Vx = design site wind velocity. Refer AS/NZS 1170 (m/s)
Wn = wind load acting on all structures and line components pertinent (kN)
to each loading condition based on the appropriate 3 second gust
site wind speed as defined in AS/NZS 1170.2 and corresponding
to the selected return period
X = the applied loads pertinent to each loading condition (kN)
z = depth below the ground surface (m)
zr = point of rotation at a depth below the surface (m)
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SECTI ON 2 DES I GN P HILOS OPHIE S
2.1 GENERAL
The design of overhead lines requires that the total system including supports, foundations,
aerial conductors, insulators and fittings, has operational characteristics that provide for the
safe operation and insulation of the energized components, for a planned design service life,
and meets or exceeds design levels of reliability.
The overhead line design process is an iterative one and principles from related design
fields (electrical, structural and mechanical) need to be applied whilst incorporating
regulatory, environment and maintenance requirements.
The overhead line design shall achieve a number of objectives and some of these may be
competing between the related design fields. The objectives which need to be considered
are—
(a) safety (designed to relevant regulatory, Australian and International Standards);
(b) security (minimal structural or component failures);
(c) reliability (appropriate outage rates);
(d) meeting of environmental requirements (EMF, visual, RIV, TIV and audible noise);
(e) whole of life cost;
(f) practicality to construct;
(g) ability to be maintained (provide for climbing corridors, access for elevating work
platform vehicles, live line, helicopter maintenance);
(h) meeting of regulations and codes of practice; and
(i) satisfaction of power transfer rating requirements.
2.2 LIMIT STATE DESIGN

The design of overhead lines shall be based on limit state principles for serviceability and
strength limit states for the various line components.
Structure limit state design uses a load and resistance format, which separates the effects of
component strengths and their variability from the effects of external loadings and their
uncertainty.
The state of system and the damage and failure limits are illustrated in Figure 2.1.
state of system intact state damaged state failed state
strength limits serviceability limit damage limit
FIGURE 2.1 LIMIT STATE DESIGN
An explanation of limit state design is given in IEC 60826.
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2.2.1 Limit states on line components

The overhead line is considered intact when its structure, insulators, aerial conductors and
fittings are used at stresses below the damage limit.
2.2.1.1 Structure design limit states
The limit states to be considered in the design of overhead lines are—
(a) ultimate strength limit state in which the structure’s or component’s design capacity
exceeds the design load; and
(b) serviceability limit state in which the performance of the structure or component
under commonly occurring loads or conditions will be satisfactory.
Serviceability limit states include support deflections. Exceeding the serviceability design
load may cause damage to some components.
NOTE: A structure or part thereof or component may be designed to fail or undergo high
deflections under some loading situations in order to relieve loads on other parts of the structural
system. When this occurs, serviceability limit states may not be maintained.
2.2.1.2 Aerial conductors (including earthwires) limit states
When the aerial conductor is subjected to increasing loads, aerial conductors may exhibit at
some load a permanent deformation particularly if the failure mode is ductile or may exhibit
wire and or whole aerial conductor fracture when subjected to wind induced Aeolian
vibration.
These conditions are defined as the damage or serviceability limit state. If the load is
further increased, failure of the aerial conductor and or tension fittings occurs at a level
called the failure or ultimate limit state.
Finally the aerial conductors and or tension fittings are considered to have failed if the
aerial conductors and or fittings have reached their failure limit.
2.2.1.3 Insulator limit states
There are three states for the mechanical design of insulators, these being the—
(a) everyday load;
(b) serviceable wind load; and
(c) failure containment load.
The serviceable load is the maximum load that can be applied without causing damage to
the insulator or exceeding the desired deflection limit. The failure containment load is the
mechanical failure load of the aerial conductor. For line post insulators, the everyday load
is a relevant consideration to determine long term deflection of the insulator.
2.2.1.4 Electrical structure clearances limit states
Three serviceability states are defined and shall be considered—
• Condition (a)—Low or still wind
Under low wind conditions the clearance shall be sufficient for maintenance
activities. If provision is to be made for live line work, then the clearance shall also
be adequate to maintain safe working distances at a wind pressure of 100 Pa.
• Condition (b)—Moderate wind
Under moderate wind of 300 Pa the clearance shall be sufficient to withstand
lightning and switching over-voltages.
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• Condition (c)—High wind

Under high wind pressure of 500 Pa and at maximum swing position of the insulators,
the clearance shall withstand highest power frequency temporary (dynamic) voltages
which are normally taken as between 1.4 (solidly earthed) to 1.7 (non-effectively
earthed) times the ‘per unit’ voltage.
2.3 DESIGN LIFE OF OVERHEAD LINES

The design life, or target nominal service life expectancy, of a structure is dependent on its
exposure to a number of variable factors such as solar radiation, temperature, precipitation,
wind, ice, and seismic effects.
The service life of an overhead line is the period over which it will continue to serve its
intended purpose safely, without undue maintenance or repair disproportionate to its cost of
replacement and without exceeding any specified serviceability criteria. This recognizes
that cumulative deterioration of the overhead line will occur over time. Therefore, due
maintenance and possible minor repairs will be required from time to time to maintain the
structure in a safe and useable condition over its service life.
2.4 OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AN OVERHEAD LINE

Each overhead line shall be designed to be capable of transferring a prescribed electrical
power, at a selected maximum operating temperature, and with acceptable levels of
electrical effects of corona, radio and television interference and electric and magnetic
fields. It shall also be capable of safe operation at a serviceability limit states.
2.5 OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES

The operational performance of a line is dependant on each component of a line being able
to meet its assumed performance criteria and to achieve a target reliability level under the
serviceability and ultimate strength limit state conditions.
2.6 RELIABILITY
All overhead lines shall be designed for a selected reliability level relevant to the lines
importance to the system (including consideration of system redundancy), its location and
exposure to climatic conditions, and with due consideration for public safety.
2.7 COORDINATION OF STRENGTH

Overhead lines should be regarded as a total spatial structural system that has components
constituting the line as set out below.
Consideration may be given to the coordination of the relative strength of the components
to establish a desired sequence of component failure to minimize overall damage. This
approach provides a hierarchical control of the sequence of failure of components within an
overhead line system, thereby enables the designer to coordinate the relative strengths of
components and recognizes the fact that an overhead line is a series of components where
the failure of any component could lead to the loss of power transmission capability.
The four major components of the overhead line are shown in Table 2.1.
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TABLE 2.1
OVERHEAD LINE SYSTEM, COMPONENTS AND ELEMENTS
Structural system Components Elements
Steel sections, poles cross arms etc.
Supports Plates, bolts etc.
Guys and fittings
Anchor bolts, piles, cleats etc.
Foundations Concrete footing
Soil
Overhead line
Wires
Aerial conductors Joints
Hardware, shackles etc.
Insulator elements
Insulators Brackets, bolts etc.
Fittings
2.8 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

All overhead lines should be designed and constructed with consideration for their
environmental impact.
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SECTI ON 3 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS
3.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The electrical design for an overhead line covers the following:
(a) Design of aerial conductor to minimize losses and meet required voltage drop, corona
and RIV, TVI and audible noise levels (refer Appendix H).
(b) Power frequency, switching and lightning overvoltages (refer Clause 3.3).
(c) Determination of current rating to meet power requirements (refer Clause 3.2).
(d) Electrical clearances (refer Clause 3.5).
(e) Selection of insulation (refer Clause 3.3).
(f) Lightning performance (refer Clause 3.4).
(g) Design of earthing system (refer Section 10 and Appendix U).
(h) Electric and magnetic fields (refer Clause 3.13).
3.2 CURRENT CONSIDERATIONS

The cross-section of the aerial phase conductors shall be chosen so that the design
maximum temperature for the aerial conductor material, determined by grease drop point or
annealing considerations, is not exceeded under operating conditions. Once an aerial
conductor and its maximum operating temperature have been chosen, the aerial conductor
rating can be calculated. Various methods of determining aerial conductor rating are given
in Section 4.
The overhead line and the earthing system (refer Section 10) shall be designed to withstand
without damage the mechanical and thermal effects due to the fault currents and associated
fault durations.
3.3 INSULATION SYSTEM DESIGN

3.3.1 General
Overhead equipment will be subjected to the effects of pollution and lightning. The
insulation system comprises air gaps and insulators. All overhead lines shall be designed to
coordinate insulation protection schemes to protect sensitive plant and equipment, such as
substations, and to provide the desired outage performance rate. These issues are discussed
further in the following sections.
3.3.2 Coordination with substations
Precautions should be taken to ensure that lightning strikes close to the substation are
attenuated to levels which do not cause damage to substation equipment.
The principles and rules of insulation co-ordination are described in AS 1824. The
procedure for insulation co-ordination consists of the selection of a set of standard
withstand voltages which characterize the insulation.
3.4 LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE OF OVERHEAD LINES

In the northern parts of Australia where there are moderate to high ceraunic levels,
lightning is a major cause of line outages. The design of the overhead line should
incorporate a reliability target for the lightning performance. The detailed procedure for
assessing design for lightning performance is covered in Appendix E.
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3.5 ELECTRICAL CLEARANCE DISTANCES TO AVOID FLASHOVER

3.5.1 Introduction
Overhead lines shall be designed with electrical clearances from the energized conductor to
surrounding objects to provide safe and reliable operation. These objects can be other
energized conductors, structures, constructions, plant, vehicles or vessels (water craft). The
basic approach to electrical clearances is to combine an electrical air gap withstand
distance, (G w) with a safety margin (Sm). Gw is dependent on the electrical breakdown
voltage of air (around 300 kV per metre for air gaps up to 2 metres), relative air density
(RAD), the air gap geometry. S m is dependent on the type of object, the movement of the
object and the exposure of persons in the vicinity of the energized conductor.
The electrical clearances which are outlined in this Standard set the minimum acceptable
standards for the safe operation and reliable electrical performance of the overhead line.
These clearances are classified as—
(a) Internal, which include the following:
(i) Clearance at the structure.
(ii) Clearance for inspection and maintenance.
(iii) Mid span aerial phase conductor to aerial phase conductor.
(iv) Aerial phase conductor to earthwire.
(b) External, which include the following:
(i) Aerial phase conductor to ground.
(ii) Aerial phase conductor to objects.
(iii) Circuit to circuit (attached to same structure or unattached).
3.5.2 Clearances to objects and ground
The designer shall have regard for State or National based Electricity Safety Regulations
which may specify additional or more onerous clearances.
Where regulations set line design clearances above road pavement these will typically be
based on a minimum electrical clearance (flashover clearance plus margin) plus provision
for the maximum likely vehicle height.
The designer should consider the requirement for any over-dimensional vehicle or
machinery and make provision, where necessary, for construction of future subsidiary
circuits or under crossings of distribution/sub-transmission lines. The resulting clearance
will be above the clearance normally accepted for road purposes.
3.5.3 Inspection and maintenance clearances
The designer needs to be aware of the different methods used for line maintenance and the
impact this may have on circuit availability, particularly for multi-circuit construction.
Inspection and maintenance activities include—
(a) deadline inspection and/or maintenance—with the line de-energized or earthed for
safe access;
(b) live line inspection—by provision of a safe access corridor on the structure to inspect
components. The designer should have regard, in selecting corridor width, to the
available freedom or constraint on body movement and the consequence of
inadvertent movement in managing risk; and
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(c) live line maintenance—this could include stick or bare hand work either from the
structure or insulated elevated work platform or helicopter (in-span if clearances are
appropriate).
For safe approach and live line clearances refer to Electricity Networks Association
(Australia) publications, Electricity Engineers’ Association (New Zealand) publications,
Australian Standards and New Zealand Codes of Practice.
3.5.4 Live access clearance
During structure access, there is a risk of lapse of control than with deliberate approach
which may be applied at a working position. Climbing corridors should be dimensioned
to—
(a) accommodate the natural climbing action without requiring the constrained movement
by the climber to maintain safe electrical distances (refer climbing space test in
Figure 3.1); and
(b) maintain at least power frequency flashover distance in the event of a momentary
lapse of controlled movement by the climber. (refer full reach test in Figure 3.1).
Power frequency flashover distance
Safe approach distance

FIGURE 3.1 ACCESS CLEARANCE TEST
3.5.5 States for calculation of clearances

3.5.5.1.1 Maximum design temperature
All vertical clearances shall be based on the maximum continuous service temperature of
the aerial conductors.
3.5.5.2 Ice load for determination of electrical clearance
The characteristic ice load to be applied shall be specified directly based on regional
experience.
3.5.5.3 Combined wind and snow/ice loads
Combined wind and snow/ice loads should be considered in certain regions of Australia and
New Zealand, based on regional experience.
3.5.6 Clearances at the structure
The three serviceability clearance states which shall be considered are given in Section 2
and include—
(a) low or still wind;
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(b) moderate wind; and

(c) high wind.
3.6 DETERMINATION OF STRUCTURE GEOMETRY

Structures shall be designed with adequate air clearances to provide a reliable performance
and to allow maintenance to be performed safely. The electrical design determines the
structure geometry and shall be coordinated with the structural design.
NOTE: Appendix FF provides guidance on the determination of structure geometry.
3.6.1 High wind serviceability state
The power frequency clearance is the distance between the structure and the aerial
conductor when the aerial conductor is subjected to the high wind serviceability wind
pressure. Any insulator swing shall be taken into account when determining the structure
geometry.
3.6.2 Moderate wind serviceability state
Switching impulse clearances shall be provided for moderate wind pressure. Any insulator
swing shall be taken into account when determining the structure geometry.
3.6.3 Low wind serviceability state
Lightning impulse clearances should be considered under low wind conditions to achieve
the desired reliability level. Depending on the coincident of lightning and wind, lightning
impulse clearance may be provided under moderate wind.
3.6.4 Maintenance Clearances
The method of access to the structure needs to be considered and then climbing corridors
and work positions defined. The structures shall be designed with consideration given to the
types of maintenance activities used, such as climbing patrols, helicopter patrols and live
line and bare hand working crews. Adequate clearances between the workers and live
equipment shall be provided for the various maintenance activities to be performed safely.
For inspection and maintenance activities, a maintenance approach distance between
personnel and live parts shall be provided under light winds, typically in range 60 Pa to
100 Pa wind pressure.
Clearances are required to be considered for the following cases:
(a) Maintenance approach distance for climbing and inspection.
(b) Live line working.
(c) Hand reach clearance.
For maintenance approach distances refer to ENA NENS 04.
Refer to the following documents for live working distances:
(i) ENA LLM 03 for glove and barrier.
(ii) ENA LLM 02 for live line sticks.
(iii) ENA LLM 01 for barehand.
In New Zealand the relevant references are—
1 EEA SM-EI
2 NZECP 34
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3.7 SPACING OF AERIAL CONDUCTORS

3.7.1 Aerial conductors of different circuits on different supports (unattached
crossing)
3.7.1.1 General
This Clause provides the minimum requirements to prevent circuit to circuit flashover,
under both normal operating and fault conditions, between aerial conductors or cables of
different circuits that cross each other and are not attached to the same pole or support at
the point of crossing (see Figure 3.2):
(a) Where a circuit operates at a voltage below 1000 V it should be placed below any
other circuit operating at a higher voltage.
(b) Where two circuits of different or similar voltage cross each other, aerial conductors
of a higher voltage circuit should be placed above a lower voltage circuit.
(c) The vertical separation between any aerial conductor or cable of the higher circuit and
any aerial conductor or cable of the lower circuit should satisfy both of the following:
(i) Normal conditions clearance—The vertical separation should be not less than
that specified in Table 3.1.
(ii) Dynamic loading clearance—Refer to Figure 3.3.
If conditions are such that it is likely that the lower circuit can accidentally contact into the
higher circuit, the vertical separation at the crossing point should be twice the sag of the
lower circuit when both aerial conductors or cables are at their maximum design
temperature. (This is a simplified calculation method).
NOTE: Dynamic load can be caused by vegetation falling on aerial conductors or ice shedding.
FIGURE 3.2 UNATTACHED CROSSING
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FIGURE 3.3 SIMPLIFIED UNATTACHED CROSSINGS FOR FAULT CONDITIONS

(DOUBLE ENVELOPE METHOD)
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TABLE 3.1
DRAFT ONLY
VERTICAL SEPARATION FOR UNATTACHED CROSSINGS (IN METRES)
UPPER CIRCUIT
U ≤ 33 kV U < 1000 V Other
U ≤ 500 kV U ≤ 330 kV U ≤ 275 kV U ≤ 132 kV U ≤ 66 kV U ≤ 33 kV
U > 1000 V Bare, Other cables cables
U > 330 kV U > 275 kV U >132 kV U > 66 kV U > 33 kV U > 1000 V
Bare or covered and (Conductive) (Non-
Bare Bare Bare Bare Bare Insulated
covered insulated conductive)
330 kV <U ≤ 500 kV No wind 5.2
Bare Wind 3.6
275 kV < U ≤ 330 kV No wind 5.2 3.8
Bare Wind 3.6 2.6
L 132 kV < U ≤ 275 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8
O Bare Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2
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W 66 kV < U ≤ 132 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4

E Bare Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5
R 33 kV < U ≤ 66 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8
Bare Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8
C 1000 V < U ≤ 33 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.2
27
I Bare or covered Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.5
R 1000 V < U ≤33 kV No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6
C Insulated Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.4
U U ≤ 1000 V No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.6
I Bare, covered and insulated Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4
T Other cables No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.4
(Conductive) Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2
Other cables No wind 5.2 3.8 2.8 2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.4
(Non conductive) Wind 3.6 2.6 2.2 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2
NOTES:
1 The above clearances may need to be increased due to local factors such as in Note 7 of Figure 3.6.
2 The clearances in this table may need to be increased to account for safe approach distances required for construction, operation and maintenances and for aerial conductor
blow out on large spans.
3 The above clearances are based on the top circuit being at maximum aerial conductor temperature and the bottom circuit at ambient temperature.
4 These clearances apply to heights up to 1000 m.
DRAFT ONLY
3.7.1.2 Determination of aerial conductor separation

Vertical separation between circuits is determined by establishing the aerial conductor
positions with reference to—
(a) aerial conductor temperatures of each circuit; and
(b) wind conditions.
The following should be used as a guide for selecting appropriate aerial conductor
temperatures and wind pressures.
3.7.1.3 Separation in still air
The aerial conductor temperature of the higher circuit should be the maximum design
temperature.
In the case of a bearer wire supporting an aerial conductor bundle (e.g. as in Aerial Control
Cable to AS/NZS 2373 or HVABC to AS/NZS 3599) the maximum design temperature
would be the maximum temperature the bearer wire may reach under the influence of
ambient temperature of the air, solar radiation and heat transferred to it from the aerial
phase conductors, if applicable.
The temperature of the lower aerial conductor should be the ambient temperature.
3.7.1.4 Separation under wind
The aerial conductor temperature of higher circuit should be taken as t°C with aerial
conductors hanging in the vertical plane, i.e. the wind direction is along the span, e.g. aerial
conductors not displaced by wind, and Temperature t°C is the aerial conductor temperature
applicable to the wind load conditions.
The aerial conductor temperature of lower circuit should be taken as t°C with aerial
conductors displaced by P wind pressure, i.e. the wind direction is normal to the span, and
Temperature t°C is the aerial conductor temperature applicable to the wind load conditions.
NOTE: This assumes that the aerial conductor temperatures of both circuits are at the temperature
at which wind pressure occurs, e.g. aerial conductors have cooled to the air temperature.
Table 3.2 gives the temperature and electrical conditions for determining the electrical
clearances
TABLE 3.2
CONDITIONS FOR DETERMINING CLEARANCES
Top aerial conductor, Bottom aerial
Condition, P Clearance
t°C conductor, t°C
100 Pa wind Ambient temp Ambient temp Impulse
High wind on lower aerial Ambient temp Ambient temp Power frequency
conductor (500 Pa)
3.7.2 Aerial conductors of different circuits on the same support (attached crossing)
This Clause provides the minimum requirements to prevent circuit to circuit flashover,
under operating conditions, between aerial conductors or cables that are attached to the
same support and cross each other (see Figure 3.4).
Where two circuits of different or similar voltage cross each other and are attached to the
same support, aerial conductors of a higher voltage circuit should be placed above a lower
voltage circuit and the vertical separations between the different circuits at any point on the
support under normal working conditions should not be less than specified in Table 3.3.
NOTE: For voltages in excess of 132 kV separations should be determined by the designer.
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FIGURE 3.4 ATTACHED CROSSINGS
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TABLE 3.3
DRAFT ONLY
VERTICAL SEPARATION FOR ATTACHED CROSSINGS (IN METRES)
UPPER CIRCUIT
U ≤ 132 kV U ≤ 66 kV U ≤ 33 kV U ≤ 33 kV U < 1000 V U < 1000 V Other cables Other cables
U > 66 kV U > 33 kV U > 1000 V U > 1000 V Bare and Insulated (Conductive) (Non-
Bare Bare Bare or Insulated covered conductive)
covered
66 kV <U ≤ 132 kV
2.4
Bare
L 33 kV < U ≤ 66 kV
2.4 1.5
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O Bare (Note 1)
W 1000 kV < U ≤ 33 kV
2.4 1.5 0.9 0.9
E Bare or covered
R 1000 kV < U ≤ 33 kV
30
2.4 1.5 0.9 0.2
Insulated
C U < 1000 V
2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.3
I Bare and covered
R U < 1000 V
2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.3
C Insulated
U Other cables
2.4 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2
I (Conductive)
T Other cables
0.2 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
(Non conductive)
NOTES:
1 The clearances in the table are based on the lower circuit aerial conductors being attached to pin or post insulators. Additional clearance is required to allow for aerial
conductor movement, if the lower circuit is attached by suspension or strain insulators.
DRAFT ONLY
2 The clearances in this table may need to be increased to account for safe approach distances required for construction, operation and maintenances.
3.7.3 Aerial conductors on the same supports (same or different circuits and shared
spans)
This Clause provides the minimum requirements between aerial conductors or cables
attached to the same support, and sharing the same span to prevent circuit to circuit or
phase to phase flashover under operating conditions.
Where aerial conductors or cables are carried on the same pole or support as those of a
higher voltage the lower voltage aerial conductors should be placed below the higher
voltage aerial conductors.
Any two bare aerial conductors having a difference in voltage with respect to each other
should have vertical, horizontal or angular separation from each other in accordance with
the values required by Clause 3.7.3.1 (refer to Figure 3.5), provided that the clearance at the
support or at any part in the span is not less than the separation nominated in Item (b) (refer
to Figure 3.6).
The separation given by Clause 3.7.3.1 is intended to cater for differential (out of phase and
in phase) movement of aerial conductors under wind conditions with minimum turbulence.
The separation given by Clause 3.7.3.2 is a minimum under any circumstances.
3.7.3.1 At mid span (See Figure 3.5)
FIGURE 3.5 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SEPARATION AT MID SPAN (ONE CIRCUIT)
U
X 2 + (1.2Y ) 2 ≥ + k D + li . . .(3.1)
150
where
X = is the projected horizontal distance in metres between the aerial conductors
at mid span; (X = (X1 + X2 )/2) where X1 is the projected horizontal distance
in metres between the aerial conductors at one support and X2 is the
projected horizontal distance in metres between the aerial conductors at the
other support in the same span
Y = is the projected vertical distance in metres between the aerial conductors at
mid span; (Y = (Y1 + Y2 )/2) where Y1 is the projected vertical distance in
metres between the aerial conductors at one support and Y2 is the projected
vertical distance in metres between the aerial conductors at the other support
in the same span
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U = is the r.m.s. vector difference in potential (kV) between the two aerial
conductors when each is operating at its nominal voltage. In determining the
potential between aerial conductors of different circuits or between an
earthwire and an aerial phase conductor, regard should be paid to any phase
differences in the nominal voltages
k = is a constant, normally equal to 0.4. Where experience has shown that other
values are appropriate, these may be applied. Refer also to Note 5 of this
Clause
D = is the greater of the two aerial conductor sags in metres at the centre of an
equivalent level span and at an aerial conductor operating temperature of
50°C in still air
Ii = is the length in metres of any free swing suspension insulator associated
with either aerial conductor
For the purposes of this Clause an equivalent level span shall mean a span—
(a) which has the same span length in the horizontal projection as the original span;
(b) in which aerial conductor attachments at supports are in the same horizontal plane;
and
(c) in which the horizontal component of the aerial conductor tension is the same as in
the original span.
As this Equation 3.1 is intended to cater for out-of-phase movement of aerial conductors
under wind conditions with minimum turbulence, the aerial conductor sags are calculated at
50°C and the effect of different load currents are ignored (because of the significant cooling
effect of the wind in these conditions). The wind is not sufficient to increase the sag, and
therefore sag can be calculated assuming still air.
U can be determined by using the formula—
U = Va2 + Vb2 − 2 Va Vb Cos φ . . .(3.2)
where
Va = upper circuit nominal voltage phase to earth value (kV)
Vb = lower circuit nominal voltage phase to earth value (kV)
φ = phase angle difference between circuits (degrees)
3.7.3.2 At any point in the span
Where U ≤ 11 kV . . . . . . . . . . 0.38 m
. . .(3.3)
Where U > 11 kV . . . . . . . . . . (0.38 + q (U − 11))
where
q = constant which varies from .005 to .01 (normal). Where regional service
experience has shown that other values are appropriate, these may be applied
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(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(b) (a)
(a) Mid span separation equation 3.1 applies

(b) Any point in span equation 3.3 applies
FIGURE 3.6 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SEPARATION—ATTACHED ON SAME STRUCTURE
NOTES:
1 When aerial conductors of different circuits are located vertically one above the other,
consideration should be given to the need to prevent clashing of aerial conductors of different
circuits under the influence of load current in one or both circuits. (See Figure 3.7).
2 This clause is not intended to apply to insulated aerial conductors (with or without earthed
screens) of any voltage.
3 The spacing for covered aerial conductors may be reduced providing the covering is adequate
to prevent electrical breakdown of the covering when the aerial conductors clash and a risk
management strategy is in place to ensure that aerial conductors do not remain entangled for
periods beyond what the covering can withstand.
4 Where spacers are used, spacing may be less than those specified. It is suggested that the
spacer be taken to be an aerial conductor support for the purpose of calculating aerial
conductor spacing.
5 The above empirical formula is intended to minimize the risk of aerial conductor clashing;
however, circumstances do arise where it is not practicable to give guidance or predict
outcomes. Some of these situations involve—
(a) extremely turbulent wind conditions;
(b) the different amount of movement of aerial conductors of different size and type under
the same wind conditions; and
(c) aerial conductors movement under fault conditions (particularly with horizontal
construction).
The following k factors are recommended for overhead power lines which have phase to
phase clearances at 1200 mm or less at midspan:
(i) Extremely turbulent wind conditions—k to be in range 0.4 to 0.6.
(ii) High to extreme bushfire prone areas—k to be in range 0.4 to 0.6
(iii) under high phase to phase fault conditions—k = 0.4 for fault currents up to 4,000 A, 0.5
for fault currents from 4,000 A to 6,000 A and 0.6 for fault currents above 6,000 A
(iv) Aerial conductors of different mass/diameter ratios and at different heights—k = 0.4 to
0.6
In all other situations a k factor of 0.4 is recommended.
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6 Mid span clearances will need to be increased in situations where the aerial conductor
transition from horizontal to vertical or where the adjacent aerial conductors are of different
characteristics (diameter, weight) which can cause out of phase movement..
7 The following situations may also need to be taken into account when considering spacing of
aerial conductors but it is not practicable to provide guidance in this document. Knowledge of
local conditions would be required to make design decisions.
(a) Aircraft warning devices.
(b) Large birds which may collide with aerial conductors, causing them to come together,
or whose wingspan is such as to make contact between bare aerial conductors and
conducting crossarms.
(c) Flocks of birds resting on aerial conductors are known to ‘lift off’ simultaneously,
causing violent aerial conductor movement.
(d) Ice and snow loading and ice shedding.
(e) Terrain factors that may contribute to aerodynamic lift and/or random motion.
(f) Spray irrigators.
(g) Safety approach clearances for construction, operation and maintenance
8 Spacing may need to be increased in locations where bridging of the spacing by birds or
animals is experienced or probable.
FIGURE 3.7 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SEPARATION—INFLUENCE OF LOAD CURRENT—

ATTACHED ON SAME STRUCTURE
3.7.4 Clearance to inter-span poles

Poles may be installed in between spans to accommodate street lights or low voltage
services and electrical clearance needs to be provided for maintenance personnel. The
minimum separation between the circuit at maximum operating temperature and interspan
pole for 11 kV and 33 kV shall be 1.5 m (as shown in Figure 3.8).
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Top circuit at max. Derivation of in span clearance

In span
design temp clearance Lowest superscript conductor ( up to 33kV )
0.7 m
A p p ro a c h l i m i t to
Botom circuit at 1.5 m c l o s e s t b a re l i ve
ambient temp c o n d u c to r
0.8 m
Wo r k i n g zo n e
Power DR
streetlight pole
FIGURE 3.8 CLEARANCE TO INTER-SPAN POLES
3.8 INSULATOR AND AERIAL CONDUCTOR MOVEMENT AT STRUCTURE

3.8.1 General
This clause provides the minimum requirements for the separation between aerial
conductors or cables and any earthed structure to prevent flashover under operating
conditions.
This clause applies to all transmission and distribution lines using bare aerial conductors
and suspension insulators. It is intended to provide guidance in the selection of suitable air
gap clearances between aerial conductors and the structure. Guidance in the selection of
solid insulation levels is not covered here and should be considered separately.
Insulation at the structure is provided by a combination of solid insulators such as
porcelain, glass or other composite materials and also by wood crossarms, air, or a
combination of these. This insulation is subjected to electrical stresses resulting from power
frequency voltages, switching surges and lightning impulse voltages.
The insulation levels and air gap clearances should be selected to withstand these over-
voltages so that the desired operational performance is achieved. A good design should also
provide for insulation coordination between the line insulation and terminal station
insulation so as to avoid damage to station equipment from over-voltages.
If provision is to be made for live line maintenance, or for access or inspection under live
conditions, then the physical distances to access and working positions should be adequate
for the safe conduct of this work and to meet any statutory requirements where specified.
To the extent practicable, hazards under live conditions should be mitigated by provision of
adequate air gap clearances in preference to reliance on procedural precautions. These
clearances should encompass the ergonomic and electrical distances necessary to safely
provide for both natural and inadvertent movements of persons, together with the movement
of aerial conductors possible under the range of working conditions permitted.
With suspension insulator strings, the air gap clearances change as the insulator string
swings from its position at rest, due to wind action. Consequently the insulation strength of
the air gap also changes. The air breakdown strength at any moment will depend on the
physical gap, the shape of the electrodes, atmospheric conditions and altitude. Hence the
ability to withstand different over-voltages resulting from power frequency, lightning
impulse and switching surges constantly changes.
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Thus for a freely suspended aerial conductor, both the air gap and the over-voltages are
random variables and probabilistic processes need to be used to determine the optimum
coordination. Statistical considerations indicate that lightning or switching impulses
combined with high swing angles of the insulator string (i.e. smaller air gaps to the
structure) have a very low probability of occurrence. The angle of swing itself depends on
several variables such as wind velocity, time and space distribution of wind, wind direction,
topography and ratio of the wind to weight span.
3.8.2 Structure clearances
Based on operational experience and probabilistic considerations discussed in Clause 3.8.1,
a simplified approach consisting of a three envelope system is recommended for the
determination of aerial conductor clearances on structures.
Condition (a)—Low wind
Condition (b)—Moderate wind
Condition (c)—High wind
Table 3.4 provides recommended structure and aerial conductor clearances for conditions
(b) and (c) for different system and impulse withstand voltages. Refer to Figure 3.9 for
suspension insulator swing angle. These are suitable for most applications. Where unusual
or extreme weather and climatic conditions exist, local knowledge and experience should be
used to modify the clearances.
C ro s s a r m
R efe r
Ta b l e 3.4
R efe r
Ta b l e 3.4
A n g l e of sw i n g Ø
C l e a r a n c e zo n e
C l e a r a n c e zo n e
FIGURE 3.9 CLEARANCE TO STRUCTURES SWING ANGLE
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TABLE 3.4
CLEARANCES TO EARTHED STRUCTURES (IN METRES)
Lightning/switching
Clearance to earthed structure in metres for
Nominal system voltage impulse withstand
altitudes up to 1000 m
voltage
High wind or maximum
Moderate wind
kV (r.m.s.) kV (peak) swing
Condition (b) Condition (c)
11 95 0.16 0.10
22 150 0.28 0.13
33 200 0.38 0.18
66 350 0.69 0.28
110 550 1.1 0.40
132 650 1.3 0.50
220 950 1.9 0.75
275 1050 2.2 0.90
330 1175 2.6 1.10
400 1250 2.8 1.5
1300 3.1 1.75
500
1550 4.2 1.75
NOTES:
1 For structures with line post or pin insulators, the moderate wind distances recommended can be used to
establish structure clearances.
2 For voltages up to 66 kV, clearances may need to be increased in locations where bridging of insulators
by birds or animals is experienced or probable.
3 For altitudes in excess of 1000 m – refer to altitude table (EN 50341-1).
4 Condition (b) relates to lighting impulse distance and condition (c) to power frequency flashover
distance.
3.8.3 Calculation of swing angles

The aerial conductor tension H for insulator swing angle should be based on the relevant
reference wind pressure and temperature.
The estimation of swing angles may be made using a simplified deterministic approach or a
detailed procedure using meteorological data. The latter method should be used when
greater precision is required or where unusual and/or extreme local conditions prevail.
There are other alternative insulator assemblies and appropriate clearances and line actions
need to be considered. These alternative types include—
(a) bridging insulators;
(b) strain insulators;
(c) line post insulators;
(d) vee strings; and
(e) horizontal vee assemblies.
The swing angles of suspension insulator strings for both low and high wind conditions can
be estimated using the approach in Appendix R.
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3.9 LIVE LINE MAINTENANCE CLEARANCES

Structures shall be designed to provide for live line maintenance. Relevant minimum live
line approach clearances are provided in Table 3.5.
Reference should also be made to the provisions set out in Clause 3.6.4.
Relevant NZ references include NZECP 46 and EEA Guide to Use of Helicopters in Power
Company Work.
TABLE 3.5
HVAC LIVE LINE APPROACH DISTANCES
Phase to earth Phase to earth Phase to phase Phase to phase
Nominal phase to selected distance selected distance selected distance selected distance
phase a.c. voltage
Autoreclose on Autoreclose off Autoreclose on Autoreclose off
kV mm mm mm mm
11 500 500 600 600
22 500 500 600 600
33 500 500 600 600
50 600 550 750 700
66 700 600 900 800
88 850 700 1100 1000
110 950 800 1300 1200
132 1100 900 1500 1300
220 1600 1300 2300 2000
275 2100 1600 3100 2400
330 2700 1900 3900 3000
400 3000 2400 4600 3900
500 3500 2400 5600 3900
3.10 CLEARANCES TO GROUND AND AREAS REMOTE FROM BUILDING,

ROADS, RAILWAYS AND NAVIGABLE WATERWAYS
3.10.1 Clearances to ground
3.10.1.1 Lines other than insulated service lines
This clause covers all overhead lines except insulated aerial conductors of an overhead
service line and facade mounted insulated cable systems.
The aerial conductors or cables of an overhead line should be located so that the distances
to level or sloping ground in any direction from any position to which any part of such
aerial conductors may either sag at maximum design temperature or move as a result of
wind pressure, should not be less than the distances specified in Table 3.6.
Departures from these specified distances are permissible where a comprehensive risk
management assessment has been carried out using the methodology outlined in
Appendix U or similar.
In Australia AS 6947 provide guidance on the installing power lines across waterways.
In New Zealand, the EEA/Maritime Safety Authority publication Guide to Safety
Management of Power Line Waterway Crossings, provides guidance to protect waterway
users from electrical hazards, as well as protecting power lines and cables from contact by
watercraft and the resultant damage
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TABLE 3.6
CLEARANCE FROM GROUND, LINES OTHER
THAN INSULATED SERVICE LINES
Distance to ground in any direction
m
Nominal system voltage Over land which due to its
Over land other
Over the steepness or swampiness is
U than the
carriageway of not traversable by
carriageway of
roads vehicles more than 3 m in
roads
height
Bare or insulated aerial conductor
or any other cable U ≤ 1000 V
OR
5.5 5.5 4.5
Insulated aerial conductor with
earthed screen
U > 1000 V
Insulated aerial conductor without
6.0 5.5 4.5
earthed screen U > 1000 V
Bare or covered aerial conductor
1000 V <U ≤ 33 kV 6.7 5.5 4.5
33 V <U ≤ 132 kV 6.7 6.7 5.5
132 kV <U ≤ 275 kV 7.5 7.5 6.0
275 kV <U ≤ 330 kV 8.0 8.0 6.7
330 kV <U ≤ 400 kV 9.0 9.0 7.5
400 kV <U ≤ 500 kV 9.0 9.0 7.5
NOTES:
1 For the purpose of this clause, the term ‘ground’ includes any unroofed elevated area
accessible to plant or vehicles.
2 In the case of cliff faces or cuttings the clearances specified in the column headed ‘Over land
which due to its steepness or swampiness is not traversable by vehicles’ shall apply.
3 In the case of waterways, flood plains and snowfields, the clearances should be determined
having regard to local conditions and requirements.
4 Where the usage of land is such that vehicles of unusual height are likely to pass under an
overhead line, the clearances given in this clause may need to be increased.
5 The distances specified are final conditions for aerial conductors which have ‘settled in’.
When conductors are first erected, an allowance should be made for ‘settling in’ and ‘aerial
conductor creep’. Refer to Appendix S.
6 The distances specified in are designed to protect supports from damage from impact loads on
conductors as well as protecting vehicles from contact with aerial conductors
7 The above values are based on vehicles with a maximum height of 4.6 m.
3.10.1.2 Insulated service lines
Insulated aerial conductors of an overhead service line should be located so that the
distance to level or sloping ground in any direction from any position to which any part of
such aerial conductors may either sag at maximum design temperature or move as a result
of wind pressure, should not be less than the distances specified in Table 3.7.
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TABLE 3.7
CLEARANCE FROM GROUND, INSULATED LV SERVICE LINES
Service line location Distance to ground in any direction
m
Over the centre of a road 5.5
Over any other part of a road 4.6
Over a footway or land which is likely to be 3.0
used by vehicles
Elsewhere 2.7
NOTES:
1 For the purpose of this Clause, the term ‘ground’ includes any unroofed elevated area
accessible to plant or vehicles.
2 In the case of waterways, flood plains and snowfields, the clearances should be determined
having regard to local conditions and requirements.
3 Where the usage of land is such that vehicles of unusual height are likely to pass under an
insulated overhead service line, the clearances given in this clause may need to be increased.
4 The clearances specified in Table 3.7 are final conditions for aerial conductors that have
‘settled in’. When aerial conductors are first erected, an allowance should be made for
‘settling in’ and ‘aerial conductor creep’. Refer to Appendix S.
3.10.2 Clearances to buildings, traffic routes, other lines and recreational areas
3.10.2.1 Structures and buildings
This clause specifies the minimum clearance from any structure, building, post or line
support (other than a support to which the line under consideration is attached or a support
of another overhead line which crosses the line under consideration) to any position to
which an aerial conductor in an overhead line may swing under the influence of wind as
defined in Appendix B or sag under the influence of load current and solar radiation, should
be calculated by the methods specified in Appendix S.
NOTES:
1 The clearances to be maintained at the outer extremities of those parts on any structure on
which a person can stand are defined by an arc of radius A or B as appropriate. This arc has
its centre at the outer extremity of the structure and extends outward to its intersection with a
vertical line that is located at a horizontal distance specified in C, from the outer extremities
of those parts of any structure on which a person can stand.
2 Table 3.8 does not apply to cable systems supported along the facade of a building.
3 Figure 3.10 illustrates the application of Table 3.8 to a particular building. The letters A to D
refer to distances A to D as set out in Table 3.8. The letter G refers to distance to ground.
3.10.2.2 Easements
When considering the width of an easement to provide clearance from structures, the
position of the aerial conductors or cables under the influence of wind at any point along
the span should be taken into account. A safety clearance should also be included. (See
Figure 3.11).
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FIGURE 3.10 STRUCTURE CLEARANCES FOR TABLE 3.8
3.8 3.8
FIGURE 3.11 EASEMENT CLEARANCES
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DRAFT ONLY
TABLE 3.8
CLEARANCES FROM STRUCTURES
1000 V 33 kV 132 kV 275 kV 330 kV

U ≤ 1000 V U > 1000 V <U≤ <U≤ <U≤ <U≤ <U≤
33 kV 132 kV 275 kV 330 kV 500 kV
Clearance
Bare Bare Insulated with Insulated without Bare or
Insulated Bare Bare Bare Bare
neutral active earthed screen earthed screen covered
m m m m m m m m m m
A
(1)
Vertically above those parts of any 2.7 2.7 3.7 2.7 3.7 4.5 5.0 6.5 7.0 8.0
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structure normally accessible to persons

B
(1)
Vertically above those parts of any 0.1 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 3.7 4.5 6.0 6.5 7.5
structure not normally accessible to
persons but on which a person can stand
42
C
In any direction (other than vertically
above) from those parts of any structure 0.1 0.9 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.1 3.0 4.5 5.0 6.0
normally accessible to persons, or from
any part not normally accessible to
persons but on which a person can stand
D
In any direction from those parts of any 0.1 (2) 0.3 (2) 0.6 (2) 0.1 0.6 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.0 5.0
structure not normally accessible to
persons
G
Refer to Table 3.6 Refer to Table 3.6 Refer to Table 3.6
In any direction from ground
(1)
This should not be taken as meaning only the literal vertical. The actual clearance may also extend outwards in an arc until it intersects with the relevant ‘C’ dimension
clearance, as indicated on Figure 3.11. See also Note 1 in Clause 3.10.2.1.
(2)
This clearance can be further reduced to allow for termination at the point of attachment.
DRAFT ONLY
NOTE: The interpretation/confirmation of clearances that apply for different situations outlined in this Table may in some instances only be made following reference to
Figure 3.11 to determine an actual clearance that is relevant for a particular application.
3.11 POWER LINE EASEMENTS

An easement is legally described as an encumbrance on the title of land limited in width
and height above or below the land conferring a right to construct, operate and maintain an
electricity power line, cable, or apparatus.
Easements are usually obtained or created to ensure electricity utilities can gain ready
access to assets for maintenance, repair and upgrading the power lines and for the safety of
persons living, working or playing near overhead lines.
An easement width can be established to accommodate an overhead energized line asset
which ensures adequate safe electrical and mechanical spatial clearances are provided.
The easement width may be influenced by other factors such as audible noise, radio and
television interference, or electric and magnetic fields.
3.11.1 Typical easement widths
Appendix DD provides typical easement widths for a range of voltages.
3.12 CORONA EFFECT

The surface voltage gradient on the aerial conductor should be limited to less than
16 kV/cm to limit the generation of corona discharges. For higher surface voltage gradients,
all surfaces on hardware should be smooth and the corners rounded. At the higher voltage
levels, the use of corona rings should be considered around the hardware to reduce corona.
3.12.1 Radio and television interference
Corona generates interference over a wide band of frequencies.
The degree of annoyance caused by radio and television interference is determined by the
so-called ‘signal-to-noise ratio’ at the receiving installation. When establishing limits for
the emission of radio noise, the radio and television signal strengths to be protected have to
be determined.
The allowable levels of Radio Interference Voltage (RIV) and Television Interference (TVI)
are given in AS/NZS 2344. For New Zealand, the applicable Standard is NZS 6869.
3.12.2 Audible noise
The most common form of audible noise is a hissing or frying sound (broadband crackle)
audible in wet weather. During fair weather, a constant low frequency (100 Hz) hum may
also be heard.
Designers need to ensure that audible noise levels comply with relevant EPA or local
council regulations. The total random audible noise consisting of both broadband and
100 Hz hum needs to be addressed in the design process.
3.12.3 Corona loss
In cases where the surface voltage gradient is very high there can be a power loss along the
aerial conductor due to corona emission. On overhead power lines, corona loss is expressed
in watts per metre (W/m) or kilowatts per kilometre (kW/km). The power loss due to corona
is typically less than a few kilowatts/kilometre in fair weather but it can amount to tens of
kilowatts/kilometre during heavy rain and up to one hundred kilowatts/kilometre during
frost.
In general if the surface voltage gradient is kept below 16 kV/cm, corona loss will be
negligible compared to joule losses.
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3.13 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

3.13.1 Electric and magnetic fields under a line
The design of overhead lines can be influenced by the necessity to limit power frequency
electric and magnetic fields produced by energized aerial conductors.
Limit values for electric and magnetic fields are not provided in this Standard. For such
limits, reference shall be made where relevant to—
(a) for Australia—to ARPANSA, Draft Radiation Protection Standard for Exposure
Limits to Electrical and Magnetic Fields 0 Hz–3 kHz; and
(b) for New Zealand—to ICNIRP Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Time-Varying
Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields (Up To 300 Ghz).
3.13.2 Electric and magnetic field induction
Electric and magnetic fields near an overhead line may induce currents in and voltages on
adjacent conductive objects such as long metal structures (e.g. communication installations,
fences, lines or pipes) or bulky objects (e.g. conductive roofs, tanks or large vehicles) in
proximity to power lines.
Mitigation measures should be considered to reduce these effects to acceptable levels
contained in relevant Standards and Codes. Relevant Standards and Codes are HB 102
(CJC 6), and AS/NZS 4853.
3.13.3 Interference with telecommunication circuits
Telecommunication circuits can suffer electrical interference from power lines.
For interference calculations and measures to be taken to eliminate the effects or reduce
them to acceptable levels, reference shall be made to relevant International and National
Standards and/or to qualified Codes of Practice (i.e. ITU Directives (CCITT) Vol. VI and/or
to particular agreements between the parties concerned. Relevant standards and codes are
HB 102 (CJC 6) and NZCCPTS Noise Investigation Guide.
3.13.4 Electrostatic induction
Electrostatic induction is caused by the electric field surrounding the powerline and these
fields can induce charges on nearby metallic objects. This effect is generally only
significant at voltages above 200 kV and may influence the minimum ground clearance over
parking areas.
For a person the thresholds for perception are given in Appendix H.
3.14 SINGLE WIRE EARTH RETURN (SWER) POWERLINES

3.14.1 General
Single wire earth return (SWER) are distribution powerlines that utilize the earth as a return
circuit instead of a conventional aerial conductor.
These distribution lines are economical to construct in lightly loaded rural areas where long
spans can be constructed.
A more detailed discussion on SWER distribution systems is found in The Electricity
Authority of New South Wales document, High Voltage Earth Return for Rural Areas and
in NZECP 41.
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3.14.2 Types of SWER distribution systems

The ‘isolated’ single wire system is the most common form. This type of SWER
distribution system consists of an isolating supply transformer with the secondary winding
connected to a medium voltage single wire pole line and earth. Local customer supply pole-
type transformers are connected between the single aerial conductor line and earth. The
primary winding of the isolating transformer is connected to a conventional medium voltage
distribution system.
SWER distribution systems are utilized in the following arrangements:
(a) The ‘isolated’ single wire system as described above. This is the most common
SWER distribution system.
(b) The ‘duplex’ system that uses an isolating transformer with the secondary earthed at
the centre tap. The transformer supplies a two-wire backbone line to which single
phase tee-offs are connected and
(c) The ‘un-isolated’ system that uses a conventional 3-phase backbone from which
single wire tee-off lines emanate.
The design issues to be considered for SWER systems are—
(i) earthing systems need to be designed to take into account broken or poor earth
conductor connections;
(ii) limited capacity due to the low conductivity of the aerial conductor commonly used
as well as the limited sizes of isolating and customer transformers;
(iii) interference with Telecommunications Circuits—there is a limit of 8 A earth current
as stipulated in various Codes of Practice for Telecommunications including
NZECP 41;
(iv) interference with railway telecommunications and signalling circuits;
(v) harmonics caused by customer’s equipment overloading SWER system and some
3-phase converting devices; and
(vi) reduced visibility to low flying aircraft (which may be involved in crop dusting or fire
fighting).
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SECTI ON 4 AE RIAL CONDUCTORS AND

OVER HEAD EART HWIR ES (GROUND WI R ES)
WI TH OR WI THOUT TELECOM MUNICATION
CIRCUITS
4.1 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS

4.1.1 DC resistance
The aerial conductor DC resistance is a function of the aerial conductor construction and
stranding, material properties and temperature. The resistance shall be determined from
either—
(a) a mathematical determination using the known properties of the aerial conductor
materials and construction as described in relevant Australian and New Zealand
Standards on conductors; or
(b) published values in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards on conductors.
4.1.2 AC resistance
The aerial conductor AC resistance is a function of the aerial conductor DC resistance,
construction and stranding, material properties, temperature, frequency and magnitude of
the current. The resistance shall be determined from mathematical determination using the
known properties of the aerial conductor materials and construction as described in relevant
Australian and New Zealand Standards on aerial conductors. A recommended method and
guidance to determine the AC resistance is given in IEC TR 61597.
Appendices AA and BB provide guidance on aerial conductor maximum operating
temperature.
4.1.3 Steady state thermal current rating
The steady state thermal current rating of an aerial conductor is the maximum current
inducing the maximum steady state temperature for a given ambient aerial condition and is
based on aerial conductor heat gain equals conductor heat loss that is—
Pj + Ps = Pr+ Pc
where the heat gain terms are Pj which is the joule heating due to the resistance of the aerial
conductor and Ps is the solar heat gain The heat loss terms are Pc which is natural and
forced convection cooling and Pr is the radiation cooling. The terms for heat gain for cyclic
magnetic flux, which is caused by eddy currents, hysteresis and magnetic viscosity; and
corona heat gain are not considered. The evaporative cooling heat loss term is also not
considered.
A recommended methodology to establish the steady state thermal ratings for bare aerial
conductors is given in IEC TR 61597. For insulated aerial conductors, the steady state
thermal rating shall be in accordance with the appropriate Australian and New Zealand
Standards. The steady state thermal current rating shall be determined for coinciding wind
velocity and incident angle, daily solar radiation, ambient temperature and aerial conductor
surface condition.
4.1.4 Short time thermal current rating
The short time thermal current rating of an aerial conductor is the maximum current
inducing the maximum steady state temperature for a given ambient condition and occurs
when a step change in current flow results in a short term aerial conductor temperature
change and the
aerial conductor stored heat = heat gain − heat loss
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The time constant for short time ratings is generally less than 20 min and meteorological
conditions other than solar heat gain will generally not have a significant influence on final
aerial conductor temperature. Initial aerial conductor conditions shall be assumed and
include initial aerial conductor operating temperature. Short time current and associated
aerial conductor temperature rise is illustrated in Figure 4.1.
T EM PER AT U R E
final
initial
C U R R EN T
I2
I1
TIME
FIGURE 4.1 SHORT TIME CURRENT RATING AND TEMPERATURE
The final aerial conductor temperature shall not exceed the maximum operating
temperature.
Appendix AA provides guidance on establishing the short time thermal current rating for
bare aerial conductors. For covered and insulated aerial conductor the maximum short-term
thermal rating shall be in accordance with the relevant Australian and New Zealand
Standards.
4.1.5 Short-circuit thermal current rating
The short-circuit thermal current rating shall be based on adiabatic heating, that is due to
the transient nature of the current flow the aerial conductor heat gain and loss at the surface
of the aerial conductor shall be ignored. The rating is a function of the aerial conductor
cross sectional area, the thermal conductivity of the aerial conductor, the specific heat
capacity of the aerial conductor, the aerial conductor resistivity, the conductor temperature
coefficient of resistance, the duration of the transient current, the aerial conductor initial
temperature, the magnitude of the current and maximum permissible temperature.
In determining the rating for circuits where—
(a) the reactance to resistance ratio is greater than 10 then the d.c. asymmetrical heating
component of the current shall be taken into account; and
(b) auto reclose protection is employed then the short-circuit duration shall be the sum of
the initial fault duration and the successive auto reclose fault durations and the
combined aerial conductor heating shall be cumulative.
The aerial conductor short-circuit thermal rating shall not result in exceeding—
(i) any specified permissible temperature rating of the aerial conductor including
appropriate consideration of short time differential expansion of dissimilar materials
(known as birdcaging);
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(ii) for covered and or insulated aerial conductors the insulation temperature rating as
specified in the appropriate Australian and New Zealand Standards;
(iii) the temperature rating of fibre optic cores;
(iv) the permissible loss of strength due to annealing as specified in Appendix BB;
(v) 0.5 times, 0.3 times and 0.2 times the melting point of zinc, aluminium and copper
respectively; and/or
(vi) the drop point of any grease applied to the aerial conductor.
Appendix AA provides guidance on establishing the short time thermal current rating for
bare aerial conductors. For covered and insulated aerial conductor the maximum short term
thermal rating shall be in accordance with the relevant Australian and New Zealand
Standards.
4.2 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS

4.2.1 Limit states
The overhead line is considered intact when its aerial conductors and or tension fittings are
used at stresses below their damage limit.
When subjected to increasing loads, aerial conductors and or tension fittings may exhibit at
some level, permanent deformation particularly if the failure mode is ductile; or for wind
induced Aeolian vibration, aerial conductors may exhibit wire and or whole aerial
conductor fracture. This level is called the damage limit and aerial conductors and or
tension fittings will be in damaged state if the aerial conductors and or tension fittings have
exceeded the damage limit.
If the load is further increased, failure of the aerial conductor and or tension fittings occurs
at a level called the failure limit. The aerial conductors and or tension fittings will be in a
failed state if the aerial conductors and or tension fittings have exceeded the failure limit.
The state of system and the damage and failure limits are illustrated in Figure 4.2.
s t a te of sy s te m i n t a c t s t a te d a m a g e d s t a te f a i l e d s t a te
conductor
damage limit fa i l u r e l i m i t
strength limits
FIGURE 4.2 LIMIT STATES OF AERIAL CONDUCTOR DESIGN
Indicative damage and failure limits of aerial conductors and tension fittings are illustrated
in a typical aerial conductor stress strain characteristic illustrated in Figure 4.3.
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Calculated breaking load

Te n s i o n f i t t i n g f a i l u r e r e g i o n

Pe r m a n e nt e l o n g at i o n
region

E l a st i c e l o n g at i o n r e g i o n
S t r a i n (% e l o n g a t i o n)
FIGURE 4.3 LIMIT STATES OF AERIAL CONDUCTOR DESIGN
The damage and failure limits of aerial conductors and tension fittings shall be in
accordance with Table 4.1 for the direct applied variable action consisting of the imposed
loads specified in Clause 7.2.2 plus the everyday low velocity wind condition (defined in
Clause 1.3.45).
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TABLE 4.1
DAMAGE AND FAILURE LIMITS OF AERIAL CONDUCTORS
Aerial conductors and Damage limit Failure limit
tension fittings
Lowest of—
– vibration limit (see Note 1); or 0.7 aerial conductor CBL (see
Bare
Note 3)
– 0.5 aerial conductor CBL (see
Note 2)
Not greater than the specified maximum 0.7 aerial conductor CBL (see
ABC and CC working tension as described in relevant Note 3)
Australian and New Zealand Standards
Lowest of—
– vibration limit (see Note 1); or – optical fibre failure (rupture)
OPGW – 0.5 aerial conductor CBL (see – 0.7 aerial conductor CBL (see
Note 2) Note 3)
– maximum tension corresponding to
the optical fibre strain free condition
Lowest of—
– as agreed with the manufacturer; or – optical fibre failure (rupture)
ADSS
– maximum tension corresponding to – optical tensile stress (rupture)
the optical figure strain free
condition
NOTES:
1 Long-term wind induced Aeolian vibration causes permanent aerial conductor damage, wire fatigue and in
some cases complete aerial conductor fracture. Aerial conductor vibration limit is a function of wind
velocity and direction, temperature, terrain, aerial conductor construction, the type of aerial conductor
fittings, aerial conductor tension and aerial conductor vibration control. The aerial conductor vibration
limit shall be based on determining maximum static aerial conductor tension with or without any dynamic
stress control that will result in fatigue free endurance for the design life of the overhead line. The
maximum static aerial conductor tension shall be determined for the low velocity everyday wind direct
applied variable action condition defined in Clause 1.3.45. Consideration shall be given in determining the
damage limit state to any prestressing, over tensioning or temperature allowances to compensate for initial
radial wire movement and longer term metallurgical creep of the aerial conductor material. In most
situations, the governing criteria for aerial conductor tension will be the vibration limit state. Appendix S
provides guidance on aerial conductor sag and tension calculations.
2 Damage strength limit state is 0.5CBL for the linear model and shall not be exceeded for the maximum
wind direct applied variable action condition specified in Section 7. The factor of 0.5 may be increased to
0.7 by application of a non-linear stress strain model. Additional allowance for loss of strength due to
aerial conductor annealing is not required. Damage limit may be the governing criteria for a small
diameter aerial conductor subject to ice and or high wind loadings.
3 The 0.7 factor is based on the failure performance of tensions fittings. Factors greater than 0.7 may be
used based on statistical analysis of tension fitting rupture tests and considerations of installation quality
control. Additional allowance for loss of strength due to aerial conductor annealing is not required.
4.2.2 Aerial conductor tension

Aerial conductor tension change behaviour for any given span length and or equivalent
span, is a function of the aerial conductor mass, initial aerial conductor tension, aerial
conductor cross sectional area, aerial conductor modulus of elasticity and coefficient of
thermal expansion, permanent elongation and loading conditions such as temperature, wind
loading, and or ice loading. Aerial conductor tension changes shall be determined in
accordance with Table 4.2.
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TABLE 4.2
AERIAL CONDUCTOR TENSION DETERMINATION MODELS
Model Application
– aerial conductors with maximum operating temperatures greater than 120°C
Non-linear stress strain
– ultimate design tensions exceeding the damage limit
– aerial conductors with maximum operating temperatures less than 120°C
– ultimate design tensions not exceeding the damage limit
Linear stress strain
– steel aerial conductors
– aerial bundled conductors
Aerial conductor creep shall be taken into account in the determination of aerial conductor
tension change for aerial conductors under everyday conditions with catenary constants
greater than 1000 m (see Appendix S).
Appendix S provides guidance on aerial conductor change of state determination.
4.2.3 Aerial conductor stress and fatigue
Aerial conductor stress is a combination of the static stress and dynamic stress. Static stress
is a function of aerial conductor tension, bending stress over aerial conductor support
fittings and compressive stress caused by aerial conductor fittings. Dynamic stress is a
function of aerial conductor vibration amplitude and frequency.
Elevated aerial conductor static stresses combined with elevated dynamic stress caused by
wind induced Aeolian vibration will result in permanent aerial conductor fatigue damage,
wire fracture and in some cases complete aerial conductor fracture. Fatigue damage
generally occurs at points where the aerial conductor is secured to fittings and the combined
static and dynamic stresses are a maximum.
The aerial conductor vibration limit shall be based on limiting the static and dynamic
stresses to less than aerial conductor fatigue endurance limit for the design life of the
overhead line. Proven performance of overhead lines with aerial conductor damage free
endurance based on a service history with similar aerial conductors, aerial conductor
fittings, vibration control, terrain and climates may be used to validate the aerial conductor
vibration limit.
Appendix S provides guidance on determining aerial conductor static tensions.
4.2.4 Aerial conductor permanent elongation
Aerial conductor permanent elongation consists of strand settling and metallurgical creep.
Permanent elongation begins at the instant of applied axial tensile load and continues at a
decreasing rate providing tension and temperature remain constant. Aerial conductors
operating at continuous elevated temperatures and or tensions are subject to elevated levels
of metallurgical creep.
Metallurgical creep is plastic deformation that is a logarithmic in behaviour and a function
of the aerial conductor type, aerial conductor construction, aerial conductor stress, aerial
conductor temperature and time. Aerial conductor constants used to predict creep for the
specific aerial conductors shall be determined in accordance with AS 3822 or equivalent
Standards.
Aerial conductor creep will result in changes in aerial conductor sag and tension with time.
Aerial conductor creep shall, as a minimum be determined for the average aerial conductor
temperature and tension for the design life of the overhead line. For multiple predicted load
cases aerial conductor creep shall be considered cumulative.
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Allowance shall be made for permanent elongation to ensure that the required electrical
clearance specified in Section 3 is maintained for the design life of the overhead line. The
allowance shall consider independently, strand settling at the damage limit and cumulative
metallurgical creep.
Appendix V provides guidance on aerial conductor permanent elongation.
4.2.5 Aerial conductor annealing and operating temperatures
Annealing damage is caused by the heating excursions of the aerial conductor. During the
annealing process the aerial conductor material experiences a change in its microstructure
which results in a loss of tensile strength, an increase in conductivity and an improvement
in material ductility. Annealing damage is cumulative and shall be determined by summing
the loss of tensile strength for temperatures arising from the steady state, short time and
short-circuit thermal ratings and associated durations for the design life of the overhead
line.
The permissible aerial conductor cumulative annealing damage shall not exceed 15% of the
CBL for the design life of the overhead line. No further allowance is to be made in the
aerial conductor strength factor for annealing.
Annealing shall be considered for copper, aluminium and steel aerial conductors operating
at temperatures greater than 70°, 80° and 200°C respectively.
Appendix BB provides guidance on aerial conductor annealing and maximum operating
temperatures.
4.2.6 Aerial conductor final modulus of elasticity
The final modulus of elasticity of an aerial conductor is a function of a number of factors
including the aerial conductor construction and stranding and material properties. The final
modulus of elasticity shall be determined from either—
(a) a stress strain test carried out in accordance with AS 3822 or equivalent by which a
complete understanding of the aerial conductor stress strain behaviour may be
derived; or
(b) mathematical determination using the known properties of the aerial conductor
Standards on bare aerial conductors; or
(c) published values in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards on insulated
aerial conductors.
Appendix W provides guidance on the determination of aerial conductor final modulus of
elasticity.
4.2.7 Aerial conductor coefficient of thermal expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of an aerial conductor is a function of the aerial
conductor construction and stranding and material properties. The CTE shall be determined
from either—
(a) a thermal elongation test carried out in accordance with AS 3822 or equivalent; or
(b) a mathematical determination using the known properties of the aerial conductor
Standards on aerial conductors; or
(c) published values in relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards on insulated
aerial conductors.
Appendix X provides guidance on the determination of aerial conductor coefficient of
thermal expansion.
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4.2.8 Aerial conductor cross sectional area

The aerial conductor cross sectional area shall be the total area of the mechanical load
bearing wires.
4.2.9 Aerial conductor diameter
The mean of two measurements at right angles is taken at one cross section. For non-
symmetrical sections, the largest section shall be one of the two measurements.
4.2.10 Aerial conductor drag coefficient
For uniform round wires symmetrically stranded and wind velocities less than 60 m. s−1 the
aerial conductor drag coefficient shall be equal to 1.0. For other than uniform round wires,
symmetrically stranded and or wind velocities greater than 60 m. s−1 the conductor drag
coefficient shall be either measured or calculated.
4.2.11 Aerial conductor calculated breaking load
The calculated breaking load (CBL) of an aerial conductor shall be determined from the
relevant Australian and New Zealand Standards for bare aerial conductors and or insulated
aerial conductors.
4.2.12 Aerial conductor vertical and horizontal sag
Aerial conductor vertical sag, Sy is a function of the aerial conductor tension, aerial
conductor equivalent mass and span length. Aerial conductor equivalent mass is a function
of the aerial conductor mass, aerial warning markers, aerial conductor spacers and any
contributing ice load. Aerial conductor vertical sag for low-tension spans is also influenced
by the length and mass of supporting insulators. In addition, over time aerial conductor
vertical sag changes and is a function of aerial conductor permanent elongation. Aerial
conductor permanent elongation and ice load shall be determined in accordance with
Clauses 4.2.4 and 7.2.3 respectively.
Aerial conductor vertical sag shall be determined for the maximum operating temperature
of the overhead line to ensure that the required electrical clearance specified in Section 3 is
maintained.
Aerial conductor horizontal sag, or ‘blow out’ is a function of the aerial conductor tension,
aerial conductor equivalent diameter, aerial warning markers, direct applied action and span
length. Aerial conductor equivalent diameter is a function of the aerial conductor diameter
and any increase in diameter from deposited ice.
Aerial conductor horizontal sag inclusive of any insulator swing component shall be
determined for the electrical power frequency clearance condition specified in Section 3.
Aerial conductor inclined sag inclusive of any insulator swing component shall be
determined using the same applied action for the vertical and horizontal sag to ensure that
the required electrical clearance specified in Section 3 is maintained.
Appendix S provides guidance on conductor sag determination.
4.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

4.3.1 Aerial conductor damage risks
Consideration shall be given to the potential damage arising from bushfires, sugar cane
fires, lightning impact and cyclones, which may result in an aerial conductor being in a
damaged or failure limit. The aerial conductor selection shall consider the risk and damage
arising from exceeding the damage limit of the aerial conductor.
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4.3.2 Aerial conductor degradation

Consideration shall be given to aerial conductor degradation arising from surface pit
corrosion of wires and in the case of non-homogeneous aerial conductors and or aerial
conductors in contact with dissimilar metal fittings, galvanic corrosion. Pit corrosion
particularly for aluminium wires may arise in atmospheres of elevated chloride and sulphur.
Copper wires are also susceptible to pit corrosion in the presence of elevated levels of
atmospheric ammonia or where aerial crop dusting is common.
Aerial conductors shall be selected to minimize pit and or galvanic corrosion and where
considered appropriate aerial conductor protective coatings such as partly or fully greased
aerial conductors shall be used.
Appendix Y provides guidance on the selection for various environments.
4.4 AERIAL CONDUCTOR CONSTRUCTIONS

4.4.1 Aerial conductor types and standards
Aerial conductors shall be designed, selected and tested to meet the electrical, mechanical,
environmental and telecommunication requirements of the overhead line.
4.4.1.1 Bare aerial conductors
Bare aerial conductors shall be supplied and manufactured in accordance with
AS/NZS 1222.1, AS/NZS 1222.2, AS 1531, AS/NZS 1746, AS/NZS 3607 or an equivalent
International Standard.
4.4.1.2 Insulated aerial conductors and cable systems
Insulated aerial conductors and cable systems shall be supplied and manufactured in
accordance with AS/NZS 3560.1, AS/NZS 3560.2, AS/NZS 3599.1, AS/NZS 3599.2 or an
equivalent International Standard.
4.4.1.3 Covered aerial conductors
Covered aerial conductors shall be supplied and manufactured in accordance with the
AS/NZS 3675 or an equivalent International Standard.
4.4.1.4 Optical fibres
Optical fibre aerial conductors shall be supplied and manufactured in accordance with
international standard description and numbers IEC 60794-4.
4.4.1.5 Low-voltage aerial bundled cables (LVABC)
The following considerations apply:
(a) The tangential tension in the cable should not exceed 28% CBL. This is based on
maximum working conductor stress of 40 MPa on 95 mm2 LVABC. This is the limit
for transferring the conductor tension through the insulation to the strain clamp and is
based on French experience with heavily filled XLPE compound.
(b) The highest horizontal tension used for the everyday load should take into account the
working ratings of cable tensioning equipment such as lugalls, comealongs, etc. Also
for three or four core cables experience has shown that the cores are difficult to
separate to fit insulation piercing connectors at cable tensions exceeding 4.5 kN.
4.5 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SELECTION

Aerial conductor selection consists of consideration of wire size and material, electrical,
mechanical, environmental and economic factors. Aerial conductor selection shall satisfy
the—
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(a) electrical requirements for steady state and transient current ratings, corona
discharge, audible noise and radio and televisions interference, joule losses;
(b) mechanical requirements including annealing, drag coefficient, operating
temperature, constructability (no birdcaging or unravelling), permanent elongation
fatigue endurance, aerial conductor diameter, sag and strength relationship;
(c) environmental requirements for corrosion and lightning damage; and
(d) economic requirements for cost of losses, capital costs, load profile, interest rate, load
growth, inventory costs and construction costs (ratio of tension to suspension
structures)
Factors to be considered in the selection of aerial conductors are wire materials, wire shape,
wire sizes and conductor constructions.
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SECTI ON 5 INSULATORS
5.1 INSULATION BASICS

Insulation is required to withstand the electrical and mechanical stresses applied to it during
its lifetime. The electrical stresses include power frequency, switching and lightning
overvoltages and the mechanical stresses include the tensile, compressive or cantilever
loadings from aerial conductor tension and weight.
When assessing the ability of insulation to withstand power frequency voltages,
consideration is given to the contamination of the insulator surfaces. Contamination will
build up on insulator surfaces over time and when the surfaces are lightly wetted because of
high humidity, light rain, fog or dew, the leakage current increases and can result in the
following undesirable outcomes:
(a) Visual sparking, audible noise; RIV and TIV interference causing annoyance to the
public.
(b) Degradation of the insulator surface, thereby reducing its life expectancy.
(c) Power frequency flashover and subsequent outage.
The flashover performance of an overhead line is dependent on the electrical withstand of
the insulator and the air gap distances. Proper co-ordination is required to ensure acceptable
flashover performance, in particular, the arc distance on the insulator should be comparable
to the air gap distance.
5.2 LINE AND SUBSTATION INSULATION COORDINATION

Substation insulation incorporates paper, oil and solid dielectric systems where any
flashover may be destructive. This is termed non-self restoring insulation and must be
protected from over voltages. Substation plant is available in standardized impulse
insulation levels.
Line insulation is self-restoring and is designed for some low probability of flashover, not
zero probability of flashover. Often line insulation levels exceed that of the substation
equipment connected at either end. Lightning impulses and switching surges exceeding the
capability of the substation plant can be conducted into the substation.
A lightning backflashover or direct strike close to the substation can create a large voltage
transient that may damage insulation in substation plant, particularly transformers. It should
be noted that lightning causes corona around the aerial conductor, up to around 1 m in
diameter. This corona envelope dissipates energy and reduces the rise time and peak voltage
as the transient travels along the aerial conductor.
In high lightning areas or for high reliability lines, precautions should be taken to ensure
that lightning strikes close to the substation are attenuated to levels which do not cause
damage to substation equipment (close to the substation is in the range 800 m to 5 km).
Lightning protection for transmission lines may include one or more overhead earthwires
and low structure earthing values, say below 5 ohms, for the first 2.5 km of any line from a
substation to prevent back flashovers.
To ensure protection of the substation plant, a transient impulse study including line entry
is required to determine the placement and number of surge arresters required to protect
substation plant from lightning and switching overvoltages.
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5.3 ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN

5.3.1 General
The insulators shall be designed to meet the general requirements for reliability and life for
the overhead line. In particular, the design shall consider the relevant electrical and
mechanical requirements as follows:
(a) Pollution.
(b) Power frequency voltage.
(c) Switching surge voltage.
(d) Lightning performance.
(e) Mechanical strength.
5.3.2 Design for pollution
When determining the insulation requirements for an overhead power line or an outdoor
substation in a contaminated environment, the following criteria need to be considered:
(a) Creepage (or leakage) distance.
(b) The ability of the material to endure the electrical activity without being degraded.
(c) The shape of the insulator to assist in reducing the likelihood of contamination
collection and facilitate washing.
AS 4436 provides guidance on the selection of insulators for polluted conditions. The basic
concept is to increase the surface creepage distance so that it is long enough to prevent a
pollution flashover across the surface.
5.3.3 Design for power frequency voltages (wet withstand requirement)
The line insulation should withstand the maximum voltage expected on the line. Overhead
powerlines can operate continuously up to 1.1 per unit voltage and up to 1.4 per unit for
effectively earthed systems during system disturbances, such as faults and load rejection.
This voltage is regarded as the maximum dynamic overvoltage. The wet power frequency
withstand voltage of the line insulation should be selected to exceed this maximum dynamic
overvoltage.
5.3.4 Design for switching surge voltages
Switching surge overvoltages up to 3 per unit peak voltage can arise when overhead lines
are switched. The extent of this overvoltage is dependent on—
(a) the point of voltage wave when the line is switched;
(b) the capacitance or amount of trapped charges on the line; and
(c) other equipment connected to the line.
When high-speed autoreclosing is installed, overvoltage can exceed 3 per unit voltage,
particularly on transmission lines. In these cases, it would be common to install surge
arresters on the line to limit the overvoltages to the designed line insulation.
5.3.5 Insulator mechanical design
The loads on an insulator shall be calculated using the limit state methodology outlined in
Section 2.2.1.3. The recommendations for the insulator strength factor are given in
Table 6.2.
A simplified approach to the design of insulators is given in Appendix CC.
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5.4 RELEVANT STANDARDS, TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

INSULATORS
The Standards that are used to specify the various types of insulators in usage in Australia
are shown in Table 5.2.
TABLE 5.2
STANDARDS FOR THE DESIGN, MANUFACTURE AND TESTING OF
INSULATORS
STANDARD TITLE
AS
1154 Insulator and conductor fittings for overhead power lines
3608 Insulators—Porcelain and glass, pin and shackle type—Voltages not exceeding 1000 V
a.c.
3609 Insulators—Porcelain stay type—Voltages greater than 1000 a.c.
4398 Insulators—Ceramic or glass—Station post for indoor and outdoor use—Voltages
greater than 1000 V a.c.
4435.1 Insulators—Composite for overhead lines—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c—
Definitions, test methods and acceptance criteria for string insulatr units
4436 Guide for the selection of insulators in respect of polluted conditions
60305 Insulators for overhead lines with a nominal voltage above 1000 V—Ceramic or glass
insulator units for a.c. systems—Characteristics of insulator units of the cap and pin
type
AS/NZS
2947 Insulators—Porcelain and glass for overhead power lines—Voltages greater than
1000 V a.c.
4435.2 Insulators—Composite for overhead lines—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c—
Standard strength classes and end fittings for string insulator units
IEC
60433 Insulators for overhead lines with a nominal voltage above 1000 V—Ceramic or glass
insulator units for a.c. systems—Characteristics of insulator units of the long rod type
60575 Thermal-mechanical performance test and mechanical performance test on string
insulator units
60720 Characteristics of line post insulators
61466-2 Composite string insulator units for overhead lines with a nominal voltage greater than
1000 V – Part 2: Dimensional and electrical characteristics
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SECTI ON 6 BAS I S OF STRUCTUR AL DE SIGN
6.1 GENERAL
This Section of the Standard provides the basis and the general principles for the structural,
geotechnical and mechanical design of overhead lines.
This clause should be read in conjunction with the relevant Australian and New Zealand
Standards where applicable. The general principles of structural design are based on the
limit state concept used in conjunction with a load and material strength factor appropriate
to the reference limit state.
The values of the factors for actions and material properties depend on the degree of
uncertainty for the loads, resistances, material properties, geotechnical parameters,
geometrical quantities, design model, the type of structure and the type of limit state. These
factors can also depend on the strength co-ordination principles envisaged for the line.
The structural design methods are based on ‘limit state’ concepts. Any element of an
overhead line which carries structural load, or is a secondary structural or framing element
should be considered as a ‘structural element’ of the line support structure in the context of
this clause.
Structures and components should be designed using a reliability-based (risk of failure)
approach. The selection of load factors, in particular for weather related loads, and
component strength factors are based on achieving an acceptable risk of failure and
operational performance for the line.
The performance of the structural system shall be evaluated for an appropriate combination
of serviceability and strength limit states as set out in the following clauses.
NOTE:Some States and Territories of Australia and New Zealand may have Acts and Regulations
which may have requirements in excess of this Standard
6.2 REQUIREMENTS
6.2.1 Basic requirements
An overhead electrical line shall be designed to withstand the ultimate load case
combinations for the selected security level as defined below, based on the lines importance
to the system (including system redundancy), its location and exposure to climatic
conditions, and public safety and design working life.
6.2.2 Security levels
Security levels shall be distinguished as follows:
Level I Applicable to overhead lines where collapse of the line may be tolerable
with respect to social and economic consequences. (Normal distribution
lines)
Level II Applicable to overhead lines where collapse of the line would cause
negligible danger to life and property and alternative arrangements can
be provided if loss of support services occurs. (Higher security
distribution lines and normal transmission lines)
Level III Applicable to overhead lines where collapse of the line would cause
unacceptable danger to life or significant economic loss to the
community and sever vital post disaster services. (Higher security
transmission lines)
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6.2.3 Reliability load multiplier and security requirements

Reliability load multipliers for an expected design working life and security levels are
provided in Table 6.1.
The design loads for an overhead line shall be based on 50-year return period wind speeds
as defined in AS/NZ 1170.2. The calculated wind loads shall be then multiplied by an
appropriate reliability load multiplier based on the required security level and design life as
selected from Table 6.1
TABLE 6.1
RELIABILITY MULTIPLIER FOR DESIGN WORKING LIFE AND
LINE SECURITY LEVELS
Minimum reliability load multiplier M rel

Line security level
Design working life Level I Level II Level III
Temporary construction and construction 0.67 0.67 0.77
equipment, e.g. hurdles, scaffolding and
temporary line diversions with design life of
less than 6 months
< 5 years 0.77 0.9 1.0
25 years 0.9 1.0 1.2
50 years 1.0 1.2 1.4
100 years 1.2 1.4 1.4
NOTES:
1 When selecting the appropriate security level, additional factors such as the line length, number of
circuits and proximity to other lines or infrastructure should be considered.
2 For special exposed locations such as long span water or valley crossings, or difficult to access
locations (where time and cost to restore the construction can be high), a higher security level may
be adopted for a particular structure or short sections of the line.
3 For snow, ice and seismic loadings, the designer should use local experience in determining the
appropriate M rel .
6.2.4 Security requirements

Security requirements shall be provided in all designs to prevent or limit progressive or
cascading structure failures in the event of collapse or failure of a support structure
resulting from any external cause.
In general, longitudinal design loads relevant to residual loads for broken or terminated
aerial phase conductor are provided to meet this requirement.
On distribution overhead pole lines, pole deflection combined with partial foundation
failure may provide adequate containment.
6.2.5 Safety requirements during construction and maintenance
Safety requirements are intended to ensure that construction and maintenance operations do
not pose safety hazards to people. The safety requirements in this Standard consist of
special loads, as defined in Clauses 6.2.6 and 7.2.5 for which line components have to be
designed.
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6.2.6 Additional considerations

6.2.6.1 Dynamic load effects—Seismic loads
In general, transmission/distribution lines are largely unresponsive to the dynamic forces
associated with seismic activity, however, due consideration should be given to structures
where the normal dynamic response is altered; e.g. ancillary devices such as pole mounted
transformers, etc.
6.2.6.2 Environmental considerations
Consideration shall be given to any environmental and legal requirements that may exist.
Safety of human beings and protection of wild life and livestock, for example birds, cattle,
etc. shall be properly considered.
This may require the installation of special deterrent devices for birds and reptiles: aerial
markers for aircraft and ground based vehicle warning and deflection devices.
Structure loading for such devices shall be considered in design.
Vehicle impact and the effects of falling trees and airborne vegetation during high winds
are accidental loads beyond the scope of this Standard. Their effects can however be
mitigated by care in placement of support structures and the ongoing management of the
overhead line corridor.
6.2.7 Design working life
The design working life is the assumed period for which an overhead line could be expected
to be used for its intended purpose with anticipated maintenance but without substantial
repair being necessary.
NOTE: The operating life of an overhead line can be normally be expected be in the range of 30
to 80 years, depending on a number of factors including the level of preventative and corrective
maintenance carried out on the total asset during its life.
Appendix D provides guidance on the service life of overhead lines.
6.2.8 Durability
The durability of an overhead line support or part of it in its environmental exposure shall
be such that it remains fit for use during the design working life given an appropriate level
of maintenance.
The environmental, atmospheric and climatic conditions shall be appraised at the design
stage to assess their significance in relation to durability and to enable adequate provisions
to be made for protection of the materials for the target design life.
6.3 LIMIT STATES

6.3.1 General
The structural design methods provided by this Standard are based on ‘limit state’ concepts.
Structures and components shall be designed using a reliability-based (risk of failure)
approach, and the selection of load factors, in particular for weather related loads, and
component strength factors are based on achieving an acceptable risk of failure for the
loading condition being considered.
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The performance of the structural system can be evaluated for different circumstances,
known as limit states with the following general limit state design equation for overhead
lines:
φRn > effect of loads ( MRelWn + ΣγxX)
where
X = the applied loads pertinent to each loading condition
MRel = Reliability multiplier
γx = are load factors which take into account variability of loads, importance
of structure, stringing, maintenance and safety considerations etc.
Wn = wind load based on a 50 year return period scaled by the appropriate
reliability load factor or specified design wind pressure
φ = the strength factor which takes into account variability of material,
workmanship etc.
Rn = the nominal strength of the component
Limit states are states beyond which the overhead line no longer satisfies the design
performance requirements.
All support structures shall be designed for both ultimate limit states and serviceability
limit states.
6.3.2 Strength limit states
Ultimate strength limit states are those associated with collapse or with other similar forms
of structural failure due to excessive deformation, loss of stability, overturning, rupture,
buckling, or localized failure.
Damage states prior to structural collapse, such as plastic deformation or local buckling of
redundant structural elements, which, for simplicity, are considered in place of the
structural collapse itself, are also to be treated as ultimate limit states.
Ultimate strength limit states concern—
(a) the reliability and security of supports, foundations, aerial conductors and equipment;
and
(b) the safety of people.
Structural elements that fail essentially in buckling, or brittle fracture with little warning of
impending failure, should be designed to withstand the design load without permanent
distortion.
Structural elements that fail essentially by ductile yielding may, in accordance with the
appropriate standard, at the discretion of the designer, be allowed to exhibit elastic-plastic
yielding prior to failure, in accordance with the relevant Standard.
6.3.3 Serviceability limit states
Serviceability limit states shall provide for the following defined conditions beyond which
specified service requirements for an overhead line are no longer met:
(a) Mechanical and structural functioning of supports, foundations, aerial conductors and
equipment.
(b) Maintaining prescribed electrical clearances.
In addition, serviceability limit states that require consideration include—
(i) deformations and displacements which affect the appearance or effective use of the
support;
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(ii) a reduction of critical electrical clearances;

(iii) vibrations which cause damage to aerial conductors, supports or equipment or which
limit their functional effectiveness;
(iv) damage (including cracking) which is likely to affect the durability or the function of
the supports; and
(v) aerial conductors, insulators and line accessories adversely affected.
6.3.4 Limit state design
Limit state design shall be carried out by—
(a) setting up structural and load models for the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit
states to be considered in the various design situations and load cases; and
(b) verifying that the limit states are not exceeded when design values for actions,
material properties and geometrical data are used in the models.
Design values are generally obtained by using characteristic or combination values (as
defined in this Standard) in conjunction with strength and load factors as defined in this
Standard and other Australian and New Zealand Standards.
6.3.4.2 Strength factors ( φ)
Table 6.2 provides strength factors (φ) which takes into account variability of material and
workmanship for structural components used in overhead lines. These φ values reflect
accepted industry practice.
TABLE 6.2
STRENGTH FACTOR φ FOR COMPONENT STRENGTH
Part of overhead line Component Limit state Strength factor φ Reference
(R n ) Standard
Lattice steel towers Steel angle ASCE 10-97
Strength Refer Appendix G
member elements AS 3995
Tubular steel structures AS/NZS 4600
Tubular structure Refer Appendix K ASCE 48-05
EN 50341
Fasteners Bolts nuts and ≤0.9 AS 4100
washers Strength Unless otherwise AS 1559
specified ASCE 10-97
Reinforced or
AS 3600
prestressed concrete
Poles AS/NZS 4065
structures and members. Strength Refer Appendix I
Cross arms NZS 3101
Design based on design
AS/NZS 4676
Standards
Concrete or steel
AS 3600
structures and members.
Poles 0.9 AS/NZS 4065
Design based primarily Strength
Cross arms (max) NZS 3101
on testing, e.g. concrete
AS/NZS 4676
poles (see Note 2)
Wood structures, poles
or members (not
Poles AS 2209
preserved by full length Strength 0.5
Cross arms AS 1720
treatment) (see Note 3
and Appendix F)
(continued)
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TABLE 6.2 (continued)

Part of overhead line Component Strength factor φ Reference
Limit state
(R n ) Standard
or members (not Poles AS 2209
Serviceability 0.3
preserved by full length Cross arms AS1720
treatment)
or members (preserved
Poles AS 2209
by full length treatment) Strength 0.8
Cross arms AS 1720
(see Note 3 and
Appendix F)
Poles 0.4 AS 2209
or members (preserved Serviceability
Cross arms (see Note 3) AS 1720
by full length treatment)
Fibre reinforced
composite poles. Design
based primarily on Poles
testing Strength 0.9
Cross arms
(see Note 7 and
Appendix J)
Fittings and pins, forged
Strength 0.8 AS 1154
or fabricated
Fittings, cast Strength 0.7 AS 1154
Porcelain or glass cap 0.8
and pin string insulator Strength (electro-mechanical AS 3608
units strength)
Porcelain or glass
insulators other than cap
Strength 0.8 AS 3608
and pin string insulator
units
Synthetic composite 0.5
suspension or strain (one minute
Strength AS 4435.1
insulators mechanical
(See Note 2) strength)
Synthetic composite line 0.9
post insulators Strength (maximum design AS 4435.4
(See Note 2) cantilever load)
Other synthetic Subject to further
Strength
composite insulators research
Foundations relying on
0.4 to 0.7
strength of soil (with Strength AS 2159
Refer Appendix L
conventional soil testing)
Foundations relying on AS 2159
0.4 to 0.6
strength of soil based on Strength and
Refer Appendix L
empirical assessment AS1726
Foundations relying on 0.8
Strength
weight of soil Refer Appendix L
0.7 (non linear
Aerial conductors Strength model)
0.5 (linear model)
(continued)
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TABLE 6.2 (continued)

Part of overhead line Component Strength factor φ Reference
Limit state
(R n ) Standard
Aerial conductors Serviceability Refer Section 4
Stay or guy and AS 1222
termination (cable) Strength 0.7 AS 3995
members ASCE 10-97
NOTES
1 Design Standards based on limit state formats (usually) take into account exclusion limits and the
coefficient of variation of structural members. When the φ factor is part of the code’s design equations it
should not be applied again.
2 Where design Standards are used that do not employ similar strength factors, designers should decide
where further application of relevant factors from the above table is appropriate to achieve the desired
reliability level. If sufficient material or product data is available to support ± variation of these
tabulated values then alternative values may be adopted.
3 For laminated timber cross-arms, refer to AS/NZS 1328.
4 Where there are sufficient material property tests of components to provide reasonable statistical data,
the φ factor may be based on statistical analysis. All data from testing of similar designs should be
included in the statistical analysis.
5 Where component manufacturers have included appropriate strength factors in their designs, the φ factor
should not be applied again.
6 Where the design of wood structures is based on AS 1720.1, the strength factor may be based on the
requirements of that code, however the following should also be taken into account:
(a) The recommended aerial conductor wind loads in this document incorporate a span reduction factor
that has the effect of increasing the duration of the wind load being considered.
(b) Tests of poles and cross-arms that have been in service for long periods show a wide variation in the
ratio of calculated to actual strength. Due to this uncertainty it is recommended that a strength factor
at the lower end of the range be used in the absence of specific data suggesting high confidence
7 Composite fibre poles are highly flexible and serviceability limit due to deflection at working load may
be limiting factor.
6.4 ACTIONS
6.4.1 Principal classifications
An action F, can be either—
(a) a direct action, i.e. force (load) applied to the supports, aerial conductors,
foundations, and other line components; or
(b) an indirect action, i.e. an imposed or constrained deformation, caused, for example,
by temperature changes, ground water variation or uneven settlement.
Actions are classified by their variation in time—
(i) Permanent action (G), i.e. self-weight of supports including foundations, fittings and
fixed equipment
Self-weight of aerial conductors and the effects of the applicable aerial conductor
tension at the reference temperature, as well as uneven settlements of supports are
regarded as permanent actions.
NOTE: The vertical reaction from self-weight of the aerial conductor at the support (in other
words the weight span) is affected by deviations from the reference state of the aerial
conductor tension due to aerial conductor creep temperature variations and wind action.
Where critical for the design, especially if no other climatic conditions are present, the
uncertainty in such a variation, unfavourable or favourable, should be considered by use of a
factor on the self-weight (or on the weight span).
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(ii) Imposed actions (Q), i.e. wind loads, ice loads or other imposed loads
Wind loads and ice loads as well as applicable temperatures are climatic conditions
which can be assessed by probabilistic methods (reliability concept) or on a
deterministic basis.
Aerial conductor tension effects due to wind and ice and temperature deviations from
the reference temperature are variable actions.
Imposed loads arising from aerial conductor stringing, climbing on the structures, etc.
are assessed on a deterministic basis and refer to the safety aspect.
(iii) Accidental actions (A), i.e. failure containment loads, flood debris loads, avalanches,
etc. These relate to the security aspect of the overhead line
Exceptional ice loads in alpine/sub-alpine regions including unbalanced ice loads can
be treated as accidental actions by their nature and/or the structural response—
(A) static actions, which do not cause significant acceleration of the components or
elements; and
(B) dynamic actions, which cause significant acceleration of the components or
elements
It is usually sufficient to consider the equivalent static effect of quasi-static actions, such as
wind loads, in the design of overhead line supports (including foundations). Special
attention should be paid to extraordinarily high and/or slender supports.
6.5 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

As general principle, a material property is represented by a characteristic value, which
corresponds to that value of the material property having a prescribed probability of not
being attained in a hypothetical unlimited test series. It generally corresponds to a specified
exclusion limit of the assumed statistical distribution of that property of the material. These
values are used to determine the nominal strengths of the components (Rn ) values discussed
in Clause 6.3.1.
A material property value shall normally be determined from standardized tests performed
under specified conditions. A conversion factor shall be applied where it is necessary to
convert the test results into values, which can be assumed to represent the behaviour of the
material in the overhead line.
NOTE: Material properties specified in other Australian/New Zealand Standards and in particular,
Standards referred to herein may generally be applied if not determined otherwise in this
Standard.
6.6 MODELLING FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND RESISTANCE

6.6.1 General
Calculations shall be performed using appropriate design models for the type of structure
being analysed.
In the case of three dimensional space frames, such as lattice steel towers, it is normal
practice to create geometrical models for the full range of heights and base leg
combinations. These models normally simulate a fixed or pinned nodal base and should
include the effects of settlement of foundations, and any vertical eccentricities that may be
applied.
Full scale load testing may be applied to verify experimentally, the structural capacity, or
assumed force distribution and adequacy of structural element connectivity for a given
structural geometry in the case of space frame structures; and to verify flexural bending,
axial load and shear capacity strengths for pole elements. (Refer also to Clause 8.5).
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It should be understood that such tests constitute a sample test for a particular height tower
or length of a particular batch of pole. Different configuration of towers and poles may not
necessarily perform to the same characteristics.
6.6.2 Interactions between support foundations and soil
Special attention shall be paid to the interaction of the following:
(a) Loads deriving from the support.
(b) Loads resulting from active soil pressures and the permanent weight of foundation
and soil.
(c) Buoyancy effects of ground water on soil and foundation.
These, together with the reaction forces of the soil strata shall be taken into account in the
calculation of the support foundations.
In the limit state the following criteria shall be taken into consideration:
(i) Acceptable/unacceptable settlement of the foundation including differential
settlement.
(ii) Imposed deformations on the support or support members.
(iii) Inclinations of the support.
(iv) Load duration.
Provisions regarding the interaction of loads and recommendations on limit state criteria are
given in Sections 7 and 8.
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SECTI ON 7 AC TION ON LI NES
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The following clauses are based on well-established principles supported by experience and
long-term operation of overhead lines within Australia and New Zealand.
7.2 ACTIONS, GENERAL APPROACH

7.2.1 Permanent loads
Self-weight of structures, insulator sets, other fixed equipment and aerial conductors
resulting from the adjacent spans act as permanent loads. Aircraft warning spheres and
similar elements are to be considered as permanent dead loads. These vertical loads are
designated as Gs and Gc
Gs represents the vertical loads on poles, towers, foundations, crossarms, insulators and
fittings and shall be the vertical force due to their own mass plus the mass of all ancillaries
and attachments.
Gc represents the vertical loads of aerial conductors/cables and attachments such as marker
balls, spacers and dampers and forms the design weight span.
These are loads on the structural system with conductor temperature equivalent to the mean
of the winter season temperatures with negligible wind loads, i.e. in still air.
7.2.2 Wind loads
Wind loadings shall be applied to all elements of an overhead line as determined in
accordance with Appendix B.
Consideration shall be given to the design of structures for wind attack for a range of
directions and shall include transverse, longitudinal and oblique directions.
The following wind events and directions shall be considered:
(a) Synoptic and downdraft wind
(i) Transverse direction Apply full transverse wind load on the aerial conductors,
insulators and fittings and support, together with deviation loads at maximum
wind tension and all relevant vertical loads.
(ii) Longitudinal direction Apply full longitudinal wind load on the support and
insulators and fittings together with corresponding deviation loads and all
relevant vertical loads.
(iii) Oblique (or yawed) wind—(Refer Appendix B) Apply full oblique wind at an
angle to the transverse axis on the aerial conductors, insulators, fittings and
support, together with deviation loads at maximum wind tension and all
relevant vertical loads.
(b) Tornado wind (applicable to high security lines—(Refer Appendix B)
(i) Apply maximum wind load to the structure only to act from any direction,
together with everyday deviation loads and all relevant vertical loads.
(ii) Torsional (for wide transverse structures, e.g. horizontal single circuit towers)
Apply maximum wind torsion with rotation about the support centre. Each
tower body face is subjected to in-plane wind, and each crossarm face to
projected perpendicular wind in a consistent rotational direction, together with
everyday deviation loads and all relevant vertical loads.
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7.2.3 Snow and ice loads

Snow and ice loadings shall be applied to all elements of an overhead line in appropriate
regions, as determined in accordance with Appendix EE.
7.2.4 Special loads
7.2.4.1 Forces due to short-circuit currents
Consideration should be given to the effects of the forces imposed on those overhead lines
forming part of an overhead line system with very high short-circuit characteristics,
typically within 1 span of a substation. These fault currents generally occur for very short
durations. Appendix C provides guidance on forces caused by short-circuit currents.
7.2.4.2 Avalanches and creeping snow loads
When overhead lines are to be routed in or through mountainous regions where they may be
exposed to avalanches or creeping snow on hill slopes consideration shall be given to the
possible additional loads that may act on the supports, foundations and/or aerial conductors.
Guidance information on this subject is given in Appendix C.
7.2.4.3 Earthquakes
When overhead lines are to be constructed in seismically active regions, consideration shall
be given to forces on lines due to earthquakes and/or seismic tremors. Guidance information
on this subject is given in Appendix C.
7.2.4.4 Other special loads
Other special loads such as impact from vehicles or flood shall be considered where
appropriate.
7.2.5 Construction and maintenance loads
7.2.5.1 General
The supports shall be able to withstand all construction and maintenance loads, Q m, which
are likely to be imposed on them with an appropriate load factor, taking into account
working procedures, temporary guying, lifting arrangement, etc. Overstressing of the
support should be prevented by specification of allowable procedures and/or load
capacities.
The conditions should be based on the worst weather conditions (wind and temperature)
under which maintenance will be carried out. The limiting design wind pressure for general
maintenance work shall be 100 Pa. The designer needs to consider all potential aspects that
may arise from maintenance practices affecting Gc, e.g. lowering the aerial conductor at the
adjacent structure may result in the doubling of the weight span on the structure under
consideration.
7.2.5.2 Loads related to line maintenance/construction personnel
The vertical maintenance load to be applied to a structure for a single person shall be
1.0 kN acting together with the permanent loads and other imposed loads resulting from the
maintenance work method.
For lattice steel structures, these forces shall act at any point of structural elements.
For pole type structures, these forces shall act at any point on the superstructure to which it
could be reasonably expected that construction or maintenance loading may be applied.
In particular, the following minimum loading allowances shall be made:
(a) Transmission structures ( including lattice steel towers and steel and concrete
poles)—
(i) Earthwire peaks—provision for two persons plus 100 kg of tools and equipment
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(ii) Crossarms—provision for 4 persons plus 500 kg of tools and equipment

(b) Distribution structures (including wood and concrete pole structure if climbing
provision is required)—
(i) Pole head and crossarm—provision for two persons plus 100 kg of tools and
equipment.
(ii) Pole—component load of ladder with one person climbing
In addition, provision is to be considered for all structures required to be climbed for the
provision of anchorage from any structural node point for the attachment of fall arrest
system anchorage with a load capacity of 15 kN. Under this condition structural elements
must be able to restrain this load in an elastic or plastic deformed state without release of
the attached tackle system.
Where walkways or working platforms are installed, they shall be designed for the
maximum loads required under the relevant code but provide not less than the provision for
two men at any point; i.e. 2.8 kN point load.
For all structural elements that can be climbed and are inclined with an angle less than 30 to
the horizontal, a characteristic load of 1.4 kN acting vertically in the centre of the member
shall be assumed without any other co-existent loads.
Climbing steps (of any kind) shall be capable of supporting a concentrated load of 1.4 kN
acting vertically at a position 50 mm horizontally from the underside of the extended step
bolt head or step iron end slip restraint.
7.2.6 Coincident temperatures
Temperature effects for the following loading conditions shall be considered in the
determination of aerial conductor tension on overhead lines:
(a) A minimum temperature condition to be considered with no other climatic action for
the particular regional location, if relevant. Particular attention is to be given for short
spans cases and minimum overnight winter temperatures
(b) The ambient temperature assumed for the ultimate wind speed condition.
(c) A minimum temperature coinciding with a reduced wind speed should be considered,
if relevant. Particular attention is to be given in sub-alpine and alpine regions.
(d) A temperature to be assumed with icing. For both of the main types of icing a
temperature of 0°C may be used, if not otherwise specified. A lower temperature
should be taken into account in regions where the temperature often drops
significantly after a snowfall.
(e) A maximum aerial conductor temperature to be assumed for the calculation of
electrical clearances.
7.2.7 Security loads
Security loads in this Standard are specified to give minimum requirements on the torsional
and longitudinal resistance of the supports by defining failure containment loads. The loads
considered are the one-sided release of static tension in an aerial conductor and unbalanced
longitudinal loads.
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7.2.7.1 Failure containment loads F b

7.2.7.1.1 General
The loads on a structure arising from the failure of an adjacent structure are unpredictable.
Consequently, the design approaches to failure containment are largely based on empirical
observations and on reducing the effects of longitudinal loads. If the initial (primary)
failure is caused by extreme winds, the structures adjacent to the collapsing structure may
be subjected to both longitudinal loads and high winds.
In the case of direct buried pole type structures, sufficient rotational release from applied
torsional loads, and translational deformation of the supporting soil can occur in most cases
at the structure directly impacted by overload conditions; such that the load impacts are
dissipated and contained within one or two structures.
The possibility of a structure failure initiating aerial conductor breakages should also be
considered. This is particularly relevant to AAC and AAAC type aerial conductors when
used on high voltage transmission where aerial conductors may be severed by falling sharp
edged metal structure components.
For the failure containment condition, supports shall be designed for the equivalent
longitudinal loads resulting from aerial conductors on the structure being broken with a
minimum coincident wind pressure of 0.25 times the ultimate design wind.
The unbalance tension (Fb ) resulting from these broken aerial conductors is the residual
static load (RSL) in the aerial phase conductor after severance of an aerial conductor, or the
collapse of an aerial conductor support system.
Intact aerial conductor tensions (Ft) shall be used for all other aerial conductors.
Fb and Ft tensions for aerial conductors shall be based on the temperature corresponding to
the everyday load condition with a minimum nominal wind pressure of 0.25 times the
ultimate design wind pressure.
7.2.7.1.2 Suspension or intermediate supports
For a single circuit support, the number of aerial conductors to be considered is one phase
(with allowance for bundles) or the earthwire. For a double circuit support, the number of
aerial conductors to be considered is the worst loading combination of either any two
phases, or any phase and the earthwire.
For structure types having limited longitudinal strength alternative failure containment
methods need to be applied (e.g. use of guys).
7.2.7.1.3 Tension supports
Depending on the intended purpose, tension supports shall be designed to withstand
equivalent longitudinal load of one or two earthwires together with one phase per circuit.
For termination supports, longitudinal loads shall be applied for all the attached wires.
7.2.7.1.4 Distribution systems
In distribution systems using pin or post insulators with wire ties or equivalent fixing, and
relatively flexible structures and their foundations, it is not necessary to design suspension
supports for the RSL .
Tension and terminal distribution pole supports however, shall be designed for the RSL.
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7.2.7.1.5 Residual static load (RSL)

In absence of a more detailed assessment, an RSL factor of 0.70 should be adopted for
aerial phase conductors supported by suspension strings. The RSL load applies to all sub
conductors in a phase.
NOTE: While the equivalent span may be used to calculate tensions in a section of line, designers
should be aware that if the span lengths in a line section have considerable variation, a RSL based
on the equivalent span may underestimate broken aerial conductor tensions for some spans.
7.3 LOAD COMPONENTS

7.3.1 Loads from the supported wires
Although any attached wire will act as a single force, traditionally the force is split and
calculated as three separate components (See Figure 7.1)—
1 horizontal component of aerial conductor tension in the line direction (Ft);
2 horizontal component of aerial conductor tension perpendicular to the line (part of
Wn ); and
3 vertical component of the aerial conductor tension (Gc)
In load combinations, Ft and Gc components are further multiplied by load factors.
FIGURE 7.1 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SHAPE AND FORCES UNDER WIND CONDITIONS
7.3.2 Conductor tensions

7.3.2.1 General
The horizontal component of the conductor tensions Ft used for design shall be based on the
lowest temperature likely to coexist with the design wind pressure as provided in the
following conditions.
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7.3.2.2 Maximum wind condition Ftw

Ftw is the horizontal component of the aerial conductor tensions in the direction of the line
when subject to wind
Due to the spatial variation of wind velocities within a wind storm, an extreme 3 s peak
wind gust, will not affect all spans between tension structures simultaneously.
7.3.2.3 Maintenance condition Ft m
Ft m is the horizontal component of the aerial conductor tensions in the direction of the line
when subject to maintenance conditions.
This condition provides the maximum aerial conductor tension under which it can be
reasonably expected for workmen to be expected to work transferring loads of aerial
conductors during construction or maintenance activities. This tension is calculated based
on a maximum transverse wind pressure of 100 Pa. Consideration should also be given for
tension increase under minimum temperature conditions.
7.3.2.4 Everyday condition Fte
Fte is the horizontal component of the aerial conductor tension in the direction of the line
under no wind.
This condition provides the nominal tension that can be expected to occur at the everyday
temperature (Te) for the line location. This tension is calculated in still air and an average
ambient temperature for the region.
7.4 LOAD COMBINATIONS

7.4.1 General
In the design of an overhead line, a range of loading conditions shall be considered that will
provide due consideration for all possible service conditions that the line and individual
supports may be subjected to through out its service life.
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7.4.1.1 Limit states loading conditions
TABLE 7.3
LOAD COMBINATIONS AND LOAD FACTORS
Loading Load factor and application
condition
Wn Sγ Gs Gc F tm F tw F te Fb Q
Maximum wind 1.0 1.1 1.25 1.25
and maximum (see
weight Note 2)
Maximum wind 1.0 0.9 0.0 1.25
and minimum (see
weight Note 1)
Maximum wind 1.0 0.9 1.25 1.25
and uplift (see
Note 1)
Everyday 1.1 1.25 1.1
condition
(sustained
loads)
Snow and ice 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.25 1.25
Failure 1.0 1.1 1.25 1.25 1.25
containment
Serviceability— 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1
deflection limit
Serviceability— 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.0
damage limit
Maintenance 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.5 2.0
(see (see
Note 4) Note 4)
Seismic 1.3 1.3 1.25
(see
Note 3)
NOTES:
1 Adequate allowance shall be made for differential loadings that can occur between adjoining spans at a
structure, particularly in mountainous terrain to allow for uplift loads under normal service conditions
including low temperature effects.
2 Wind loads from all directions shall be considered.
3 Due considerations for vertical load effects, range from 0.8 to 1.3.
4 Aerial conductor tension and weight of aerial conductors under maintenance shall be treated as a live load
Q with corresponding load factor of 2.0.
7.4.1.2 Deflections and serviceability limit state

Ultimate and serviceability limit state loads are to be considered in determining structure
deflections and aerial conductor, insulator and fitting strength ratings.
The serviceability deflection limit loading condition is to be used for setting deflection
limits of structures, such as poles, in situations where the electrical clearances will not be
infringed. This condition may also be used as an upper limit for cracking criteria in pre-
stressed concrete poles.
The serviceability damage limit loading condition shall be used where the damage is of a
ductile nature.
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SECTI ON 8 SUP PORTS
8.1 INITIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Designs of overhead line structures shall be carried out in accordance with this Standard
and referenced Standards Australian/Standards New Zealand, IEC and ASCE documents.
Materials used in the fabrication of overhead line supports should comply with the
requirements of the relevant Australian and New Zealand material Standard or equivalent
International Standards.
8.2 MATERIALS AND DESIGN

8.2.1 Lattice steel towers and guyed masts.
Lattice steel tower designs shall be carried out in accordance with AS 3995, AS 4100,
ASCE 10-97 and Appendix G.
8.2.2 Steel poles
Steel poles shall be designed in accordance with AS/NZS 4677, AS 4600, AS 4100, ASCE
48-05 and Appendix K.
8.2.3 Concrete poles
Concrete poles shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of AS/NZS 3600,
AS/NZS 4065 and Appendix I.
8.2.4 Timber poles
Timber poles shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of AS 1720.1,
AS/NZS 1328 or AS 2209 and Appendix F.
8.2.5 Other materials
For all other materials, the material characteristics should be in accordance with the
performance requirements of the finished product and shall also meet the functional
requirements regarding both strength and serviceability (deformation, durability and
aesthetics) and be in accordance with the relevant Australian, New Zealand, IEC or
equivalent International Standard.
Where composite materials are used in pole elements, such as fibre reinforced resin or
polymer, fibre reinforced concrete, using fibreglass, carbon or steel microfilament fibres;
the design and performance characteristics of the pole element shall be supported by load
tests.
8.2.6 Guyed structures
8.2.6.1 General
A guyed support can be any type of structure that is supported by guy wires for stability .
Various types of configurations exist such as V-tower, portal, column, catenary, guyed
timber poles, double guyed timber leg structures, multi-level guyed tubular leg structures,
etc.
The following additional requirements shall apply.
8.2.6.2 Second order analysis
In larger more complex guyed structures where a second order analysis is justified the
following aspects shall be taken into account:
(a) An initial out of straightness shall be assumed for sections hinged at both ends (tower
legs), a normal design value of L/1000 shall be considered.
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(b) The slackening of one or more guys at different loading conditions shall be taken into
consideration.
8.2.6.3 Design details for guys
The characteristic resistance of the guy shall be the nominal value for ultimate breaking
strength specified in appropriate standards with due consideration of the method of
termination. The effective elastic modulus of the guy determined from a Standard,
manufacturer or test may be used in analysis.
For guyed tower structures, galvanised steel wire strands or steel ropes with steel core shall
be used for the guys, and shall be equipped with devices for retightening during the service
life of the structure.
The connection between the guy rope and the anchor device shall be readily accessible, and
the connections and tightening devices shall be secured against loosening in service.
On guyed tower structures, the guys shall be pre-tensioned to an appropriate force (5-10%
CBL) after the erection of the structure, in order to reduce the deformation at extreme loads.
The angle or termination structures shall be vertical after the stringing of the aerial
conductors at the everyday temperature.
Special attention shall be paid to preventing possible vibration, galloping and fluttering
phenomena if this is a known characteristic of the region. Regions with constant low
velocity prevailing winds and low temperatures need investigation.
Where cast steel sockets or cast wedge sockets are used in the guy terminations, freedom
from defects in the casting should be ensured by an acceptable non-destructive test or
manufacturer's certificate.
For a multi-level guyed support, instructions for the erection work are needed because the
structure is sensitive to the pre-tensioning of the guys.
Due care shall be taken for protection of the guy in populated areas for possible galvanic
corrosion and flashover.
Insulation of the guy above a point accessible from the ground by the public should be
provided if a risk of failure of the energized conductors may exist, such that a guy wire
could become energized.
Where no insulation in guy wires is used, appropriate step and touch potential mitigating
systems shall be adopted.
In order to minimize the possibility of aerodynamic guy vibrations in stabilizing guy wires
the pretension should be less than 10%.
For permanently loaded structural load carrying guy wires this requirement is not
applicable, however if service experience indicates that aerodynamic vibrations are
significant, then vibration damping protection should be considered.
8.3 CORROSION PROTECTION AND FINISHES

8.3.1 General
Metallic components of supports may be protected against corrosion in order to meet their
design service life, taking into account the planned maintenance regime. The following
clauses set minimum requirements that should be provided. Refer to AS/NZS 2312.
8.3.2 Galvanizing
All galvanized steel material and fastenings used in support structures shall be hot-dip
galvanized and tested in accordance with AS/NZS 4680 or equivalent International
Standard unless an alternative anti-corrosion coating system is utilized.
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8.3.3 Metal spraying

Where required by design considerations or where steel materials are too large or difficult
to galvanize, they may be protected against corrosion by thermal spraying a zinc or
zinc/aluminium coating over the base metal, performed in accordance with ISO 14713 to
provide zinc deposit thickness not less than 200 μm. When this system is used, the inside
surface of hollow sections shall also be protected against corrosion.
8.3.4 Paint over galvanizing (duplex system )
When an enhanced coloured cosmetic surface treatment paint coating is to be applied after
hot-dip galvanizing of steel structures, this coating shall be applied in accordance with a
coating manufacturer’s recommendation.
8.3.5 Use of weather-resistant steels
The use of weather resistance steels requires special design considerations and full-scale
experience.
8.4 MAINTENANCE FACILITIES

8.4.1 Climbing and working at heights
Where climbing and working at heights from the structure is required, by authorized
personnel, suitable facilities shall be incorporated in the designs of supports.
Reference should be made to Appendix M for guidance on industry standards.
8.4.2 Maintainability
In addition to climbing attachments, the provision of rigging and load transfer attachments,
holes or fittings for the installation and use of maintenance equipment shall be provided in
designs.
Reference should be made to Appendix M for guidance on industry standards.
8.4.3 Safety requirements
Provision shall be made on all climbable structures for the fixing of signage and devices to
ensure the protection of the public from hazards associated with access to electrical works,
and to provide public awareness of operational safety issues.
This may include—
(a) provision of safety information for the general public (e.g. warning signs, telephone
number for emergency contact);
(b) prevention of unauthorized climbing;
(c) provision of aids to authorized personnel to enable them to correctly identify
energized and de-energized aerial conductors (e.g. circuit identification markings);
(d) provision for bonding of earthwire and earthing of the support structure; and
(e) equipotential bonding.
8.5 LOADING TESTS

Full scale loading tests on overhead lines supports, when carried out, shall be generally in
accordance with IEC 60652 and the following provisions.
8.5.1 Tower structures
Full scale load testing may be carried out to verify experimentally the structural capacity, or
assumed the force distribution and efficiency of structural element connectivity for a given
structural geometry, and for confirming force distribution in redundant bracing elements.
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It should be understood that such tests are a sample test for a particular height tower. Taller
or shorter towers of the same structure type may not have identical performance
characteristics.
8.5.2 Pole type structures
Full-scale load testing of prototype poles may be used as an acceptable alternative to
strength calculations to verify flexural bending and shear capacity strengths for pole type
elements.
Routine sample poles shall be tested to determine whether structurally similar poles are
deemed to comply with the requirements for strength and serviceability of this Standard.
Deflection characteristics of repetitive sample pole tests compared to prototype test
deflections provides a useful tool for monitoring quality of pole product manufacture.
8.5.2.1 Test specimens
Specimen poles for prototype testing shall be manufactured, as a group for a normal
production run, in sufficient numbers so that each required test can be carried out on a pole
that is unaffected by any previous testing. However, serviceability and strength testing may
be carried out sequentially, in that order, on the same pole.
The manufacture of the test specimens shall take into account the intended production
procedures and the quality of materials and workmanship to be used during normal
production.
The specimens shall be chosen to represent poles of similar structural design and may
include poles of different nominal sizes.
8.5.2.2 Test requirements
Test loads shall be determined to reflect as close as possible design loadings. Loading
devices shall be properly calibrated and care exercised to ensure that no artificial restraints
to pole deformations are imposed by the loading systems. Test loads shall be applied to the
test specimen at a rate that is as uniform as practicable.
Test loading and support conditions shall simulate the relevant design conditions as closely
as is practicable.
Test arrangements depend on whether the pole elements are tested horizontally or in a
vertical mode.
Performance indicators shall be measured and recorded, as a minimum, at least at the
following times:
(a) Immediately before the application of the test load.
(b) When the test load is reached.
(c) Immediately after the entire test load has been removed.
8.5.2.3 Testing and acceptance
Test loads shall reproduce at critical cross-sections not less than the design action effect at
the relevant limit state, multiplied by the appropriate factor given in Table 8.1, unless a
reliability analysis shows that a smaller factor can be adopted safely.
The value of the coefficient of variation to be used in Table 8.1 shall be obtained from
historical test data for the material, manufacturing method and action effect being
considered. In the absence of such data the values given in Table 8.2 may be adopted.
Load testing of prototype poles may be used as an acceptable alternative to strength
calculations to verify flexural bending and shear capacity strengths for pole types. Regular
full scale load testing may be applied to verify the structural capacity, in the case of poles
to verify strengths and quality of materials and workmanship.
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Where routine samples of poles are load tested to determine their quality and strength
conformance, the lowest test result shall be divided by the COV factor in Table 8.1. All
previously tested poles of similar types and lengths shall be included in the numbers of
poles tested to select the correct COV factor. Deflection characteristics of repetitive sample
pole tests compared to prototype test deflections provides a useful tool for monitoring
quality of pole product manufacture.
TABLE 8.1
VALUES OF MULTIPLIER FOR TEST LOAD FOR ESTIMATED COEFFICIENT
OF VARIATION
No. of similar Coefficient of variation of structural characteristics

units tested(1) 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
1 1.20 1.46 1.79 2.21 2.75 3.45
2 1.17 1.38 1.64 1.96 2.36 2.86
3 1.15 1.33 1.56 1.83 2.16 2.56
4 1.14 1.30 1.50 1.74 2.03 2.37
5 1.13 1.28 1.46 1.67 1.93 2.23
10 1.10 1.21 1.34 1.49 1.66 1.85
30 1.07 1.15 1.24 1.34 1.46 1.60
50 1.05 1.10 1.17 1.24 1.33 1.42
100 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
NOTES:
1 The cumulative number of tested poles having the same characteristics, not per batch.
2 The coefficient of variation is equal to the standard deviation divided by the mean and usually
expressed as a percentage.
3 Design strength by testing = lowest test result divided by the multiplier.
TABLE 8.2
MINIMUM VALUES OF COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION (COV) FOR DIFFERENT
MATERIALS AND ACTION EFFECTS
Minimum COV%
Material
Steel Concrete Timber
Method of manufacture
All welded Spun or cast Stress graded Visually graded
or assembly
Bending 5 5 25 30
NOTE: For on-site welded connections, a higher coefficient of variation may be appropriate.
8.5.3 Acceptance criteria

The acceptance criteria for strength and serviceability shall be as follows:
(a) For serviceability, the test specimen shall be deemed to comply with the
serviceability requirements of this Standard if, under the serviceability limit-state test
load, the measured serviceability indicators are within the specified limits appropriate
to the pole application.
(b) For strength, the test specimens shall be deemed to comply with the strength
requirements of this Standard if the specimens are able to withstand the strength
limit-state test load for not less than 2 min.
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8.5.4 Test reports

The results of the tests on each test specimen shall be recorded in a report. The report shall
contain at least the following information:
(a) A clear statement of the conditions of testing, including the methods of supporting
and loading the specimen and the methods of measuring serviceability indicators.
(b) Identification of the test specimen.
(c) The values of the relevant test loads and, where appropriate, measured performance
indicators.
(d) A statement as to whether or not the specimen satisfied the acceptance criteria.
If a specimen fails to satisfy an acceptance criterion, the load at which such failure occurred
shall be recorded and reported.
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SECTI ON 9 FOUNDATIONS
9.1 GENERAL
Foundations for supports may take the form of single foundations in the case of pole type
structures and guy anchors or separate footings for each leg of towers.
The loading on single footings is predominantly in the form of overturning moment, which
is usually resisted by lateral soil pressure, together with additional shear and vertical forces
resisted by upwards soil pressure.
Common types of single foundations are direct buried poles, bored caissons, mono-bloc
footings, pad or raft footings, bored pier foundations, and single pile or pile group
foundations.
When separate footings are provided for each leg the predominant loadings are compression
and uplift forces, however, shear forces should be considered.
Uplift and compression forces are usually resisted by combinations of dead weight of the
foundation bulk, earth surcharges, shear forces and bearing in the soil. This also applies to
guy foundations.
Common types of separate footing foundations are (stepped) block footings with or without
undercut (pad and chimney, spread footings); auger bored footings with or without
expanded base; pier or caisson foundations; grillage foundations; and vertical or raked pile
foundations.
9.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Foundations for structures and the anchor of any stays or guy wires shall be capable of
withstanding loads specified for the ultimate strength limit state and serviceability limit
states conditions.
Foundation design should be based on appropriate engineering soil properties. Where soil
test information is not available, an estimate of soil parameters should be made based on an
appraisal of site conditions, soil types and geological structure.
Construction personnel shall be made aware of the assumed parameters and guidelines
should be issued that will allow recognition of soils not conforming to the adopted design
parameters.
In calculating the strength of foundations, recognition should be given for the different
strength characteristics of soil under short-term and long term loads, and the difference in
saturated and dry properties of the soil.
Failing the availability of soil tests, Appendix L provides guidance on various soil
properties.
As a general principle, the foundation should not have component reliability less than that
of the structure. The consequences of foundation failure (excessive movement or
differential settlement) on rigid structures may induce high stress levels in the structure.
The φ values provided in Table 6.2 are based on a component reliability factor of 1.0, and
take into account the normal high coefficient of variation (COV) of soil generally.
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The consequences of partial foundation failure for pole structures or flexible guyed
structures are not normally as severe. Designers should assess the cost of providing
foundations that will remain elastic for all design loads versus the cost of straightening
poles (or re-tensioning stays) that have been subjected to extreme weather events. It should
be noted that the deflection of foundations of deviation structures most likely will reduce
aerial conductor tension loadings. Pole head offsets provide a convenient means of negating
this effect.
Permanent deflections due to extreme windstorm or floodwater events and long term creep
of materials will increase stresses in the structure and its foundation due to the eccentricity
of the structure vertical loads relative to the foundation centre (pΔ effect). This can cause
foundation failure.
9.3 POLE AND TOWER FOUNDATIONS

Structure foundation design methods together with typical soil parameters are provided in
Appendix L.
9.4 SOIL INVESTIGATION

Where carried out, soil investigations shall be to a depth that includes all layers which
significantly influence the foundation strength.
The type, condition, extent, stratification and depth of the soil layers as well as ground-
water conditions can be examined by boring and/or testing such as cone penetration test
(CPT), standard penetration test (SPT), penetrometer, trial pits or other standardized tests,
if available knowledge base does not provide sufficient information. The results of the soil
investigations shall be recorded, in accordance with relevant standards or codes of practice.
In the absence of better information from soil investigations, the soil parameters provided
in Appendix L may be used as a guideline for design. However it should be confirmed by
inspection or testing, during construction, that the soil parameters used are appropriate.
9.5 BACKFILLING OF EXCAVATED MATERIALS

When backfilling is used, sufficient compaction shall be carried out to ensured foundation
actions can be developed as designed. In certain circumstances, a possible reduction of
consistency of cohesive soils should be taken into account in the calculations if compaction
standards are to be relaxed.
When backfilling with granular soil in cohesive soil, the tendency of water to accumulate in
the backfill shall be considered or lower values shall be used.
9.6 FOUNDATION DISPLACEMENTS

The design values for the limiting displacement of foundations will depend on the type of
foundations, the type of structure, and the serviceably criteria assumed.
NOTE: As a guide, damage and failure limits given in IEC 60826 may be adopted.
9.7 LOAD TESTING OF FOUNDATIONS

Loading tests or tests on experimental models form a valuable method for justifying the
design of foundations or to test the strengths of individual foundations, whether test or
production foundations.
There are two categories of tests normally performed, i.e. proof tests, or design and
research tests.
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9.7.1 Proof tests

These tests are undertaken on production foundations and they shall successfully pass the
test at a percentage of the design load (nominally 85%) such that they remain fully
serviceable after testing.
9.7.2 Design and research tests
These tests are carried out on specially installed foundations typically up to failure and are
intended to verify specific design approaches or assumptions for the geotechnical
parameters.
Such tests require efforts for ensuring accuracy of installation and monitoring the test.
Provision for the following factors should be included:
(a) Design loading conditions.
(b) Difference in the ground conditions between the test and the actual construction.
(c) Duration of test loading.
(d) Scale effects, especially if smaller models are used.
(e) Climatic effects.
Details concerning the preparation of the tests, the testing arrangement, the test procedure
and evaluation of results are given in AS 2159.
9.8 CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION

Details of the proposed method of interconnection between the support and the foundation
shall be incorporated in the design.
Designs of foundations should include consideration of the method of construction and
installation of foundations to ensure the assumed or designed geotechnical parameters are
able to be realised.
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SECTI ON 10 EARTHING SYSTEMS
10.1 GENERAL PURPOSE

An earthing system of overhead earthwires, earth down leads, grading rings and
counterpoise earthing addresses the following objectives:
(a) Ensure protective equipment will operate in faulted situations.
(b) Provide acceptable reliability (lightning performance) on the line.
(c) Control touch and step potentials around the base of the structure.
(d) Provide a conductive path for fault current.
(e) Avoid damage to properties and equipment.
The dimensioning of earthing systems shall consider the following requirements:
(i) To ensure mechanical strength and corrosion resistance.
(ii) To withstand, from a thermal point of view, the highest fault current as determined by
calculation
(iii) Limit lightning induced voltages on earth down leads
The transfer of potential by nearby metallic objects may occur due to fault currents flowing
in the earth system.
Guidelines on individual cases should be determined by the utility.
These effects shall be reduced to acceptable levels contained in AS/NZS 3835 and
HB 101(CJC5).
10.2 EARTHING MEASURES AGAINST LIGHTNING EFFECTS

The structure footing resistance values have an influence on the backflashover rate of the
line and therefore affect the reliability. A low resistance provides good lightning
performance and recommended values for high reliability lines are given in Appendix E.
10.3 DIMENSIONING WITH RESPECT TO CORROSION AND MECHANICAL

STRENGTH
10.3.1 Earth electrodes
The electrodes, being directly in contact with the soil, shall be of materials capable of
withstanding corrosion (chemical or biological attack, oxidation, formation of an
electrolytic couple, electrolysis, etc.).
They shall resist the mechanical influences during their installation as well as those
occurring during normal service.
Mechanical strength and corrosion considerations dictate the minimum dimensions for earth
electrodes given in EN 50341. If a different material, for example stainless steel, is used,
this material and its dimensions shall meet the requirements of (a) and (b) in Clause 10.1.
NOTE: It is acceptable to use steel reinforcing bars embedded in concrete foundations and steel
piles as a part of the earthing system.
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10.3.2 Earthing and bonding conductors

For mechanical and electrical reasons, the minimum cross-sections shall be—
(a) copper 16 mm2 .
(b) aluminium 35 mm2 .
(c) steel 50 mm2 .
NOTE: Composite conductors can also be used for earthing provided that their resistance is
equivalent to the examples given. For aluminium conductors corrosion affects should be
considered. Earthing and bonding conductors made of steel require protection against corrosion.
10.4 DIMENSIONING WITH RESPECT TO THERMAL STRENGTH

10.4.1 General
Because fault current levels are governed by the electrical system rather than the overhead
line the values should be provided by the network utility.
In some cases steady-state zero-sequence currents should be taken into account for the
dimensioning of the relevant earthing system.
For design purposes, the currents used to calculate the conductor size should take into
account the possibility of future growth.
The fault current is often subdivided in the earth electrode system; it is, therefore, possible
to dimension each electrode for only a fraction of the fault current.
The final temperatures involved in the design and to which reference is made in the
following subclause shall be chosen in order to avoid reduction of the material strength and
to avoid damage to the surrounding materials, for example concrete or insulating materials.
No permissible temperature rise of the soil surrounding the earth electrodes is given in this
Standard because experience shows that soil temperature rise is usually not significant.
10.4.2 Current rating calculation
The calculation of the cross-section of the earthing conductors or earth electrodes
depending on the value and the duration of the fault current is given in EN 50341. There is
discrimination between fault duration lower than 5 s (adiabatic temperature rise) and greater
than 5 s. The final temperature shall be chosen with regard to the material and the
surroundings.
Nevertheless, the minimum cross-sections in Clause 10.3.2 shall be observed.
10.5 RISK BASED EARTHING - PERMISSIBLE VALUES

Overhead lines shall comply with the respective touch voltage curves shown in Figures 10.1
and Figure 10.2 or be based on a risk based approach.
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100,000
Prospective touch voltages ( V )
10,000 Asphalt
Crushed
rock
1000 -m
500 -m
1,000 200 -m
50 -m
100
10
10 100 1,000 10,000
Fault duration (ms)
NOTE: For the curves in Figure 10 1 and Figure 10. 2, a resistivity value of 3,000 Ωm has been used for crushed rock
and 10,000 Ωm for asphalt.
FIGURE 10.1 PROSPECTIVE TOUCH VOLTAGE CURVES EXCLUDING

FOOTWEAR RESISTANCE
100,000
Prospective touch voltages (V)
Asphalt
10,000
Crushed
rock
1000 -m
500 -m
200 -m
1,000 50 -m
100
10
10 100 1,000 10,000
Fault duration (ms)
NOTE: For the curves in Figure 10 1 and Figure 10. 2, a resistivity value of 3,000 Ωm has been used for crushed rock
and 10,000 Ωm for asphalt.
FIGURE 10.2 PROSPECTIVE TOUCH VOLTAGE CURVES

INCLUDING 2,000 Ω FOOTWEAR RESISTANCE
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10.5.1 Risk based approach to earthing

10.5.1.1 Introduction
Risks associated with earthing include the possibility of human and livestock fatalities,
equipment damage and property loss. All these risks shall be assessed on the basis of cost
and benefit. For human fatalities, a probability based approach is recommended.
10.5.1.2 Risk of fatality approach
Design of an earthing system based on a risk approach to human fatalities can be
accomplished by the process outlined in Figure 10.3 and described in the points following:
(a) Identify the scenarios and the risks (e.g. a person touching a substation fence at the
time of a fault).
(b) Based on the likely proportion of total earth fault currents flowing into the local
earthing system and durations), determine the minimum earthing system that could
meet the functional requirement. Detailed design is necessary to ensure that all
exposed conductive parts, are earthed. Extraneous conductive parts shall be earthed,
if appropriate. Any structural earth electrodes associated with the installation shall be
bonded and form part of the earthing system. If not bonded, verification is necessary
to ensure that all safety requirements are met.
(c) Determine the zone of interest. If it cannot be demonstrated that interconnection via
either the primary or secondary supply systems is sufficient, then determine the soil
characteristics of the zone of interest, taking into account the seasonal variation of the
soil parameters.
(d) Based on soil characteristics and the estimated fault current discharged into the soil
by the earthing system of the installation site, determine earth potential rise (EPR).
(e) Determine the tolerable step and touch voltages (see Appendix U).
(f) If the EPR is below the tolerable step and touch voltages, the design is completed.
(g) If not, determine if step and touch voltages inside and near the earthing system are
below the tolerable limits.
(h) If not, assess the risk as detailed in Appendix U and as summarized below—
(i) estimate the frequency and duration of the fault events;
(ii) estimate the extent of hazard areas or zones;
(iii) estimate the total length of time per year that individuals are within hazardous
areas or zones;
(iv) calculate the probability of individuals being at risk through exposure to
hazardous voltages; and
(v) compare the level of probability of an event against the risk criteria and
establish the cost benefit of reducing the level of probability to below
acceptable levels (if required). Refer to Appendix U for definitions of the High,
Intermediate and Low risk categories and associated actions required.
(i) Identify and implement appropriate risk treatment measures (if required) and then re
calculate the residual risk level following treatment. Typical treatment measures are
discussed in Appendix U.
(j) Determine if transferred potentials present a hazard outside or inside the high voltage
installation. If yes, proceed with risk treatment at exposed location.
(k) Determine if low voltage equipment is exposed to excessive stress voltage. If yes,
proceed with mitigation measures, which can include separation of HV and LV
earthing systems.
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(l) Determine if the circulating transformer neutral current can lead to excessive
potential differences between different parts of the earthing system. If yes, proceed
with mitigation measures.
(m) Assess and manage any inductive and conductive interference with other utility plant
and personnel (e.g. telecommunications, pipelines, rail).
(n) Consider the need to implement any particular precautions against lightning and other
transients.
(o) Once the above criteria have been met, the design can be refined, if necessary, by
repeating the above steps.
(p) Provide installation support as necessary to ensure design requirements fulfilled and
staff safety risk effectively managed.
(q) Review installation for physical and safety compliance following the commissioning
programme.
(r) Documentation to include physical installation description, e.g. drawing, as well as
electrical assumptions, design decisions, commissioning, data and supervision and
maintenance requirements.
The risk assessment can also be formulated as, given a tolerable level of risk of fatalities,
what is the maximum allowable number of contact events by people per unit time?
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

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1. Refer to Appendix U for definitions of the high, intermediate and low risk outcome categories and
associated actions required.
2. For low risk category, the risk is generally acceptable. However, risk treatment should be applied if the
cost of the risk treatment was small compared to the overall project cost. A cost benefit analysis may be
required to assess the cost of the risk treatment against the overall project cost.
FIGURE 10.3 EARTHING SYSTEM DESIGN FLOW CHART
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

10.6 ELECTRICAL ASPECTS OF STAYWIRE DESIGN

Important electrical considerations to be incorporated into the design for structure staywires
consist of—
(a) corrosion of staywires and foundation steelwork due to leakage currents; and
(b) control of touch potentials on structure staywires.
10.6.1 Corrosion and leakage currents
The net flow of leakage current off a staywire will lead to eventual corrosion of the
staywire, or the reinforcing steel in the staywire foundation. For most transmission and
distribution applications, the provision of a stay insulator in the stay wire assembly will
mitigate corrosion issues related to leakage current flow.
Typical examples of staywire insulators are outlined in AS 3609.
However, corrosion at the ground line interfaces between stay rods, soil and concrete
encasement interfaces may still be an issue even with stay insulator fitted and these aspects
should be considered in the structural design aspects of the stay assembly foundation.
There may be applications were a stay type insulator cannot be used. One example may be
the use of high tensile stay wires with loads in excess of the specified mechanical rating of
stay type insulators. For these instances, the structural design of the stay will need to
account for corrosion, possible degradation and reduction in mechanical rating of the stay
over the design lifetime of the staywire.
10.6.2 Stay earthing for control of touch potentials
10.6.2.1 Distribution and sub transmission lines
The addition of the stay insulator for leakage current, can also mitigate touch voltage
hazards on stay wires. Common examples that can cause hazards in stay wires consist of
power follow currents flowing to earth via the stay on a conductive structure, which are not
sufficient to operate protection systems, or a dropped aerial conductor directly onto the
structure stay.
Stay insulators should be positioned such that the staywire on the structure side of the stay
insulator cannot be accessed from the ground by the general public when intact or when in a
broken stay wire state and also positioned such to maximise the ability to insulate the stay
to ground in the event of a fallen aerial conductor directly onto the stay.
10.6.2.2 Transmission lines
The addition of the stay insulator for leakage current, may only partly address touch voltage
hazards on stay wires for transmission applications. There may be some situations, due to
high prospective fault currents, that the stay insulator is insufficient to control touch
voltages in the event of a fault occurring at this structure. Therefore, additional safety
measures in the form of stay earthing, and installation of buried grading control conductors
may need consideration by the designer.
Stay insulators should be positioned such that the staywire on the structure side of the stay
insulator cannot be accessed from the ground by the public.
Stay wires, which do not utilize insulators, shall require by default additional safety
measures in the form of stay earthing, and installation of buried grading control conductors
to control touch voltages.
In addition to the specified mechanical requirements for the stay, an evaluation of electrical
capability of the stay wire should also be considered. Fault currents shall be allowed to flow
to earth via the structure and its associated stay wires, without damage being caused to the
stay wire due to flow of fault current.
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10.7 CHOICE OF EARTHING MATERIALS

Where additional earthing and installation of buried grading conductors are used,
consideration should be given to the suitability of the various earthing materials. The
performance of earthing materials when bonded and installed in proximity to stay wires and
their foundations shall be considered. Problems with dissimilar metals and galvanic
corrosion should be avoided.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

SECTI ON 11 LINE EQUIPMENT—OVERHE AD

LINE FITTINGS
11.1 GENERAL
Overhead line fittings shall be designed, manufactured and erected in such a way as to meet
the overall performance requirement for the operation and maintenance for the line.
The design life of fittings and components shall be based on the design working life of the
line.
11.2 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS

11.2.1 Requirements applicable to all fittings
The design of all fittings shall be such that they are compatible with the specified electrical
requirements for the overhead line. Grading rings or similar devices shall be used where
necessary to reduce the electric field intensity at the line end of insulator sets, including the
compression terminations of composite insulators.
11.2.2 Requirements applicable to current carrying fittings
Aerial conductor fittings intended to carry the operating current of the aerial conductor
shall not, when subjected to the maximum continuous current in the aerial conductor or to
short-circuit currents, exhibit corresponding temperature rises greater than those of the
associated aerial conductor. In addition, the voltage drop across current carrying aerial
conductor fittings shall not be greater than the voltage drop across an equivalent length of
aerial conductor.
11.3 RIV REQUIREMENTS AND CORONA EXTINCTION VOLTAGE

Fittings, including spacers and vibration dampers, for overhead lines shall be designed such
that under test conditions the levels of radio interference are consistent with the overall
level specified for the installation.
11.4 SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT AND POWER ARC REQUIREMENTS

Fittings shall, when required, comply with the specified short-circuit current or power arc
requirements.
In particular insulator set fittings shall be such that if a short-circuit current or power arc
test is required they retain, at least 80% of their specified mechanical failing load on
completion of the test.
Arcing horns shall be capable of safely carrying the anticipated fault level current for the
anticipated duration of the fault without adverse effect on the safety aspects of overhead
line maintenance.
11.5 MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS

Aerial conductor termination fitting and all component fittings in insulator string
assemblies shall be capable of transferring the aerial conductor design failure containment
load Fb to the structure termination point, for the complete design service life of the fittings.
Where accelerated corrosion due to electrical effects exists, or if there is a high potential for
mechanical abrasion and wear of fittings, due allowance shall be made in the design or in
the planned maintenance of the line to ensure the integrity of the line reliability.
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11.6 DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS

All materials used in the construction of overhead line fittings shall be inherently resistant
to atmospheric corrosion, which may affect their performance. The choice of materials
and/or the design of fittings shall be such that bimetallic (galvanic) corrosion of fittings or
aerial conductor is minimized.
All ferrous materials, other than stainless steels, used in the construction of fittings shall be
protected against atmospheric corrosion by hot dip galvanizing or other methods specified
in the project specification or agreed by the purchaser with the supplier.
Fittings subjected to articulation or wear shall be designed, including material selection,
and manufactured to ensure maximum wear resistant properties.
11.7 MATERIAL SELECTION AND SPECIFICATION

Materials used in the manufacture of overhead line fittings shall be selected having regard
to their relevant characteristics. The manufacturer shall ensure that the specification and
quality control of materials is sufficient to ensure continuous achievement of the specified
characteristics and performance requirements.
Locking devices used in the assembly of fittings with socket connectors shall comply with
the requirements of IEC 60372.
NOTE: When selecting metals or alloys for line fittings the possible effects of low temperature
should, where relevant, be considered. When selecting non-metallic materials their possible
reaction to temperature extremes, UV radiation, ozone and atmospheric pollution should be
considered.
11.8 CHARACTERISTICS AND DIMENSIONS OF FITTINGS

The mechanical characteristics of insulator set fittings shall comply with the mechanical
strength requirements of AS 1154.1 or IEC 60471.
11.8.1 Termination fittings
Termination fittings include deadends and joints. Termination fittings shall be generally
designed and manufactured in accordance with AS 1154.1 or AS 1154.3 for helical fittings
or equivalent International Standards. Termination fittings shall be designed for the holding
strength nominated in the relevant standard. Terminations shall be designed to carry the
steady state thermal aerial conductor current rating, short time thermal current rating and
short-circuit current rating for the design life of the overhead line.
11.8.2 Suspension and support fittings
Suspension and support fittings include bolted suspension clamps, armour grip suspensions
and wire ties. Suspension and support fittings shall be designed and manufactured in
accordance AS 1154.1 or AS 1154.3 for helical fittings or equivalent International
standards. Suspension and support fittings shall be designed to—
(a) achieve the mechanical strength nominated by the manufacturer or required by the
purchaser;
(b) hold the slip strength nominated by the manufacturer or required by the purchaser;
and
(c) be undamaged by the passage of the steady state thermal aerial conductor current
rating, short time thermal current rating and short-circuit current rating for the design
life of the overhead line.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

11.8.3 Repair fittings

Repair fittings shall be designed and manufactured in accordance with AS 1154.3 or
equivalent International Standards. Repair fittings shall be designed to make good aerial
conductors of which not more than 20% of the strands in the outermost layer have been
fractured or have other equivalent damage to that outermost layer. For low tension aerial
conductors (less than 10% CBL) repair fittings can be used for not more than 40% of
fractured strands in the outermost layer. Repair fittings shall not be used to make good
damaged steel wires.
11.8.4 Spacers and spacer dampers
Spacers and Spacer Dampers shall be designed and manufactured in accordance with
AS 1154.1 or equivalent International Standards. Spacers and spacer dampers shall—
(a) be designed to maintain the nominated sub-conductor separation;
(b) be designed to minimize damage caused to the aerial conductors by the action of the
wind;
(c) withstand the compressive forces associated with short-circuit currents;
(d) withstand the fatigue loads imparted by the aerial conductors as a result of the action
of the wind;
(e) have an elastomer material which is semi-conducting and does not cause
electrochemical corrosion with the aerial conductor; and
(f) be installed in accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturers.
11.8.5 Vibration dampers
Vibration dampers shall be designed and manufactured in accordance with AS 1154.1 or
equivalent International Standards. Vibration dampers shall be installed on all aerial
conductors in accordance with Appendix Z. Vibration dampers shall be designed to
minimize damage to the aerial conductors, suspension clamps and other hardware cause by
wind induced Aeolian vibration. Vibration dampers shall be installed in accordance with the
recommendations of the manufacturers.
11.8.6 Aerial conductor fittings for use at elevated temperatures
Aerial conductor fittings for high temperature aerial conductors shall be selected to meet
the steady state thermal aerial conductor current rating, short time thermal current rating
and short-circuit current rating for the design life of the overhead line. In particular, fittings
such as armour grip types of suspension clamps which use elastomer inserts shall be
selected to ensure the elastomer components can withstand the steady state current rating.
The fittings shall be designed so the fitting is not prone to loosening because of thermal
ratcheting.
NOTE: Thermal ratcheting can occur when dissimilar metals are used together such as a steel bolt
in an aluminium clamp where the expansion coefficient of the aluminium is much higher than the
steel and loosening of the bolt can occur as a result of the differential movement of each material
during heating and cooling.
11.8.7 Aerial conductor fittings used at near freezing temperatures
Aerial conductor fitting shall be designed and manufactured to ensure the ingress of
moisture and subsequent freezing does not compromise mechanical performance.
NOTE: Should moisture ingress occur in enclosed fittings such as termination fittings, the
moisture may freeze and expand and cause the fitting to loosen on the aerial conductor or fracture
of the fitting.
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11.9 TEST REQUIREMENTS

All tests on overhead line fittings shall be carried out in accordance with the requirements
of AS 1154 and IEC 60471.
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SECTI ON 12 LIFE EXT ENSION

(REFURBISHMENT, UPGR ADING, UP RATING)
OF EXISTING OVE RHEAD LINES
12.1 GENERAL
All overhead lines shall have ongoing planned maintenance to ensure they remain in an
operationally serviceable condition without jeopardizing public safety.
If it is identified that an overhead line is no longer meeting its operational performance
standard; or has exhibited degradation to a level that raises question concerning any
component of the overall lines’ serviceability, or safety to the public or ongoing
maintenance - it shall be subjected to a complete engineering assessment.
This assessment shall consider the following:
(a) Whether the support structures are no longer safe to the public or their ongoing
maintenance as determined by further structural analysis and detailed assessment.
(b) Whether the support structures can economically be refurbished.
(c) Whether the overall line performance can be improved to an acceptable level by
modification or replacement of line components.
(d) Whether the line should be taken out of service and decommissioned.
Where the line is to be refurbished by modification of the support structures, replacement of
aerial conductors and insulation, it shall be subjected to a complete engineering assessment.
12.2 ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURES

Current design requirements provide a useful ‘bench mark’ for existing construction, but it
is often appropriate to adopt a lower standard consistent with the ‘fitness for purpose’ for
the overall network.
The reasons for a lower standard being appropriate are—
(a) most asset owners have overhead lines which have undergone ‘piecemeal’
replacement of individual supports since original construction;
(b) legislation has changed since original construction (i.e. the design requirements have
increased over time); or
(c) this approach will achieve a more favourable network assessment outcome.
This reduced standard could be achieved using one or a combination of factors mentioned
below.
12.2.2 Line importance
Asset owners often adopt a uniform risk profile throughout the network, hence allowing
reduced loads to reflect the reduced remaining life of the assets. This ensures that all assets
have the same likelihood of failure during their remaining lives.
However there is a minimum limit required to provide adequate safety to both the public
and line personnel working on the structure. This reliability level is not related to remaining
life, functional or economic loss, but protection of life.
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12.2.3 Inspection
An inspection of the complete line shall be carried out as part of the evaluation process.
It shall involve at least the following:
(a) An assessment of the condition of materials and elements including extent and
significance of any deterioration found by physical measurement.
(b) Material sampling, if required.
(c) Verification of dimensional information.
(d) Assessment of design loads.
(e) Identification of any defective and unsafe components.
12.2.4 Material properties
The material properties assumed for analysis shall be based on one of the following
methods:
(a) From drawings, specifications or other construction records.
(b) From nominal historical values.
(c) From cores or samples removed from the pole or component.
In order to obtain the characteristic value for calculation purposes, the results of the testing
need to be adjusted using statistical methods. Any sampling shall be representative of the
structure or entire group of similar components.
The statistical adjustment factor is usually based on—
(i) The number of units
(ii) The coefficient of variation (COV) of structural property
(iii) The minimum structural property value (R min )
12.3 COMPONENT CAPACITY

Each component strength capacity shall be based on the appropriate material standard and
take into account the observed condition including effects of deterioration and reduction in
gross section properties. It shall also allow for any deterioration likely to take place before
the next inspection or modification or replacement.
12.4 PROOF LOADING

Proof loading may be undertaken either to verify the calculations and assumptions made or
to increase the load limit.
Proof loading shall be carried out in accordance with this Standard or the relevant material
Standard.
12.5 UPGRADING OF OVERHEAD LINE STRUCTURES

Reference should be made to Appendix N for guidelines on the upgrading of structures for
service life extension.
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SECTI ON 13 PROVISIONS FOR CLI M BING

AND WORKING AT HEIGHTS
All overhead line structures shall be designed from a whole of life concept and where
necessary the provision shall be made in the design to provide facilities for climbing and
working at heights from the support structure.
Where a design decision has been taken to provide no climbing facilities, then information
to this extent should be clearly identified on the design documents.
In addition, provision should be made in the line layout design to provide means for access
of mobile plant to maintain the facility.
Reference should be made to Appendix M for guidelines on climbing and working at
heights on overhead lines.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

SECTI ON 14 CO-USE OF OVE RHEAD LINE

SUPP ORTS (SIGNAGE, B ANNE RS,
COMMUNICATIONS CARRIER CABL ES,
TELECOMMUNICATIONS RE PE A T E R S)
14.1 SIGNS AND BANNERS AND TRAFFIC MIRRORS

While the design of flagpoles is outside the scope of this Standard, the attachment of
banners to roadside poles is not uncommon for promoting special civic or community
activities. As the presence of banners may add appreciable lateral loads to these poles under
wind conditions, designers should make allowance for increased loadings, where it is likely
to occur. eg along main thoroughfares and selected streets. In order to make this
practicable, it is incumbent on the designer to place limitations on the location, size and
duration of banner attachments to these poles.
14.1.1 Location
(a) The positioning of a banner on a pole should be not greater than 6 m above ground
level.
(b) Double banners should be located diametrically opposite one another and in a vertical
plane, which minimizes torsion effects with respect to any outreach arms.
14.1.2 Attachments
Where banners are attached at top and bottom to their mounting arms, the bottom
attachment should be designed to release as soon as the design serviceability wind pressure
is exceeded.
The attachment of all banners should be capable of retaining the banner on its top-mounting
arm at the ultimate design wind pressure.
14.1.3 Size of banners
The area of one face of any single banner should not exceed 0.8 m2 and the total face area
of banners on any single pole should not exceed 2.0 m2 .
14.1.4 Duration of attachment
Banners or flags attached to poles may induce an undue aerodynamic response in the
structure. This could result in the development of excessive stresses or fatigue stresses
which could lead to catastrophic failure.
Unless pole structures are specifically designed for banner loadings, the risk of premature
failure should be minimized by limiting the duration of the banner attachment. For example,
attachment for 10 to 15 weeks in any 12 consecutive months may provide an acceptable
level of control.
14.1.5 Wind loads on signs and banners
14.1.5.1 Strength limit state
At the strength limit state, all banners are assumed to be attached only to the top mounting
arm and almost horizontal. In these circumstances, they resemble flags in a strong wind for
which the total wind force on the flag may be determined from the following equation:
⎛ C + Cdf × G ⎞
Fwf = ⎜ ff ⎟ pd × Af . . .14.1
⎝ b×κ ⎠
where
Fwf = total force on the banner (N)
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00
Cff = a friction factor

= 0.024
Cdf = a drag factor determined from Table 14.1
G = unit mass of wet banner material (kg/m2)
b = dimension of banner at right angles to wind direction (m)
κ = density of air, taken as 1.23 kg/m3
pd = design wind pressure at the strength limit state (Pa)
Af = area of (one) banner face (m2)
The mass per unit area of cloth materials, in a similar manner to paper, is usually quoted in
grams per square metre (g/m2). Making this substitution, substituting the numerical values
for Cff and κ, and p uKz for p d, and converting to units consistent with Clause 1.4, Equation
14.1 becomes—
⎡ ⎛ 0.008Cdf wg ⎞ ⎤
Fwf = ⎢ 0.024 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ pd K Z K T Af . . .14.2
⎢⎣ ⎝ b ⎠ ⎥⎦
where
Fwf = total force on the banner (kN)
Cdf = a drag factor obtained from Table 14.1
wg = mass per unit area of wet flag material (g/m2)
b = Dimension of banner at right angles to wind direction (m)
Af = area of one face of the banner
and p d, Kz and KT are obtained from Appendix B for the strength limit state.
It is assumed that Fwf acts horizontally at the level of the support arm where the arm
intersects a vertical plane through the centroid of area of the banner.
TABLE 14.1
DRAG FACTORS FOR BANNERS
A f /b 2 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
C df 10 4.6 2.2 1.4 0.8 0.36 0.17 0.11
NOTE:See Figure 14.1.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

FIGURE 14.1 BANNER DIMENSIONS
14.1.5.2 Serviceability limit state

14.1.5.2.1 General
For the serviceability limit state, there is a need to differentiate between banners attached at
the top only and those attached at the top and bottom to mounting arms.
14.1.5.2.2 Top attached banners
For top attached banners, Fwf is calculated from Equation 14.2 by substituting p s for pu,
when pd is obtained from Appendix B for the serviceability limit state.
14.1.5.2.3 Top and bottom attached banners
For banners attached at both the top and bottom, each banner can be treated for wind load in
a manner similar to any other attachment to the pole. The total force (Fwf ) is calculated from
the following equation:
Fwf = 1.6 pd × Kz × KT × Af . . .14.3
where 1.6 is the drag factor for a sharp-edged flat surface.
14.2 COMMUNICATIONS CARRIER CABLES

14.2.1 General
Where it is a likely requirement that an overhead line may be required to support aerial
communications carrier cables that are owned by third parties, provision shall be made for
their safe placement on the supports preferably in an under built mode.
These cables may be of an insulated self-supporting type (ADSS) or as a catenary cable
supported system.
On existing overhead lines, where such cables are to be installed the structure designs shall
be subject to a full engineering assessment.
14.3 TELECOMMUNICATIONS REPEATERS EQUIPMENT AND TRAFFIC

MIRRORS
14.3.1 General
Telecommunications repeater installations on overhead line supports normally require the
installation of microwave dishes, multiple cellular telephone antennae, antennae mounting
support steelwork, and cables to a ground level relay station.
Traffic mirrors are installed to aid motorists in viewing around visually obstructed
locations. The size of these mirrors can vary significantly.
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All overhead line structures to be fitted with these devices shall be subject to a full
engineering assessment.
In the case of telecommunication, repeater sites the performance of the telecommunications
facility may be sensitive to rotational deflection limits, and these should be checked.
14.3.2 Safety considerations
Radiation effects from antennae are an operational and maintenance issue that must
considered and appropriate safety measures deployed.
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APPENDIX A
REFERENCE AND RELATED DOCUMENTS
(Normative)
A1 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
This Standard incorporates, by either normative or informative reference, provisions from
other publications. These references are cited at the appropriate places in the text together
with a statement indicating whether the reference is normative in this Standard or
informative. All references are undated and the latest edition of the publication referred to
applies.
AS
1154 Insulator and conductor fittings for overhead power lines
1154.1 Part 1: Performance, material, general requirements and dimensions
1154.3 Part 3: Performance and general requirements for helical fittings
1170 Structural design actions
1170.4 Part 4: Earthquake actions in Australia
1222 Steel conductors and stays
1222.1 Part 1: Bare overhead—Galvanized (SC/GZ)
1222.2 Part 2: Aluminium clad (SC/AC)
1531 Conductors—Bare overhead—Aluminium and aluminium alloy
1559 Fasteners—Bolts, nuts and washers for tower construction
1604 Specification for preservative treatment—Sawn and round timber
1720 Timber structures
1720.1 Part 1: Design methods
1720.2 Part 2: Timber properties
1726 Geotechnical site investigations
1746 Conductors—Bare overhead—Hard-drawn copper
1824 Insulation coordination (phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase, above 1 kV)
1824.2 Part 2: Application guide
2067 Switchgear assemblies and ancillary equipment for alternating voltages above
1 kV
2159 Piling—Design and installation
2209 Timber—Poles for overhead lines
3600 Concrete structures
3607 Conductors—Bare overhead, aluminium and aluminium alloy—Steel
reinforced
3608 Insulators—Porcelain and glass, pin and shackle type—Voltages not
exceeding 1000 V a.c.
3609 Insulators—Porcelain stay type—Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c.
3822 Test methods for bare overhead conductors
3995 Design of steel lattice towers and masts
4058 Precast concrete pipes (pressure and non-pressure)
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

AS
4100 Steel structures
4398 Insulators—Ceramic or glass—Station post for indoor and outdoor use—
Voltages greater than 1000 V a.c.
4435 Insulators—Composite for overhead power lines—Voltages greater than 1000
V a.c.
4435.1 Part 1: Definitions, test methods and acceptance criteria for string insulator
units
4435.4 Part 4: Definitions, test methods, acceptance criteria for post insulator units
4436 Guide for the selection of insulators in respect of polluted conditions
6947 Crossing of waterways by electricity infrastructure
60305 Insulators for overhead lines with a nominal voltage above 1000 V—Ceramic
or glass insulator units for a.c. systems—Characteristics of insulator units of
the cap and pin type
AS/NZS
1170.0 Part 0: General principles
1170.2 Part 2: Wind actions
1170.3 Part 3: Snow and ice actions
1252 High strength steel bolts with associated nuts and washers for structural
engineering
1328 Glued laminated structural timber
1768 Lightning protection
1891 Industrial fall arrest-systems and devices
1891.1 Part 1: Harnesses and ancillary equipment
1891.2 Part 2: Horizontal lifeline and rail systems
1891.3 Part 3: Fall-arrest devices
1891.4 Part 4: Selection, use and maintenance
2312 Guide to the protection of structural steel against atmospheric corrosion by
the use of protective coatings
2344 Limits of electromagnetic interference from overhead a.c. powerlines and
high voltage equipment installations in the frequency range 0.15 to 1000 MHz
2373 Electric cables— Twisted pair for control and protection circuits
2947 Insulators—Porcelain and glass for overhead power lines—Voltages greater
than 1000 V a.c
3675 Conductors—Covered overhead—For working voltages 6.35/11(12) kV up to
and including 19/33(36) kV
3560 Electric cables—Cross-linked polyethylene insulated—Aerial bundled—For
working voltages up to and including 0.6/1(1.2) kV
3560.1 Part 1: Aluminium conductors
3560.2 Part 2: Copper conductors
3599 Electric cables—Aerial bundled—Polymeric insulated—Voltages
6.35/11(12) kV and 12.7/22(24) kV
3599.1 Part 1: Metallic screened
3599.2 Part 2: Non-metallic screened
3675 Conductors—Covered overhead—For working voltages 6.35/11(12) kV up to
and including 19/33(36) kV
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00
AS/NZS
3835 Earth potential rise—Protection of telecommunications network users,
personnel and plant
4065 Concrete utility services poles
4435 Insulators—Composite for overhead power lines—Voltages greater than 1000
V a.c.
4435.2 Part 2: Insulators—Composite for overhead power lines—Voltages greater
than 1000 V a.c.—Standard strength classes and end fittings for
string insulator units
4600 Cold-formed steel structures
4676 Structural design requirements for utility services poles
4677 Steel utility services poles
4680 Hot-dip galvanized (zinc) coatings on fabricated ferrous articles
4653 Electrical hazards on metallic pipelines
HB
101 (CJC5) Coordination of power and telecommunications—Low frequency induction
(LFI): Code of practice
102 (CJC6) Coordination of power and telecommunications—Low frequency induction
NZS
1170.5 Part 5: Earthquake actions—New Zealand
3101 Concrete structures
3101.1 Part 1: The design of concrete structures
3404 Steel structures standard
3404.1 Part 1: Steel structures standard
3603 Timber structures standard
6869 Limits and measurement methods of electromagnetic noise from high voltage
a.c. power systems, 0.15
NZECP
34 New Zealand Electrical Code of Practice for Electrical Safe Distances
41 New Zealand Electrical Code of Practice for SWER Systems
46 New Zealand Electrical Code of Practice for High Voltage Live Line Work
NZCCPTS
Noise Investigation Guide
EEA\NZ
SM-EI Industry Safety Rules
Guide to Use of Helicopters in Power Company Work
Use of Personal Fall Arrest Systems
Maritime Safety Authority publication Guide to Safety Management of Power
Line Waterway Crossings
Guide -Operation and Maintenance of Elevating Work Platforms
ENA
LLM 01 Guidelines for live line barehand work
LLM 02 Guidelines for live line stick work
LLM 03 Guidelines for live line glove and barrier work
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

ENA
NENS 04 National guidelines for safe approach distances to electrical and mechanical
apparatus
NENS 05 National fall protection guidelines for the electricity industry
ESAA
D(b)5* Current rating of bare overhead line conductors
EANSW
* High Voltage Earth Return for Rural Areas
IEC
60372 Locking devices for ball and socket couplings of string insulator units—
Dimensions and tests
60433 Insulators for overhead lines with a nominal voltage above 1 000 V—Ceramic
insulators for a.c. systems—Characteristics of insulator units of the long rod
type
60471 Dimensions of clevis and tongue couplings of string insulator units

60652 Loading tests on overhead line towers
60720 Characteristics of line post insulators
60794 Optical fibre cables
60794-4 Part 4: Aerial optical cables along electrical power lines
TR 60826 Loading and strength of overhead transmission lines
60865 Short-circuit currents
60865-1 Part 1: Calculation of effects
61466 Composite string insulator units for overhead lines with a nominal voltage
greater than 1000 V
61466-2 Part 2: Dimensional and electrical characteristics
TR 61597 Overhead electrical conductors—Calculation methods for stranded bare
conductors
ISO
12494 Atmospheric icing of structures
14713 Protection against corrosion of iron and steel in structures—Zinc and
aluminium coatings—Guidelines
EN
1993 Design of steel structures—General rules
Eurocode 3
1993-1-1 Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
50341 Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 45 kV
50341-1 Part 1-1: General requirements—Common specifications
BS
8100 Lattice towers and masts
8100-1 Part 1: Code of practice for loading
ASCE
10-97 Design of latticed steel transmission structures
48-05 Design of steel transmission pole structures
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

CIGRE
TB196 Diaphragms for lattice steel supports
TB256 Current Practices regarding frequencies and magnitude of high intensity
winds
IEEE
691 Guide for Transmission Structure Foundation Design and Testing
ARPANSA Draft Radiation Protection Standard for Exposure Limits to Electric and
Magnetic Fields 0 Hz – 3 kHz
ICNIRP Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Time-Varying Electric, Magnetic, and
Electromagnetic Fields (Up To 300 Ghz)
* Available to members though Energy Networks Australia (ENA)
A2 RELATED DOCUMENTS
Attention is drawn to the following related documents:
AS
1289 Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes
1289.6.3.1 Method 6.3.1: Determination of the penetration resistance of a soil—Standard
penetration test (SPT)
1657 Fixed platforms, walkways, stairways and ladders—Design, construction and
installation
1798 Lighting poles and bracket arms—Preferred dimensions
2560 Guide to sports lighting
2979 Traffic signal mast arms
AS/NZS
1158 Road lighting
1158.1.3 Part 1.3: Vehicular traffic (Category V) Lighting—Guide to design,
installation, operation and maintenance
1170 Minimum design loads on structures
1170.1 Part 1: Dead and live loads and load combination
NZS
3115 Specification for concrete poles for electrical transmission and distribution
4203 Code of practice for general structural design and design loadings for
buildings—Vol 1
IEC
60038 IEC standard voltages
60050 International Electrotechnical Vocabulary
60050-441 Chapter 441: Switchgear, controlgear and fuses
60050-466 Chapter 466: Overhead lines
60050-471 Chapter 471: Insulators
60050-601 Chapter 601: Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity—
General
60050-604 Chapter 604: Generation, transmission and distribution of electricity—
Operation
60287 Electric cables—Calculation of the current rating
60287-3-1 Part 3-1: Sections on operating conditions—Reference operating
conditions and selection of cable type
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

IEC
TR 60479 Guide to effects of current on human beings and livestock
TR 60479-1 Part 1: General aspects
TR 60575 Thermal-mechanical performance test and mechanical performance test on
string insulator units
60724 Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cables with rated voltages of 1 kV
(Um = 1,2 kV) and 3 kV (Um = 3,6 kV)
60797 Residual strength of string insulator units of glass or ceramic material for
overhead lines after mechanical damage of the dielectric
60909 Short-circuit current calculation in three-phase a.c. systems
61109 Composite insulators for a.c. overhead lines with a nominal voltage greater
than 1 000 V—Definitions, test methods and acceptance criteria
TR 61211 Insulators of ceramic material or glass for overhead lines with a nominal
voltage greater than 1 000 V—Puncture testing
61467 Insulators for overhead lines with nominal voltage over 1 000 V—AC power
arc tests on insulator sets
TR 61774 Overhead lines—Meteorological data for assessing climatic loads
62219 Formed wire concentric lay overhead electrical stranded conductors1
NZECP
35 New Zealand Electrical Code of Practice for risk based earthing
EN
EN ISO 1461 Hot dip galvanised coatings on fabricated ferrous products—Specifications
and test methods
EN ISO 9001 Quality systems. Model for quality assurance in design, development,
production
A3 REFERENCES
1 BURGESS, S., SALINGER, J., TURNER, R. and REID, S., 2007. Climate Hazards
and extremes – Taranaki region. High winds and tornadoes. NIWA report WLG2007-
048, 84 pp.
2 CARMAN, W.D. and BAXTER, B. Transmission Structure Hazard Mitigation
Strategies. 11th CEPSI Conference, Kuala Lumpur, October 1996.
3 CIGRE STUDY COMMITTEE 23 – 1996, Brochure 105, The Mechanical Effects Of
Short-Circuit Currents in Open Air Substations (Rigid and Flexible Bus-Bars),
Volume 1.
4 CIGRE STUDY COMMITTEE 23 (Substations) Working Group 23-03, The
Mechanical Effects Of Short-Circuit Currents in Open Air Substations (Rigid and
Flexible Bus-Bars), Volume 2
5 CIGRE STUDY COMMITTEE 23—1996, Companion Book Of CIGRE Brochure 105
(Part II)
6 DURAŇONA, V., STERLING, M. and BAKER, C., 2007. An analysis of extreme
non-synoptic winds. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 95,
1000-1027
7 ESAA EG-1(1997) ESAA Substation Earthing Guide.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

8 GIBBS, H. Inquiry into Community Needs and High Voltage Transmission Line
Development. Published by New South Wales Government, 1991.
9 Guidelines for the Management of Electricity Easements. EC20, Electricity Council
of NSW, February 1992.
10 HOWAT, C. and COOK, J. An Assessment of the Hazards Associated with Siting
Swimming Pools Near Substations and Transmission Lines. ESEA Conference,
Sydney, August 1991.
11 KIESSLING, NEFZGER, NOLASCO and KAINTZY, K. Overhead Power Lines
(planning design construction). ISBN 3-540-00297-9, pp. 162-163.
12 MORGAN, V.T. Thermal Behaviour of Electrical Conductors, Steady, Dynamic and
Fault-Current Ratings. Published in Brisbane by John Wiley and Sons Inc, 1991.
13 RAD, F.N., GARG, V.K. and COURTS, A.L. Study of Distribution of Ground Fault
Currents in Below Grade Swimming Pools Located Near Transmission Lines. IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, 1980.
14 REESE, S., REVELL, M., TURNER, R., THURSTON, S., REID, S., UMA, S.R. and
SCHROEDER, S., 2007. Taranaki Tornadoes of 4-5 July 2007: Post event damage
survey.
15 NIWA report WLG2007-71, 43 pp.Reid, S.J., 1987. Wind speeds for engineering
design. New Zealand Engineering, March 1, 1987, pp 15-18.
16 REID, S. and TURNER, R., 2008. Gust speeds for downslope sites using 2D
modelling. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics. Submitted.
17 ROSS H.E. et al, Recommended procedures for the safety performance evaluation of
highway safety features, NCHRP Report 350, National Cooperative Highway
Research Program, National Academy Press, Washington D.C., 1993
18 SMOOT, A.W. and BENTEL, C.A. Electric Shock Hazard of Underwater Swimming
Pool Lighting Fixtures. IEE Transactions of Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 83,
September 1964, pp.945-964.
19 TAIT, A., and REID, S., 2007. An analysis of extreme high winds in the Gisborne
district. NIWA report WLG2007-25. 30pp
20 WOODHOUSE, D.J., NEWLAND, K.D, and CARMAN, W.D. Development of a Risk
Management Policy for Transmission Line Easements. Distribution 2000, 4th
International Distribution Utility Conference, November 1997, Sydney.
21 HOLMES, J.D., Physical modelling of thunderstorms downdrafts by wind tunnel jet.
2nd AWES Workshop 20-21 February 1992. Monash University, Clayton, Victoria.
22 LETCHFORD, C.W. and ILLIDGE, Topographical effects in simulated thunderstorm
downdrafts by wind tunnel jet. 7th AWES Workshop, 28-29 September 1998.
Auckland, New Zealand.
23 PANEER R., SELVAM and HOLMES, J.D., Thunderstorm downdrafts from a point
of view of building design. 1st AWES Workshop, 7-8 February 1991. Pokolbin, New
South Wales.
24 DAVENPORT, A.G., SURRY, D., GEORGIOU, P.N and LYTHE,G., The response of
transmission towers in hilly terrain to typhoon winds. The University of Western
Ontario, Faculty of Engineering Sciences, London, Ontario.
25 GEORGIOU, P.N., SURRY, D. and DAVENPORT, A.G., Codification of wind
loading in a region with typhoons and hills. Proc. of the Fourth Int. Conference on
Tall Buildings, Hong Kong and Shanghai, April/May 1988. CHENG, Y.K. and LEE,
P.K.K. Eds. Organizing Committee of the Conference, Hong Kong, 1988. Vol. 1, 252-
258.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

APPENDIX B
WIND LOADS
(Normative)
B1 AUSTRALIA
In Australia, transmission lines and their supporting towers and poles are vulnerable to
extreme wind loads from both convective downdrafts (downbursts, microbursts) and
synoptic winds (e.g. gales from East Coast lows in NSW, tropical cyclones in Queensland
and WA).
Analysis of all extreme winds in Australia has shown that coastal stations experience many
more high gusts per annum than do inland stations, although the number of extreme
convective downdraft gusts from small thunderstorms are similar.
Generally it is clear that large gusts at inland stations within Australia are all generated by
convective downdrafts. At coastal locations in the non-tropical regions, large gusts can be
produced by both large-scale synoptic events or by convective downdrafts.
Figure B1 shows a zoning map to determine which storm type should be considered in
design for wind. On the mainland, the regions on this map are delineated by a boundary
200 kilometres from the smoothed coastline.
Zone I—shown in blue in Figure B1, designs are to provide only for winds from synoptic
events (including tropical cyclones in Northern Australia), using multipliers from
AS/NZS 1170.2, together with ‘conventional’ span reduction factors as provided in the
following sections.
Zone II—shown in beige, (i.e. inland Australia) designs are to provide only for convective
downdrafts. Wind multipliers for terrain-height, and topography and span reduction factors
for these events are as provided in the following sections.
Zone III—shown in green in Figure B1, both events can occur, with approximately equal
probability, and designs are to provide for both types of events.
NOTE: Figure B1 is not intended to show the zoning system for the magnitude of the wind gust
speed – just the types of event producing the extreme gusts required to be considered for design.
Reference should be made to AS/NZS 1170.2 for the relevant wind velocities relevant to the line
for the selected security level and design life as defined in Section 6.
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M c D o n n e l C re e k
DA RWIN We i pa M o reto n
Zo n e I - S y n o pti c
winds only
C o o k tow n
Ca ir ns
B ro o m e 20 0 k m
20 0 k m Tow nsv i l l e
B owe n
C royd o n M a c k ay
Ro c k h a m pto n
O n s l ow B u n d a b e rg
Zo n e II - C o nve c ti ve d ow n d raf ts o n l y
M a r y b o ro u g h
Ca r n a r vo n 25˚
B R I S BA N E
G raf to n
G e ra l d to n C of f s H a r b o u r
PERT H
SY D N E Y
20 0 k m
Zo n e III - S y n o pti c a n d c o nve c ti ve
Zo n e I - S y n o pti c w i n d s o n l y HOBART
FIGURE B1 WIND REGIONS FOR AUSTRALIAN DESIGN WIND GUST TYPES
B2 NEW ZEALAND
In New Zealand, transmission lines and their supporting towers and poles are vulnerable to
extreme wind loads from both convective downdrafts (downbursts and micro-bursts) and
synoptic winds (e.g., gales associated with mid-latitude cyclones throughout the country
and high winds from ex-tropical cyclones over the North Island). In addition there are
regions in the leeward zones close to high mountain ranges where katabatic or downslope
high velocity winds occur in which these structures are also vulnerable. Generally it is clear
that large gusts at inland stations outside of leeward zones are generated by convective
downdrafts.
Wind zones for the North and South Islands of New Zealand are shown in Figure B2
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FIGURE B2 WIND REGIONS FOR NEW ZEALAND
B3 SYNOPTIC WIND REGIONS (AUSTRALIA ZONE I AND ZONE III AND NEW
ZEALAND ZONES REGIONS W, A6 AND A7 )
All structures shall be designed for a 3 s gust regional wind speeds for various return
periods as defined in AS/NZS 1170.2. The basic site design velocity shall be determined by
selecting an appropriate return period for the line (See Section 6) and applying formula
variables from AS/NZS 1170.2.
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Cyclonic wind amplification factors Fc and Fd provided in AS/NZS 1170 shall be taken as
1.0 for all overhead lines, based on performance of overhead lines in cyclonic areas over
time.
The calculation of wind forces on structural elements is based on the wind pressure on the
structural element and the net drag coefficient for the element. AS/NZS 1170.2 deals with
the calculation of wind velocities (for synoptic conditions) and drag coefficients for the
more common structural shapes. The equations presented here are intended to provide a
context for the drag (or force) coefficients that are of particular relevance to overhead lines.
Designers are referred to AS/NZS 1170.2 as appropriate.
The selection of the regional wind speed should be based on the line’s location. Where an
overhead line is of significant length, variations in wind loading may be required. The site
design wind speed is the 50-year basic regional wind speed modified for the effects of the
topography and terrain that the line traverses.
AS/NZS 1170.2 provides regional wind speeds for the 50-year return periods.
The design site wind speed shall be taken as—
Vz = V50 MdMz,catMsMt
where
Mz,cat = gust winds speed multiplier for terrain category at height z. Refer
AS/NZS 1170.2 for all regions use Table 4.1(A).
Md = wind direction multiplier. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2.
Ms = shielding multiplier. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2
Mt = topographic multiplier for gust wind speed. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2
V50 = basic regional wind velocity for the region corresponding to the 50-year
return period. Refer AS/NZS 1170.2
Designers should be aware that changing land usage may alter the terrain category.
z for the aerial conductors may be taken as the mean height of the aerial
conductors at EDT above the terrain.
z for structures under 50 m may be taken at the 2/3 structure height or at the
centre of each panel in lattice towers.
Md < 1.0 may be applied when determining design loads for sections of lines.
Ms is normally taken as 1.0.
B4 DOWNDRAFT WIND REGIONS REGIONS (AUSTRALIA ZONE II AND

ZONE III AND NEW ZEALAND ZONES REGION A7)
Convective downdraft wind gust sometimes referred to as high intensity winds (HIW) are
generated by severe thunderstorms and are the dominant design winds that occur across
most regions of Australia and New Zealand. They take the form of downdrafts associated
with cold air and hail columns, meso–cyclonic cells and tornadoes within storm front
systems or mature subtropical thunderstorm cells. Evidence from the damage of many
severe storms across Australia and New Zealand suggests that these events are responsible
for many of the wind-related failures on overhead lines.
They occur in both coastal and inland regions and are associated with, and embedded in
many severe thunderstorms. They can also occur within tropical cyclone storm cells.
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B4.1 Downdraft winds

Downdraft winds, more commonly referred to as downbursts, macrobursts, or microbursts;
are high velocity wind columns of cold air that can form within a thunderstorm cell, usually
but not always associated with a hail column. The cold air column falls vertically from
great height and strikes the ground, and due to the translation of the storm cell, the wind
draft radiates from the impact site. The resulting gust widths can vary in width from
typically a hundred metres to a kilometre.
These gusts create damage swaths in vegetation at ground level and the wind can envelop
one or more spans simultaneously and renders the application of the synoptic wind based
span reduction factors inappropriate..
A span reduction factor shall be applied as provided in Figure B7.
Studies have indicated that downdraft winds can have significant variability in direction due
to their association with hail and cold air downdrafts and are also influenced by large scale
topographical features. The maximum velocity also has been observed in recent failures to
be generally above a plane at approximately 15 m above ground as a result of the localized
influence of vegetation and ground surface roughness.
Downdraft gust wind speeds are provided in AS/NZS 1170.2 for each region and for the
range of return periods.
Wind pressures are to be calculated as for synoptic winds except for modification to Mz and
Mt factors as provided below.
Terrain -Height Multiplier Mz,cat has been found from laboratory and field tests to vary with
height as shown in Figure B3 and according to the following rules:
Height (m) Mz,cat
0–50 1.0
50–100 1.0–0.5*(H–50)/50
Above 100 0.5
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D ow n d r a f t M z ,c a t
140
120
10 0
H e i g h t [m]
80
60
40
20
0
0. 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
M z ,c a t
FIGURE B3 TERRAIN-HEIGHT MULTIPLIER FOR CONVECTIVE DOWNDRAFTS
Topographic multiplier Mt,downdraft has also been found from research to be half of the
modification provided in AS/NZS 1170.2 for synoptic winds. Mt,downdraft values shall be
calculated in accordance with the following:
Mt, downdraft = 1 + 0.5 (Mt,synoptic −1)
B4.2 Tornadoes (applies to all high security/high reliability overhead lines only such
as regional transmission interconnectors)
B4.2.1 General
Evidence exists of the occurrence of Tornadoes in several regions around Australia and
New Zealand of an intensity <EF3 (Enhanced Fujita Tornado Scale) classification with
maximum velocities in the 45–74 m/s range. Most are either EF0 or EF1, i.e. maximum
velocities <50 m/s. No evidence currently exists of either EF4 or EF5 tornadoes having
occurred in Australia or New Zealand. Tornadoes can be considered very rare events at
particular locations and should not be considered in normal range of overhead line designs.
However, two regions of New Zealand (the coastal zones near New Plymouth and
Greymouth) are known to experience on average one tornado a year.
B4.2.2 High security and high reliability overhead lines
The following provision should be made for tornado wind loads on long high security and
high reliability lines, in particular, important long lines.
Tornadoes are small rotational (50–100 m diameter) cells usually embedded within and
traversing at the same speed and direction as the thunderstorm. The thunderstorm
translational speed could be in the order of 10–20 m/s and the tornado circumferential speed
of 50 m/s or higher. Combining the two speeds gives a resultant gust speed of the order of
60+m/s
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Tornadoes crossing lines between supports are unlikely to cause any structural damage but
may cause aerial conductors to clash resulting in feeder trips. Tornadoes intercepting with
supports have caused isolated known lattice structure failures in recent decades in Australia
and with a higher frequency in overseas countries.
Adopting the 60 m/s as the ultimate regional tornado wind speed (for all but the high
importance lines), and taking all the wind (M) multipliers as 1.0 gives a design dynamic
wind pressure of 2.2 kPa.
This shall be applied as a uniform pressure (ie unmodified for height) to the support and
insulators from any direction.
In addition wide tower structures shall be also designed for a torsion wind (of the same
pressure) rotating about the support centroid. Each tower body face should be
simultaneously subjected to in plane wind, and each crossarm face to projected
perpendicular wind in a consistent rotational direction as indicated in Figure B4.1 and
Figure B4.2.
No wind is applied to the aerial conductors in either case.
FIGURE B4.1 SQUARE BASED FIGURE B4.2 RECTANGULAR BASED OR

TOWERS WIDE TOWERS
B5 WIND PRESSURES
The design pressure q z shall be calculated as follows:
qz = Mrel × 0.6Vz2 × 10−3 kPa . . .B1
B5.1 Wind pressures on lattice steel towers
For each panel in the tower, the force on structural sections in the direction of the wind
shall be calculated as follows:
Fx = q zKxCdA* . . .B2
where
Kx represents factors accounting for aspect ratio, wind direction and shielding of
the member. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2 for specific values.
Cd is the drag force coefficient of the member.
A* is the projected area of the structure section under consideration in a plane
normal to the wind direction.
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For lattice towers that are essentially square in plan the force in the direction of the wind on
the whole tower section under consideration shall be calculated as follows:
Fsθ = qzCdA
where
A = is the projected area of one face of the structure section under
consideration in a vertical plane along the face.
Cd = drag force coefficient in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2
TABLE B1
LATTICE TOWER PANEL DRAG COEFFICIENTS FOR
MULTIPLE FRAMES AND SINGLE FRAMES
Solidity Square tower Single frames
C d 0° C d 45° CD Shielding η
0.1 3.4 3.9 1.9 0.8
0.2 2.9 3.3 1.8 0.7
0.3 2.5 3.0 1.7 0.5
0.4 2.2 2.7 1.6 0.4
0.5 2.0 2.5 1.6 0.3
0.6 1.8 2.2 1.6 0.2
Solidity is the ratio of solid projected area to total enclosed area.

For rectangular towers which are symmetrical about each axis—
Fsθ = q z [Cd1 (A1 + ηA3) kθcos2 θ + Cd2 (A2 + ηA4) kθsin2θ] . . .B3
where
A1, A3 and A2, A4 are projected areas on longitudinal and transverse faces respectively
Cd = drag force coefficient for single frames (panels) (See Table B1)
η = shielding factor (See Table B1)
kθ = factor for angle of incidence θ of wind to frames
(calculated by the equation)—
kθ = 1 + k1 k2 sin2(2θ), . . .B4
where
k1 = 0.55
k2 = 0.2 for δ ≤ 0.2
k2 = δ for 0.2 < δ ≤ 0.5
k2 = 1 − δ for 0.5 < δ ≤ 0.8
k2 = 0.2 for 0.8 < δ ≤ 1.0
Where ancillaries such as antennae, mounting frames, cable runways, signage and banners
are attached to a tower that have significant area, they should be included in the calculated
force using the appropriate Cd, area and shading factor from Australian Standards and
component manufacturers information. The interference factor (Kin) shall be taken as 1.0 in
all cases for lattice towers. Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2.
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There is some variation in recommended Cd factors for single and multiple frames between
the various national codes. The approach used in BS 8100 Part 1 provides detailed
procedures for calculation of drag coefficients for rectangular (in plan) towers for different
angle of incidence of wind. The BS 8100 Part 1 approach has been used here.
Alternatively computational techniques may be used that provide for the automatic
calculation of wind effects on individual structural elements of tower structures,
particularly for some towers of less common geometry where the wind on face method can
be difficult to implement. An example of such tower geometry is a flat configuration single
circuit tower with 4 longitudinal faces in the upper body and a large cross beam with a
small longitudinal face area.
The alternative method is to load all members of the tower based on fluid dynamic
principles, an average drag factor and simplified member area calculations. This method
would be difficult to implement using hand calculations but very simple to implement in a
computer program. The results are generally conservative in comparison to the face method.
The resulting force on each member is perpendicular to the member longitudinal axis and in
the plane formed by the wind velocity vector and the member axis. (See Figure B5).
T
Wind
Fm
W D
=
FIGURE B5 FORCES ON A MEMBER
The force is determined by the following equation:

F m = Cfq zA mcos2(α)
where
Fm = resultant force on the member
qz = dynamic pressure at the member mid height
Am = simplified member area – length x width
Cf = drag force factor
angle members Cf = 1.6
round members Cf = 1.0
α = angle between wind velocity vector and the normal to the member axes
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From 3D geometry, the resultant force direction vector can be determined using the vector
products:
T = W×M
D = T×M
W – wind velocity vector
M – member axis vector
T – vector perpendicular to the wind-member plane
D – resultant force direction vector
Angle a can be calculated ffrom scalar product of the wind direction and resultant force
direction vectors:
WD
cos(a) = . . .B5
W D
The resultant force components in the global coordinate directions (X, Y, Z) can be finally
calculated by multiplying the resultant force value by the normalized direction vector.
B5.2 Wind pressure on poles
Due consideration shall be taken on the affect on the aerodynamic shape factor Cfig for
poles due to the attachment of all ancillaries
Significant attachments to circular cross-sections such as ladders, pipes etc will induce
aerodynamic separation and in these case is Cd = 1.2.
The aerodynamic shape factor Cfig shall be determined for specific elements, surfaces or
parts of surfaces in accordance with AS/NZS 1170.2
For round timber poles, a minimum Cd of 0.9 applies.
For round smooth surface poles, a minimum Cd of 0.85 applies.
For other poles, of circular or polygonal cross section—
(a) the determination of the appropriate forces can be taken as the sum of the forces for
the components of the pole and the ancillaries attached to the pole; or
(b) a detailed approach can be adopted by considering the height of the structure as a
series of sections. A minimum of 5 sections should be considered and each section
should be of similar construction. Each section shall in turn be assessed to determine
the proportion of projected area of the ancillaries to that of the pole to determine the
appropriate Cfig/Cd and the appropriate Az. as follows:
(i) if the pole surface is smooth and the projected area of the ancillaries is less than
0.01 of the projected area of the pole section under consideration, then the total
force on the section shall use the Cfig/Cd of the smooth pole only and Az shall be
the projected area of the pole only.
(ii) if the pole surface is smooth and the projected area of the ancillaries is between
0.01 and 0.05 of the projected area of the pole section under consideration, then
the total force on the section shall use the Cfig/Cd of the non smooth pole only
and Az shall be the projected area of the pole only.
(iii) if the pole surface is smooth and the projected area of the ancillaries is greater
than 0.05 of the projected area of the pole section under consideration, then the
total force on the section shall use the Cfig/Cd of the non smooth pole and the
appropriate Cfig/Cd of the ancillary and Az shall be determined for both the
projected area of the pole and the ancillary.
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(iv) if the pole is not smooth then the same procedure as i), ii) and iii) shall be
adopted with the Cfig/Cd of the pole being that for a non-smooth section.
B5.3 Wind forces on aerial conductors
Wind force perpendicular to aerial conductors shall be calculated as follows:
Fc = qz.C.L.d.SRF.cos2α (N) ...
where
C = drag coefficient of aerial conductor. This is assumed to be equal to 1 in
the absence of more accurate information.
NOTE: This value may vary between 1.2 and 0.8 dependent on aerial
conductor diameter outer surface roughness, and wind velocity. Smooth
profile aerial conductors are available that specifically provide even lower
wind drag.
L = aerial conductor length under consideration (m)
d = aerial conductor diameter (m)
SRF = span reduction factor (see below)
α = angle between wind direction and the normal to the aerial conductor
(deg)
The span reduction factor takes account of the spatial characteristics of wind gusts and
inertia of aerial conductors.
When determining wind pressure on aerial conductor for aerial conductor tension
calculations, The SRF for the related tension section should be used.
qc = qz .C. SRF cos2(α)
qc – aerial conductor tension related wind pressure
The tension section is the overhead line length between the related strain supports where the
suspension supports provide a sufficient longitudinal flexibility to enable aerial conductor
tension equalization between the strain supports.
The tension section is the overhead line length between the related strain supports where the
suspension supports provide a sufficient longitudinal flexibility to enable aerial conductor
tension equalization between the strain supports
B5.3.1 Span reduction factor (SRF) for synoptic wind regions
For regions governed by synoptic winds Figure B6 applies. The curve in Figure B6 is based
on the following relationship:
⎛ −L ⎞
⎜ ⎟
SRF = 0.59 + 0.41e ⎝ 210 ⎠
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S p a n R e d u c t i o n Fa c to r
1.10
1.00
0.90
0.80
SRF
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
S p a n [m]
FIGURE B6 SRF FOR SYNOPTIC WIND
B5.3.2 Span reduction factor (SRF) for downdraft wind regions

For regions governed by downdraft wind Figure B7 applies. The curve of Figure B7 is
based on the following expressions:
For spans ≤200 m SRF = 1.0
For spans >200 m ( L − 200)
SRT = 1.0 − 0.3125
1000
For tension calculations on tension sections greater than 1000 m, the synoptic wind should
be used instead of the downdraft wind.
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S p a n R e d u c t i o n Fa c to r
1.10
1.0 0
0.9 0
0.80
SRF
0.70
0.6 0
0.50
0.40
0 20 0 40 0 600 80 0 10 0 0
S p a n [m]
FIGURE B7 SRF FOR DOWNDRAFT WIND REGIONS
B5.4 Wind forces on insulators and fittings

Force on insulators and fitting assemblies shall be considered and is given by the following
expression:
Fi = q z.CdA
where
C = 1.2
A = projected area of insulators and fittings in true length normal to
wind (m²) – (See Figure B8)
These forces shall be considered to act on the attachment point on the support in the wind
direction.
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Attachment point
F i = q z .C d A
True length View along line
Projected area is shaded

View transverse to line
FIGURE B8 PROJECTED AREA OF INSULATOR STRINGS
B6 TOPOGRAPHICAL EFFECTS
The following information is provided for guidance in the design layout of overhead lines.
Reference should be made to CIGRE TB 256 for detailed design methods where required.
AS/NZS 1170.2 provides general rules for speed-up of winds over hills and escarpments.
There are however limitations for the application of these general rules for treating extreme
terrain roughness, predominate hill forms and high mountainous escarpments, that can be
encountered in the siting of an overhead line route.
In particular closer attention needs to be given to the effects on wind speeds in more
varying terrain where the roughness characteristics change significantly over short
distances, down to the scale of an overhead line span; topographic generated features such
as corner effects along the foot of mountains and hills; funnelling effects in valleys or in
between hills; vortex formation behind steep terrain as well as other effects that may cause
significantly increased wind speeds in the local terrain.
Such topographic features may have length scales ranging from a hundred metres up to
several kilometres.
Experiences from overhead line collapses and damage to buildings and other structures
during the last fifty years, have revealed that many of these effects were neither known of at
that time nor taken into account by designers.
Local wind speeds can be reduced or increased due to the topography.
It is a matter of fact in hydrodynamics that when the wind is reduced in some places, it shall
likewise be increased in other places in order to comply with the equation of continuity.
Such increases are often found in places like—
(a) over hill crests;
(b) near sharp edges (escarpments) exposed to high level winds over surrounding terrain;
(c) on the side of hills and mountains ‘corner effect’;
(d) in valleys or fjords where the airflow may be compressed locally ‘funnelling effect’;
(e) rotor formation behind a mountain; and
(f) behind steep mountain sides (or edges) where particular turbulence may be formed
‘vortex streets’.
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B6.2 Turbulence generation behind steep hills and ridges

In complex terrain, it is often experienced that wind speeds on the leeward side of a steep
mountain or hill may be significantly higher than they are on the windward side. This may
occur both on—
(a) the leeward side of a rounded mountain ridge perpendicular to the wind; and
(b) behind singular hills with steep slopes on the windward side.
Typical areas for such phenomena are within and on the downwind side of high mountain
ranges.
The same effects are also frequently found on the downwind side of a major mountain or
isolated hill ridges of even smaller scale.
The occurrence of the second phenomenon b) is not as well known as the first, mainly
because of more limited extensions of each hill, and the possible lack of recent reported
wind damage. Effects of this kind are generally known as ‘rotors’ and ‘vortex streets’.
The distribution of wind velocity with height is known to be significantly different in
narrow windstorms such as severe thunderstorms than in fully developed gales or cyclones.
Physical and numerical modelling of thunderstorm downdrafts by Holmes, (See
Paragraph A3, reference [20]), Letchford, (See Paragraph A3, reference [21]), Selvam and
Holmes, (See Paragraph A3, reference [22]) have shown that there is a maximum wind
speed developed between 0.3 and 0.6 delta above ground. Where delta is the height at
which the velocity reaches half its maximum value. Above this height the velocity has been
found to drop off markedly.
These studies indicate that a structure approximating a 50–70 m tower will be fully loaded
over its height if impacted by these high wind gusts.
These studies have also examined the speed up effect that occurs over hills and ridges. This
speed up is usually referred to as a topographical multiplier Mt, which is the ratio of speed
at a height over the feature to the speed at the same height in flat terrain. Holmes, (See
Paragraph A3, reference [20]) investigated a single hill of slope 0.25 and found that the
speedup on the crest was a maximum of 1.2 near ground and decreased linearly to an
effective height of 100 m above the crest of the hill.
Studies by Letchford, (See Paragraph A3, reference [21]) on embankments from 0.2 to 0.6
found similar results with a slight increase for the steeper ridges. This later work
recommends, in the absence of further data, a value of Mt = 1 + slope to be adopted and be
applied at a height of 10 m above the ridge where the slope exceeds 0.10.
B6.3 Escarpments
Observations of high wind damage during tropical cyclones in Northern Queensland
indicate that speed up effects can also occur during high winds on the upper slopes of
coastal mountain range escarpments, crest of escarpments. Analysis of damage patterns
suggest a speed up of 1.2 × basic gust wind velocities can frequently occur. The upper level
of amplification of this speedup is dependent on the escarpment slope profile, height and
basic wind velocity. AS/NZS 1170 provides for values up to 1.5.
Overhead lines traversing an escarpment need to be carefully evaluated and have structures
position to avoid as far as possible, these potential extreme gust zones immediately below
the escarpment edge, and in the zone immediately behind the crest. If siting cannot be
avoided then stronger structure types should be assessed.
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Structures located on the slopes of escarpments and subject to the speed up effects also
need to accommodate the potential for resonance caused to the structure by localised wake
turbulence from terrain variations. Tower failure investigations carried out by Prof A.
Davenport, (See Paragraph A3, references [23] and [24]) in Hong Kong confirmed that
earthwork benching to enable towers to be constructed created vortex shedding during a
Typhoon wind storm that resulted in severe resonance of tower members and resultant
fatigue failure of towers.
B6.4 Local effects
B6.4.1 Channelling effects
Where windstorms have the potential to track within frontal weather system over relatively
flat to undulating land, they normally travel in a predominate direction.
However, thunderstorm winds generated from such systems occur as outflow winds or as
isolated wind phenomena such as down bursts or severe downdrafts, are normally
characterized by narrow damage paths with widths up to 2000 m at ground level.
When these high intensity wind gusts with velocities ranging from 30–60 m/s approach
local mountains, the wind flow patterns may be significantly modified and can be
channelled and redirected.
Placement of structures within predominate features such as gaps between mountain ridges,
in narrow river valleys through mountainous zones, and on low ridges and plateaus within
higher mountain zones can be severely effected.
Velocity speedup, local turbulence and wind eddies can have complex effects on structure
wind loadings.
Evidence from transmission line tower failures within a narrow valley between 500 m high
mountain ridges in Queensland, during a severe thunderstorm downburst has indicated
speedup effects of 30% at 10 m reference wind velocities and possible high turbulent
effects 30m height above the valley floor as they affected a 54 m high structure. Wind gust
directional changes of 45° were also observed.
B6.4.2 Funneling effects
High intensity wind flows along valleys provide directional control of wind flow patterns.
Where there is a narrowing of these valleys, such as towards and at the valley head, there is
the potential for wind speed up effects to occur. Studies for wind turbine sites indicate
velocity speeds can increase typically up to 20% above the crest.
In a similar way to the channelling effects of valleys, converging mountain ranges and
passes have a similar effect on wind velocities. Structure sites located within narrow passes
need to be carefully considered.
B6.4.3 Katabatic wind effects
In many high mountainous regions, down drafts of cold air from high plateaus, ice and
snow regions, and from high altitude airflows because of large scale temperature inversion
or draw down effects from weather systems, can occur.
These are sometimes more pronounced in some falling valleys from these mountainous
regions and wind velocities up to 60 m/s have been recorded.
These valley areas are in most cases denuded of vegetation and have normally never been
used for residential purposes. Where vegetation has survived over time evidence usually
exists of wind effects to plant growth.
Generally this type of wind occurs for extended periods with the potential to significantly
damage any structure placed within its path.
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B6.4.4 Extensive fetch distances

Overhead line structure placement often needs to occur on elevated positions where the line
route passes over low ranges or around other significant topographical features.
Such positions are more exposed to any approaching significant windstorm and in some
cases the terrain at the elevated site may be Category 1 even though the immediate local
terrain could appear to be Category 4. (Reference AS/NZS 1170.2.)
Consideration should be given to providing increased structure design wind loadings, or
strength for such situations.
B6.4.5 Air turbulence near airports
Overhead lines located in close proximity to the flight paths of major airport runways may
be subject to the effects of wind turbulence effects from some types of aircraft during take
off. Rotating vortexes have been found to spin off the wingtip zones of the aircraft and
cause clashing of aerial conductors as these turbulent effects impact lines. Under grounding
of overhead lines should be adopted if these effects are experienced.
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APPENDIX C
SPECIAL FORCES
(Informative)
C1 GENERAL
This Appendix sets out requirements to be considered in overhead line design regarding
special forces that may be encountered on some lines.
C2 FORCES DUE TO SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS

In flexible aerial conductor systems, such as, landing spans to the substation gantries from
towers/poles and spans within close proximity to the substation, the mechanical effects due
to short-circuit effects produce aerial conductor tensile forces resulting from the swing-out
of elastically and thermally expanded aerial conductors, which in turn can be the cause of
secondary short-circuits. These aerial conductor tensile forces when compared in magnitude
with the maximum wind tensions can be significantly high and require the designers to
consider these when designing the supporting structures.
The systems of equations required to represent the mechanical response of the supporting
systems are non-linear. In the IEC 60865-1, a simplified method is stated for calculation of
maximum values of the following:
Effect Force 1 at time Force 2 at time Force 3 at time Horizontal
t1** t2** t3** displacement
Short-circuit
Pinch force, Fpi Short-circuit
drop force, Ff
(tensile force in tensile force, Ft
(tensile force in
the aerial due to swing- Horizontal
At short-circuit the aerial
conductor) out in the aerial displacement,
inception conductor)
when the sub- conductor bh, during
* bundled aerial when the span
conductors bundle during swing-out of the
conductors falls down from
clash or reduce or at the end of span
the highest
their distance the short-circuit
point of
without clashing current flow
movement
Short-circuit
Short-circuit
drop force, Ff
tensile force, Ft
(tensile force in
due to swing- Horizontal
At short-circuit the aerial
out in the aerial displacement,
inception conductor)
— conductor bh, during
*single aerial when the span
during or at the swing-out of the
conductor falls down from
end of the short- span
the highest
circuit current
point of
flow
movement
* The times t1, t2 and t3 are derived from the total short-circuit duration.
** The above forces, Fpi, Ft and Ff are related to the initial static tension existing within
the span. Therefore, the initial static tension or everyday tension is an important
parameter in the calculation of the above forces.
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The simplified approach depends on general data such as span length, everyday tension, and
distance between phases, structure stiffness, aerial conductor data, short-circuit current and
duration. In particular, this may involve the following:
(a) A short-circuit level should be specified with reference to the levels specified for
switchgear rating.;
(b) The short-circuit current used for checking is the maximum level allowed by the
substation equipment (even if it is not attained in the present stage of development of
the transmission system) in order to facilitate further evolution of the system.
(c) The supports close to the substation should be checked taking into account the
reduction of the short-circuit current due to line impedance.
(d) The support check ceases where the short-circuit current decreases to less than the
above specified levels.
(e) This rule should be applied to check 5 to 10 spans from the substation. Usually, only
1 span is affected by the excessive swinging and 1 or 2 supports adjacent to the
substation are subjected to the mechanical overloads from short-circuits.
(f) Only the 2-phase short-circuit currentshould be checked.
The reduction of short-circuit current with time should also be taken into account according
to the electrical characteristics to the system. The primary fault clearing time should be
used.
The load combinations required to assess and design structures able to withstand short-
circuit forces is of considerable interest, in addition the safety factors taken into account on
the generated tensile forces due to short-circuit is important so as not to over-estimate this
effect.
Wind load and short-circuit load both vary in time, independently of each other. In addition,
the direction of wind varies. There are no mathematical procedures available or standards
for a true or reasonable combination of short-circuit and wind loads. Therefore, it would be
sufficient to consider a 25% ultimate wind effect in the load combination related to short-
circuit loadings.
In practice, short circuit loadings are treated as dynamic loadings due to their short time
evolution. In the simplified approach, this load is treated as an ‘exceptional load’ and a
safety factor of 1.25 is recommended. In the case of short impulsive loads for which large
stress rates occur, structural steels experience a delayed plastic flow phenomenon that
results in a temporary increase in strength (yield point).
Based on the above, the following load combinations are to be considered for the landing
gantries to the first span from poles/towers under short-circuit loadings—
Short-circuit load φRn > 0.25Wn + 1.25Ft + 1.1Gs + 1.25Gc + 1.3Fsc* . . .C1
Ft tensions for aerial conductors not in short-circuit on one of the 3-phases shall be based
on temperature corresponding to everyday load condition with a nominal wind pressure of
0.25 times the ultimate design wind pressure.
Fsc* short-circuit tensions are the maximum of the Ft, Ff and Fpi tensions from the
calculation methods described above.
Design of foundations under short-circuit loadings is not practical due to the short duration
of the forces and the response of the heavy and inert foundations. Therefore the reactions
resulting from the short-circuit loadings can be considered for the steel anchor bolts and the
steel structure itself, whereas the normal load conditions are suitable for the foundation
design.
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C3 CREEPING SNOW
Creeping snow is to be considered with regard to the potential for additional loadings on
foundations and lower parts of supports (especially bracing members).
Principles of calculation of loadings caused by creeping snow cannot be fully defined and
local experience is important.
Appropriate loading assumptions or protective measures should be adopted to reduce the
risk of failures of supports.
Protection measures should be taken where possible to deflect or restrain by means of an
independent structure any potential creeping snow accumulations
C4 EARTHQUAKES
Wind loadings are usually the more determining factor in the design of overhead line
towers, however seismic loads may lead to additional loading forces that should be
considered in known very active seismic zones.
In these locations consideration needs to be given to the natural period of vibration of the
structure, the site-structure resonance factor (depending on the soil conditions), and the
height, weight and mass distribution of the support structure.
Since the frequency of the support is higher than that of aerial conductors, the dynamic load
from aerial conductors obviously is not significant. For the same reasons no important
effects from the support on aerial conductors should be expected.
However, the ground acceleration due to earthquakes may influence the design of rigid and
heavy concrete pole structures, particularly pole mounted transformer supports.
Reference should be made to AS 1170.4 and NZS 1170.5 for appropriate general design
provisions. In addition the following specific provisions for overhead lines should be
considered.
C4.1 General principles relating to overhead lines
The design of any overhead line near a known active fault or in an area susceptible to
earthquake-induced liquefaction, shall recognize the large movements which may result
from settlement, rotation and translation of foundations. In this case, consideration should
be given to the social and economic consequences of failure in developing mitigation
options.
In general, pole and tower structures have proven not to be susceptible to damage from
earthquake shaking motions.
Structures of the following types however, shall be designed to resist earthquake loads:
(a) Pole structures supporting heavy equipment (i.e. transformers).
(b) Pole structures in alpine areas subject to high ice loads (as defined in
AS/NZS 1170.3) where at least 50% of the contributing mass (including ice) is
located in the top third of the structure height.
(c) Pole structures supporting a short span attached to a rigid termination structure (e.g.
substation termination).
Pole structures with a longer fundamental period (T 1) and located in deep alluvial soils are
often sensitive to the amplification effects of ground motion. This should be taken into
account as appropriate.
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C4.2 Seismic mass

The seismic mass of the pole/tower structure shall include—
(a) the dead load arising from all permanent parts of the structure including hardware,
equipment, the self weight of tower and any maintenance platforms, ladders and
climbing facilities; and
(b) the mass of aerial conductors and stays.
If the pole structure is located in an alpine area, the additional weight of snow/ice on the
aerial conductors and towers shall be considered in determining the seismic weight.
C4.3 Fundamental period of structure (T 1 )
The fundamental period can determined using the Rayleigh method in NZS 1170.5 or by
computer analysis. Alternative calculation methods can be found in ANSI/TIA-222G.
The typical fundamental frequency of power structures is typically—
(a) Single pole 0.5 to 1.5 Hz;
(b) H-frames 1 to 3 Hz; and
(c) Lattice structures 2 to 6 Hz.
C4.4 Ductility factor
The maximum ductility factor (μ) used for design of any structure is limited to—
Structure type Maximum ductility factor (μ)

Timber 1
Free standing pole Steel 2
Concrete 1.25
Free standing lattice tower 3
Guyed tower 3
C4.5 Modelling of cables and aerial conductors

The aerial conductors and cables may be modelled as linear spring (with due allowance for
sag of the cable) by adjusting the modulus of elasticity as follows:
Ec
Eeff =
(γ L) 2 . . .C2
1+ Ec
12σ 3
If this is to be modelled as a horizontal spring, then the horizontal component of cable
tension should be taken as—
Ac E ff
K eff , h = cos 2 α . . .C3
L
where
Ac is the cross sectional area of the aerial conductor or cable (mm2 )
Ec = the modulus of elasticity of the aerial conductor or cable
Eeff = the effective modulus of elasticity (MPa)
σ = the tensile stress in the aerial conductor or cable (MPa)
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L = the cable length (m)

γ = the cable unit weight (N/m)
α = the angle of the cable to the horizontal (degrees)
If the horizontal distance between the structure base and stay anchor point exceeds 300 m,
out-of-phase excitation of the anchor point shall be included in the analysis.
C4.6 Methods of analysis
C4.6.1 Equivalent static force method
The equivalent static force method may be used provided all of the following conditions are
met:
(a) The plan stiffness and mass distribution should be approximately symmetrical in both
orthogonal directions, i.e. the eccentricity between the centre of mass and centre of
stiffness is less than 30% of the smallest plan dimension of the structure.
(b) The vertical regularity should be also constant with no abrupt changes of stiffness,
i.e. the stiffness does vary by more than 50% between adjacent sections.
(c) The mass regularity of a section (mass per unit length) should not vary by more than
200% from an adjacent section. Concentrated masses within the top third of the
structure which contribute less than 50% to the total base overturning moment are
acceptable.
(d) The structure height is less than—
(i) Poles 15 m
(ii) Lattice towers 30 m
(iii) Guyed structures no limit
NOTES:
1 On a lattice tower, a section shall be considered the distance between vertical leg
connections but not exceeding 15 m.
2 The mass of stays is excluded from determining mass irregularities.
3 Antenna mounts, platforms, torque arms and cross arms shall not be considered a stiffness
irregularity.
C4.6.2 Modal response spectrum analysis
A modal analysis is required when the structure does not meet the requirements of
Equivalent Static Force Method (i.e. significant mass or stiffness irregularities exist) and
the height is less than
(a) Poles 60 m
(b) Lattice towers 180 m
A modal analysis should be undertaken where the relative displacement between points on
the structure is important. (The lateral force method underestimates the magnitude of
differential displacement between points on a structure due to the contribution of higher
modes).
C4.6.3 Time history analysis
A time history analysis is required when the relative displacement between points on the
structure is important or where the horizontal distance between the structure base and stay
anchor point exceeds 300 m (out of plane movements are included in the analysis) or
exceeds the height requirements for a modal analysis.
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C4.7 Combination of effects

A combination of effects of orthogonal actions shall be applied to the structure to account
for the simultaneous effects of shaking in the two perpendicular directions using either—
(a) combination of effects from two orthogonal directions for a static analysis—
(i) CASE 1: 100% from direction X plus 30% from direction Y
(ii) CASE 2: 100% from direction Y plus 30% from direction X;
(b) the square root of sum of the squares (SRSS) or CQC methods for a modal analysis;
or
(c) 3D time history analysis using the Z orthogonal earthquake component.
C4.8 Second order effect analysis (Pδ)
Second order effects (Pδ) need not be considered when δM/Mo < 0.10 where δM is the
overturning effect due to second order effects and Mo is the first order overturning moment.
Second order effects shall be considered for all guyed structures.
C4.9 P-Δ Effects
Second order effects (PΔ) need not be considered when at least one of the following
conditions is met:
(a) Fundamental period is less than 0.45 s.
(b) Structure height less than 15 m and the fundamental period is less than 0.8 s.
(c) The ductility factor is less than 1.5.
(d) Lattice towers less than 140 m height where height (h/W) to face ratio is less than 10.
A rational analysis method which takes into account the post elastic deflections of the
structure shall be used to determine the PΔ effects.
C4.10 Vertical seismic response
The structures shall be designed to remain elastic under both positive and negative vertical
acceleration. This shall be considered to act non-concurrently with the horizontal seismic
response.
C4.11 Seismic displacements
Where the structural system can be simulated as a single degree of freedom structure, the
seismic displacement at the centre of mass can be taken as follows, unless a more detailed
study is undertaken:
μ C (T ) gZRS pT12
Δ= . . .C4
4π 2
where
Δ = the seismic displacement at centre of mass (m)
g = 9.81 ms2
T1 = the fundamental period of the structure (s)
C(T), Z, R, Sp are factors in NZS 1170.5
C4.12 Liquefaction
Liquefaction of loose saturated, cohesion-less soils (sands, silts and loose sandy gravels)
during strong seismic tremors shall be taken into consideration in the route selection of
lines.
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The consequences of liquefaction shall be considered, including—

(a) foundation failure in saturated sands and sandy clays;
(b) loss of pole or pile lateral or vertical capacity;
(c) subsidence; and
(d) lateral spreading of slopes, embankments and ground towards river banks.
The risk of liquefaction shall be consistent with the other performance requirements for the
pole or line section.
C4.13 Holding-down bolts
Where base plate mounting of structures are used, holding-down bolts shall provide a
minimum net vertical uplift reaction under design earthquake conditions not less than 50%
of the dead load reaction.
C5 MINING SUBSIDENCE
Where overhead lines are located in areas subject to underground coal mining the impact of
ground subsidence and horizontal displacement of soil strata shall be considered in design.
This type of mining is generally carried out in softer sedimentary rock strata.
In the case of other mineral mining, they are normally in hard rock formations and the
impact on overhead lines can be ignored.
C5.1 General design provisions
Pole lines at lower voltage are not sensitive to mining subsidence unless electrical
clearances are breached.
Transmission line towers however, can be affected due primarily to the spread of the tower
base.
In general ‘bore and pillar’ mining techniques provide columns of rock that safely support
the mine overburden, and it has been common practice to locate tower structures over these
columns where mine workings are within 100 m of the surface. Mine workings at greater
depths normally have no impact at the ground surface.
However in the case of older coal mines, these pillars weather over time and can collapse
and cause general subsidence at the surface. This effect can normally be expected to occur
over a period of time and to have limited or no damage to tower lines.
‘Long wall’ coal mining techniques, however progressively remove all material and allow
the overburden to settle behind the advancing working face. This has the effect of
translating rapid subsidence to the surface and progressively to ‘bend’ the surface strata as
the earth mass settles. These bends cause stretching effects and horizontal displacement will
occur. Horizontal displacements over a 10 m base spread, have been observed to be in the
range of 100–300 mm.
If the tower bases in these locations are tied together with reinforced concrete or steel tie
beams, damage to the above ground structure can be limited or avoided. Consideration
needs to be given however to the horizontal forces applied to the structure foundation in
these situations.
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APPENDIX D
SERVICE LIFE OF OVERHEAD LINES
(Normative)
D1 GENERAL
The service life of a structure is the period (generally in years) over which it will continue
to serve its intended purpose safely, without undue maintenance or repair disproportionate
to its cost of replacement and without exceeding any specified serviceability criteria. This
recognizes that cumulative deterioration of the structure over time will occur, due to ‘wear
and tear’ or environmental effects. Therefore, due maintenance and possible minor repairs
will be required from time to time to maintain the structure in a safe and useable condition
over its service life.
The design life, or target nominal service life expectancy, of a structure is dependent on a
number of variable factors. The information contained in this Appendix is given as a
reasonable basis for the economic evaluation of alternative support systems; the selection of
a particular structure type for given site conditions; the detail design of a particular
structure; or the selection of suitable materials or protective treatment.
It is generally considered that structures and fittings located within 1.0 km of the sea will be
subjected to more severe exposure and would normally require either special protection or a
shorter service life.
D2 SUGGESTED NOMINAL SERVICE LIFE

Based on the aboveground exposure classes defined in Table D1 and Figures D2 and D3 the
nominal service lives given in Table D2 are suggested.
D3 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
D3.1 Soil type
Support structures and their foundations constructed or embedded in aggressive soils should
have suitable protective barriers or preventative measures incorporated in their
construction. Alternatively, a significantly reduced service life should be considered. The
presence of landscaped gardens and lawn and the associated effects of water and fertilizers
should be considered.
D3.2 High water tables
Poles embedded in sites prone to high water tables should be suitably treated to maintain
consistent performance above and below ground.
D3.3 Accumulation of condensation
When assessing the life of a hollow steel or concrete pole structure, consideration should be
given to the potential effects of condensation entrapment due to pumping action due to
temperature variations, if the internal void does not have adequate venting or drainage.
D3.4 Regions of low humidity
In regions of low humidity, an extended service life is usually expected when compared to
regions of more humid conditions.
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D3.5 Accidental damage

Accidental damage, such as vehicle impact or falling trees, can cause substantial overloads
and even complete structure failure. Wind speeds in excess of the design wind speeds can
similarly create substantial overloads. Many such accidents can occur and thus reduce the
service life.
D3.6 Fire
In regions susceptible to uncontrolled fires, consideration should be given to the use of fire-
resistant materials. The post-fire strength and durability of poles should be assessed by a
competent person.
D3.7 Concrete poles
Concrete poles, like other concrete structures, are typified by minimal maintenance, long
service life and good aesthetics. Service life considerations include the following:
(a) Environmental High quality concrete exposed to normal ‘arid’ or ‘temperate’
conditions would be regarded as having an indeterminate service life—a life beyond
100 years. Studies have shown that the depth of carbonation in spun concrete has
been immeasurable (less than 1 mm) after a period of typically 30 years. This
Standard recognizes this fact and specifies a minimum cover of 9 mm, provided that
the concrete is proven to be high quality by achieving a water absorption value less
than 5.5%.
The existence of chlorides in the environment is much more damaging. Poles being
vertical structures have an inherent ability to shed surface contaminants, such as
airborne sea spray, to a certain extent but the in-ground portion can be highly
exposed. Except in marine splash conditions it is generally the below-ground portion
of a pole that needs the most attention to cope with chlorides.
(b) Cracking Excessive cracks will reduce the service life. The commonly accepted
crack-width criteria for different exposures are as follows:
(i) Width <0.3 mm Exposure Classifications A1, A2, B1 (see Table D1).
(ii) Width <0.2 mm Exposure Classification B2.
(iii) Width <0.1 mm Exposure Classification C.
Generally, cracks are barely measurable in most concrete poles. The self-healing process
(autogenous healing) normally seals cracks after some time.
D3.8 Timber poles
The values of design life given in Table D4 assume that the poles are subject to a
systematic program of inspection, at least as rigorous as that recommended in Table D3,
and that appropriate maintenance is promptly carried out when an inspection indicates a
need for it.
The primary hazard agencies that need to be considered with respect to timber poles are
decay, termites and weathering. Allowance for this has been made in the design provisions
of Appendix F by the use of pole degradation (kd) factors.
Where supplementary maintenance such as the provision of diffusion preservatives (boron
rods) or specific protection systems for termites are provided, the service life of poles will
be shorter.
The exposure classifications in Table D1 refer to generalized conditions, and it should be
kept in mind that timber poles are susceptible to localized microclimatic effects.
Aggressive termites can be found in most parts of Australia and the following termite
hazard map Figure D1 provides a general guide to the extent of the potential problem.
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While New Zealand has three known native termites species, they do not pose a concern to
timber poles. There are however potential imports of Australian termites that need to be
monitored and eradicated if identified.
DA RWIN
Ca ir ns
B ro o m e Tow nsv i l l e
Po r t H e d l a n d Mount Isa
Alice Springs
R o c k h a m pto n
C h a r l ev i l l e
B R I S BA N E
N a r ra b i m
G e ra l d to n Kalgoorlie
Dubbo
Mildura N ewc a s tl e
PERT H
SY D N E Y
Albur y
CA N B ER R A
A l ba ny A D EL A ID E
M o u nt G a m b i e r Bega
M EL B O U R N E
L EG EN D :
= Ve r y h i g h
= High H O BA R T
= M o d e rate
= Low
= Ve r y l ow
= Negligible
FIGURE D1 TERMITE HAZARD MAP OF AUSTRALIA
D3.9 Steel poles and lattice steel towers

D3.9.1 General
Steel materials are normally used with zinc coating applied by a hot-dip galvanizing process
to extend the service life.
The use of untreated mild steel in normal arid conditions may provide a service life in
excess of 75 years.
D3.9.2 Environmental
The protective life of metallic zinc coatings on steel is roughly proportional to the mass of
zinc per unit of surface area, regardless of method of application. Hot-dip galvanizing
provides a minimum average coating mass of 350 g/m2 on steel less than 2 mm thick,
450 g/m2 on steel between 2 mm and 5 mm thickness and 600 g/m2 on steel over 5 mm
thick. The expected life for a given coating mass (years) in different atmospheric
environments is shown in Table D2.
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TABLE D1
ABOVE-GROUND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE CLASSIFICATION
(AUSTRALIA)
Climatic zone
Geographic region (1) Industrial proximity (2) Exposure class (3)
(see Figure D2)
Non-industrial A1
Inland
Arid Industrial B1
Near-coastal — B1
Coastal — B2
Non-industrial A2
Inland
Temperate (4) Industrial B1
Near-coastal — B1
Coastal — B2
Non-industrial B1
Inland
Tropical Industrial B2
Near-coastal — B1
Coastal — B2
(See Note 4) Any — C
NOTES:
1 The boundaries of the regions are related to the distance from the coastline to which prevailing
onshore winds carry salt-laden air. The boundaries will be affected by both latitude and local
topography and, therefore will vary from place to place. However, for exposure classification
purposes the regions are defined in Australia as follows:
(a) Inland — greater than 50 km from coast.
(b) Near-coastal — between 1 km and 50 km from coast.
(c) Coast — less than 1 km from coast.
In general, for coastal locations, exposure classification B2 applies, except where it can be
shown that there is an absence of airborne chlorides, e.g. due to the nature of the coastal
topography, the lesser exposure classification B1 applies.
2 Industrial proximity is classed as non-industrial if it is greater than 3.0 km from industrial
plants that discharge air pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) and
sulphur trioxide (SO 3 ), which form acids with airborne moisture. It is only appropriate for
inland regions.
3 Classes A1 to C represent increasing degrees of severity of exposure.
4 The New Zealand climate is classified as ‘temperate’ throughout, and the regions to which the
Exposure Class A2 applies is taken directly from Figure D3. The coastal region for application
of Exposure Class B2 extends shoreward for 500 m from the high-tide mark. The near-coastal
region to which Exposure Class B1 applies extends from there to the boundary of the A2
region. Active volcanic/geothermal areas may be regarded as Exposure Class C.
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FIGURE D2 CLIMATIC ZONES FOR AUSTRALIA
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FIGURE D3 (in part) NEW ZEALAND REGIONS FOR EXPOSURE CLASSES A2 and B1
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FIGURE D3 (in part) NEW ZEALAND REGIONS FOR EXPOSURE CLASSES A2 and B1
D3.10 Composite fibre poles (fibre reinforced resin composite material )

There is limited service history of composite fibre poles in Australia and the world. The
longest experience is in North America where a service life of 40 years has been
experienced.
Composite fibre poles should have a UV protective coating or additives applied during
manufacture to extend the service life of the pole.
Moisture ingress into the fibre cores will cause fibre ‘blooming’ and lead to failure if the
pole is not maintained.
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TABLE D2
SUGGESTED RANGE OF NOMINAL SERVICE LIFE OF STEEL
STRUCTURES AND CONCRETE POLES
Suggested nominal service life (years)
Exposure class Galvanized steel(5) Concrete
2(1) 2(1) 2(1)
200 g/m 400 g/m 600 g/m C (2)
A1 60–100+ 100+ 100++ 100+
A2 25–60 60–100 75–100+ 80–100
B1 12–25 25–50 35–75 60–80
B2 8–25 15–50 35–75 50–60

( 3) (6) (6) (6) (4)
C 3–12 6–25 9–35 50
NOTES:
1 Preservative treatment is hot-dip galvanized, for the mass/square metre as noted, with no
additional coatings such as chromate, paint or plastic. These figures are indicative only and
make no allowance for any corrosion of the underlying steel.
2 Cover to reinforcement, C = 9 mm, or 19 mm.
3 It should be noted that above-ground conditions may differ from below-ground conditions.
Aggressive below-ground environments may be regarded as a Class C exposure.
4 Past experience has shown that uncoated steel can have a reasonable service life in arid
conditions.
TABLE D3
RECOMMENDED INSPECTION PERIODS FOR TIMBER POLES
Recommended inspection periods (years)
Species and class Preservative treatment
First Subsequent
Hardwood (Euc.Spp) Nil 10 every 3 to 6
Durability Class 1
Hardwood (Euc.Spp) H5 to sapwood 20 every 3 to 6
Durability Class 1
Hardwood (Euc.Spp) Nil 10 every 3 to 6
Durability Class 2
Hardwood (Euc.Spp) H5 to sapwood 20 every 3 to 6
Durability Class 2
Softwood (Australian) H5 20 every 3 to 6
Softwood (New Zealand) H5 10 every 3 to 6
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FIGURE D4 NOMINAL SERVICE LIFE ZONES FOR TIMBER POLES

NOTE: Criteria for Zone 2 applies to all parts of New Zealand.
TABLE D4
SUGGESTED RANGE OF NOMINAL SERVICE LIFE OF TIMBER POLES
Service life expectancy (years)
Zone
(see H5 treated timber to AS 1604 Desapped untreated timber
Figure D4)
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 1 Class 2
1 45–55 35–45 25–35 40–50 25–35 15–25
2 50+ 50+ 30–40 50+ 30–40 25–35
3 50+ 50+ 40–50 50+ 50+ 30–40
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APPENDIX E
DESIGN FOR LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE
(Normative)
E1 GENERAL
Lightning induced outages are one of the major cause of outages on overhead lines in areas
of moderate to high ceraunic activity. A moderate ceraunic level is between 1.5 and 2.5
ground strikes per sq km per year (30 and 50 thunderdays), and high level above 2.5 ground
strikes per sq km per year (50 thunderdays).
The acceptable outage rate due to lightning is therefore one of the most dominant design
parameters for an overhead line.
E2 ESTIMATION OF LINE OUTAGES DUE TO LIGHTNING

The prediction of lightning outages is not an exact science and the methods adopted in one
Authority may not be appropriate in others. It has been found that the parameters which can
be varied to achieve the largest influence on the lightning performance of overhead lines
are—
(a) installation of earthwire;
(b) having wood in the flashover circuit (crossarm or pole);
(c) critical flashover voltage (CFO) of the insulators; and
(d) pole footing resistance.
Overhead earthwires are used to shield the line from lightning strikes and are usually
installed on high reliability lines operating at sub-transmission and transmission voltage
levels. They are also installed on overhead distribution lines for short distances (typically
800 m) out of a substation to protect the substation equipment from damaging overvoltages.
One earthwire is usually sufficient to cater for shielding flashovers on structures below
20 m, but higher structures will need two earthwires to achieve effective shielding. With a
single earthwire, the shielding angle is usually in the range of 30 to 40°.
The arc quenching property of wood has been used by Authorities to reduce lightning
induced outages on the network. When wood is added to the insulation path, the combined
insulation strength of the insulator and wood is increased. The higher the impulse strength
of the insulator/wood combination, the higher the resistance to flashover (see reference at
the end of this Appendix) for the electrical properties of wood. The effective impulse
strength of a series wood and insulator path can be calculated as follows:
I total = [Iwood2 + Iinsulator2]1/2 . . .E1
where
Iwood = Impulse strength of wood
Iinsulator = Impulse strength of insulator
When an overhead earthwire is installed on powerlines, generally a down lead is run to
earth to provide a low resistance path to ground. A low pole footing resistance not only
reduces the probability of lightning induced backflashovers but also offers the following
advantages:
(i) Reduces risk of injury to persons or animals due to rises in earth potential at the
structure and the surrounding soil.
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(ii) Provides a low impedance path for earth faults to ensure there is sufficient fault
current to operate protection relays.
E3 MEASURES TO IMPROVE LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE

A reduction in lightning outage time on transmission lines can be achieved by installing
auto-reclosing schemes.
An improvement in lightning outage rates, particularly for distribution lines can be
achieved by using wood in the crossarms or poles. The wood increases the impulse strength
of the line to ground and can quench the lightning arcs thereby avoiding a power frequency
fault.
This performance can be described by the shielding failure flashover rate, Rsf, and by the
backflashover rate, Rb. It is fixed by operational considerations and depends on the
insulation strength of the line and on the following parameters:
(a) The lightning ground flash density.
(b) The height of the overhead line.
(c) The aerial conductor configuration.
(d) The protection by shield wire (s).
(e) The tower earthing.
(f) The installation of surge arresters on the overhead line.
Reference: DARVENIZA, M. Electrical Properties of Wood and Line Design published by
University of Queensland, 1978.
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APPENDIX F
TIMBER POLES
(Normative)
F1 GENERAL
Design properties and design methods for timber utility poles and components shall be in
accordance with AS 1720.1 or AS/NZS 1328. Where specifically defined for round timbers,
they shall be in accordance with Paragraphs F1.2 to F1.4.
F1.1 Characteristic strengths and elastic moduli
The characteristic strengths and elastic moduli for untrimmed poles that conform in quality
to the grade requirements specified in AS 2209 shall be as specified in Tables F1 and F2,
unless verified by ingrade testing.
Strength groups and joint group classifications shall be assigned to species in accordance
with AS 1720.2.
TABLE F1
POLE TIMBERS GRADED TO AS 2209—RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRENGTH
GROUPS AND CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES (MPa)
Tension parallel to Short

Compression
grain (f′ t ) (3) duration
Strength Stress Bending Shear parallel to
modulus-of
group grade (f′ b ) (3) (f′ s ) (3) grain
Hardwood Softwood elasticity
(f′ c ) (3)
(E)
S1 F34 100 60 — 7.2 75 21500
S2 F27 80 50 — 6.1 60 18500
S3 F22 65 40 — 5.0 50 16000
S4 F17 50 30 26 4.3 40 14000
S5 F14 40 25 21 3.7 30 12000
S6 F11 35 20 17 3.1 25 10500
S7 F8 25 15 13 2.5 20 9100
NOTES:
1 The equivalence expressed in the table above is based upon the assumption that the poles are cut from
mature trees.
2 The modulus of elasticity includes an allowance of about 5% for shear deformation.
3 See Paragraph F2.1.
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TABLE F2
CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH PROPERTIES (MPa) FOR BEARING AND
SHEAR AT JOINTS
Bearing
Shear at joint details
Strength group Perpendicular to grain Parallel to grain (f′ t ) (f′ s ) (see Note)
(f′ n ) (see Note) (see Note)
S1 60 — 7.2
S2 50 — 6.1
S3 40 — 5.0
S4 30 26 4.3
S5 25 21 3.7
S6 20 17 3.1
S7 15 13 2.5
NOTE:See Paragraph F2.1.
F1.2 Design factors—Material

F1.2.1 Capacity factor
Values for the capacity factor ( φ), for calculating the design capacity of poles ( φR), shall be
determined using Table F3.
TABLE F3
CAPACITY FACTORS FOR TIMBER POLES
Basis for determining characteristic strength properties Characteristic design φ
property to which the
value of ø shall apply
for calculating the
design capacity
Poles graded to AS 2209 All properties 0.90
Poles graded using proof grading in accordance with Section 7 (f′ b ) (see Note) 0.95
of draft code
All other properties 0.90
Poles with bending properties established from in grade (f′ b ) (see Note) 0.95
evaluation and subject to periodic testing/monitoring of
All other properties 0.90
properties
F1.2.2 Duration of load effects (strength)

The effect of duration of load on strength of timber poles and components is given by the
modification factor k1, as defined in Table F4. The effective duration of load refers to the
cumulative duration for which the peak load occurs. Guidelines for determination of the
effective duration of load are detailed in AS 1720.1.
F1.2.3 Duration of load effects (stiffness)
For timber poles subject to sustained bending, creep effects should be considered. The
effect of duration of load on stiffness of timber poles and components shall be determined
in accordance with AS 1720.1 or NZS 3603. For other timber components, the short-term
deflection shall be multiplied by the appropriate creep factor j2 or j3, as given in AS 1720.1
or NZS 3603
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TABLE F4
DURATION OF LOAD FACTOR FOR STRENGTH
Type of load Effective Modification factor (k 1) Modification factor (k 1)
duration of for strength of poles and (see Note) for strength
peak load timber components (see of timber connections
Note) using laterally loaded
fasteners
Instantaneous (e.g. ultimate wind and 3 seconds 1.00 1.14
earthquake)
Short-term (e.g. construction 3 hours 0.97 0.86
maintenance)
Medium term (e.g. snow/ice in sub- 3 days 0.94 0.77
alpine areas)
Long-term (e.g. snow/ice in alpine 3 months 0.80 0.69
areas)
Permanent >1 year 0.57 0.57
F1.2.4 Pole degradation factors

For all timber poles, the design shall allow for loss of strength and stiffness associated with
degradation of the critical section of the pole at and below the ground line over its expected
design life. The degradation factor (kd) shall be determined from Table F5, unless more
accurate durability information is available.
The values of kd given in Table F5 are based upon expected loss of effective section. In
cases where the local environment in which the pole will be located is known, to be of high
hazard (e.g. due to excessive moisture or high probability of insect attack) more
conservative values may be appropriate.
NOTE: Where a systematic inspection and maintenance program is in place and where any
evidence of degradation is effectively preservative treated (e.g. using diffusion preservatives),
then the values of kd given in Table F5 for untreated timbers will be conservative and higher
values may be appropriate.
TABLE F5
POLE DEGRADATION FACTORS
Type of pole Design Pole diameter Pole diameter Pole diameter
life d <250 mm 250 ≤d d >400 mm
(years) ≤400 mm
kd kd kd
Full length preservative-treated softwood 20 1.0 1.0 1.0

in accordance with As 2209 50 0.80 0.85 0.90
Full length preservative-treated hardwood 20 1.0 1.0 1.0

in accordance with AS 2209 50 0.80 0.85 0.90
Durability Class 1 untreated hardwood in 20 0.80 0.90 1.0

accordance with AS 2209 50 0.50 0.55 0.60
Durability Class 2 untreated hardwood in 20 0.70 0.80 0.90

accordance with AS 2209 50 0.30 0.40 0.45
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F1.2.5 Factor for immaturity

For poles having mid-length diameters less than 250 mm, due allowance shall be made for
the properties of immature timber, using the modification factors k20 and j9 from Table F6,
for strength and stiffness respectively.
TABLE F6
IMMATURITY FACTORS k 20 FOR DESIGN CAPACITY AND IMMATURITY
FACTORS j 9 FOR STIFFNESS
Immaturity factor k 20/j 9

Species
d = 100 m d = 125 m d = 150 m d = 175 m d = 200 m d = 225 m d = 250 m
Eucalypt and 0.90 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Corymbia
Softwoods 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.00
F1.2.6 Shaving factor

For timber members, the design characteristic strength properties shall be reduced if the
poles have been shaved, when modified from the natural pole form. The shaving factor for
strength k21 shall be determined as specified in Table F7. In addition to this modification for
strength, the values specified for stiffness in Table F1 shall be reduced by 5% for shaved
poles.
TABLE F7
SHAVING FACTOR k 21
Characteristic property Eucalypt and Corymbia Softwood species k 21
species k 21
Bending 0.85 0.75
Compression parallel to grain 0.95 0.90
Compression perpendicular to grain 1.00 1.00
Tension 0.85 0.75
F1.2.7 Processing factor

Where poles are steamed as a part of the manufacturing and fabrication process, the
characteristic strength properties shall be reduced using k22.
For poles that are steamed, k22 = 0.85, otherwise k22 = 1.0
F2 DESIGN CAPACITY
F2.1 Notation
The following notation is used in this Clause:
k1 = the duration of load factor
k12 = the stability factor for compression, determined in accordance with Section 3
of AS 1720.1, except that the slenderness coefficient (S) shall equal 1.15 L/dp
where—
L = the distance between effective restraints in any plane and;
dp = the nominal mid length diameter between the points of restraint
k20 = the immaturity factor
k21 = the shaving factor
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k22 = the processing factor

kd = the degradation factor
f′ t = the characteristic strength in tension
f′ c = the characteristic strength in compression parallel to grain
f′ n = the characteristic strength of timber in bearing perpendicular to grain
f′ b = the characteristic strength in bending
f′ s = the characteristic strength in shear
Ac = the cross-sectional area at the critical section
π d p2
=
4
As = the shear plane area
3π d p3
=
16
Z = the section modulus
π d p3
=
32
dp = the pole diameter at the critical section
ZT = torsional section modulus
π d p3
=
16
F2.2 Bending strength

The design capacity of poles in bending (φM) for the strength limit state, shall satisfy the
following:
φM ≤ M* . . .F1
φM = φk1 k20 k21 k22 kd [f′ b Z] . . .F2
F2.3 Shear strength
The design capacity of poles in shear ( φV) for the strength limit state, shall satisfy the
following:
φV ≥ V* . . .F3
φV = φk1 k20 k22 kd [f′s As] . . .F4
F2.4 Compressive strength
The design capacity of poles in axial compression (φNc) for the strength limit state, shall
satisfy the following:
φNc ≥ N* . . .F5
φNc = φk1 k12 k20 k21 k22 kd [f′ c Ac ] . . .F6
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F2.5 Combined bending and compression strength

Where a pole is subjected to combined bending and compression load effects, the diameter
shall be such that the following is satisfied:
⎛ M * ⎞ ⎛ N c* ⎞
⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ ≤1 . . .F7
⎝ φ M ⎠ ⎝ φ Nc ⎠
F2.6 Torsional strength
The design capacity of poles under torsion about the pole axis ( φT) for the strength limit
state shall satisfy the following equations:
φT ≥ T* . . .F8
φT = φk1 k20 k22 kd [f′s ZT] . . .F9
NOTE: The torsional rigidity of timber poles is normally very high, with the result that in most
situations the pole will rotate in the ground rather than induce resultant torsional forces in the
wood. As such, torsional strength is only considered in exceptional circumstances where the pole
is embedded rigidly into a foundation.
F2.7 Pole top deflection
Designers shall note that the modulus of elasticity (or stiffness) of poles in the ‘green’ state,
or re-wetted by waterborne CCA preservative, can be significantly less than that of dry or
seasoned poles. The values of modulus of elasticity (MOE) specified in Appendix F and in
AS 1720.1 are average values for unseasoned timber.
For situations where pole deflection is critical, designers shall use fifth percentile values of
MOE. For poles, an approximation of the fifth percentile MOE is obtained by multiplying
the average MOE by 0.5. Specific guidance on design for serviceability limit states is
presented in AS 1720.1.
It is recommended that poles subjected to sustained resultant loads be considered deflection
sensitive. For example, a service, street light fitting or slight angle, may result in the
structure developing a pronounced permanent bend as it undergoes in-situ drying.
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APPENDIX G
LATTICE STEEL TOWERS (SELF SUPPORTING AND GUYED MASTS)
(Normative)
G1 GENERAL
Lattice steel tower designs shall comply with the requirements of AS 3995 or ASCE 10-97
and the following special provisions:
G2 CALCULATION OF INTERNAL FORCES AND MOMENTS

G2.1 Method of analysis of lattice steel towers
In most cases, a single tower type can be used in various configurations with a number of
different body extensions and leg combinations. Each of these configurations will result in a
unique force distribution.
To capture the most unfavourable forces in the tower members, it is recommended to model
all the likely configurations and select the member sizes to satisfy each of these
configurations.
As many of the tower models will have a non-symmetrical leg combination it is important
to consider loading from all possible directions.
Primarily latticed towers are analysed as ideal elastic three dimensional trusses pinned
connected at joints. Such elastic analyses produce only joint displacements tension, and
compression in tower members and tension in guy stays.
Moments from normal framing, eccentricities are not calculated in the analysis. However,
bending moments in members because of framing eccentricities, eccentric loads, distributed
wind load on members can affect the member selection.
First-order linear elastic truss analysis treats all members as linearly elastic (capable of
carrying compression as well as tension), and assumes that the loaded configuration of the
structure is identical to its unloaded configuration consequently ignoring the secondary
effects of the deflected structure stipulating that the forces in the redundant members are
equal to zero.
This type of analysis is generally used for conventional, relatively rigid, self-supporting
structures. In a second-order (geometrically nonlinear) elastic analysis, structure
displacements under loads create member forces and these additional member forces are
called the P∆ effects. A second-order elastic analysis may show that redundant members
carry some load.
Flexible self-supporting structures and guyed structures normally require a second-order
analysis.
When performing a computer analysis of an existing structure, careful attention shall be
given to the method of analysis employed when the structure was originally designed by
manual algebraic or graphical methods. A three-dimensional computer analysis may
indicate forces in the members that are different from those used by manual methods.
Bending moments caused by wind loads on individual member are generally negligible, but
they may need to be considered in the design of slender bracings or horizontal edge
members.
It is normally unnecessary to consider deflections or vibration of lattice towers.
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G2.2 Guyed structures

Guys produce uplift loads on the guy foundation or anchor and compression loads on the
structure and its foundation. The guys shall be adjustable in length to permit plumbing of
the structure during construction and to account for elastic shortening of the mast, creep in
the guy and any initial movement of the uplift anchor.
Externally guyed supports (i.e. guyed masts) utilizing multiple stay arrangements are
sensitive to inaccurate amount of pretension in the guys.
The initial and final modulus of elasticity of the guys, creep of the guys together with the
flexibility of the tower shall be used to compute the forces in tower members and
foundation reactions.
G3 EMBEDMENT OF STEEL MEMBERS INTO CONCRETE BY MEANS OF

ANCHORING ELEMENTS
The total tensile or compression load of steel leg members anchored in concrete is
transferred to the concrete by two methods—
(a) steel angle stubs with anchoring elements such as angle cleats or studs These shall
be checked for shear due to the compression stresses between the element and the
concrete. No bending moment in cleats or studs should be considered; and
(b) base plate and holding-down bolts The holding-down bolts shall be checked for
shear, axial load as well as possible bending moments due to lateral displacement of
the bolts.
G4 CRANKED K BRACING
For large tower widths, a bend may be introduced into the main diagonals (see Figure G1).
This has the effect of reducing the length and size of the redundant members but produces
high stresses in the members meeting at the bend and necessitates transverse support at the
joint.
Diagonals and horizontals should be designed as for K bracing, effective lengths of
diagonals being related to the lengths to the knee joint.
FIGURE G1 CRANKED K BRACING
G5 PORTAL FRAMES
A horizontal member is sometimes introduced at the bend to turn a braced panel into a
portal frame (see Figure G2). The main disadvantage of this is the lack of articulation
present in the K brace.
This system is sensitive to foundation settlement or movement and special consideration
should be given to this possibility.
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FIGURE G2 PORTAL FRAME
G6 SECONDARY (REDUNDANT) MEMBERS

The following rules should be applied to the nominal bracing design. (See Figure G3):
(a) Face bracing—
(i) All members inclined ≤10° are considered horizontal—
2.5%
Load = = 1.77% of main member force
2
(ii) Members inclined >10° and connected to the main leg—
2.5%
2
(iii) Members inclined >10° and not connected to the main leg—
Force to balance vertical component of the connected inclined members
(iv) Members inclined ≤30° to be checked for bending with 1.4 kN load in the
middle of member. Bending check is independent from the axial load check.
(b) Hip bracing—
(i) All members inclined ≤10° are considered horizontal—
Load = 2.5% main member force
(ii) Members inclined >10°—
2.5%
2
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1.0 % of th e m a i n l e g l o ad
ba l a n c i n g 1.25% f ro m th e
B rac e l o ad c o n n e c te d b r a c e Inclined brace
2.5% P/ 2 e ac h 2.5% P/√2
H o r i zo nta l b r a c e
2.5% P
R e s tr a i nt
2.5% P/√2
L EG EN D :
P = M a x i m u m m a i n m e m b e r c o m p re s s i o n fo rc e
B1 B2
Inclined braces a1 a2
Force balancing ver tical
2.5% P/ 2 component of member
connected to the main leg
B1= B2* sin ( a2) / sin ( a1)
H o r i zo nta l b r a c e s
2.5% P/√2 e ac h
FIGURE G3 SECONDARY (REDUNDANT) MEMBERS
In case of cranked K bracing with an angle between the diagonal and main leg close to 15°,
secondary effects should be taken into consideration (global instability, main leg shortening
and bolt slip).
G7 SECURITY OF FASTENERS
G7.1 General application
All bolt nuts on lattice steel towers shall be locked in their tightened position against
loosing by aerodynamic induced vibration by the use of heavy-duty spring washers or
locking pins.
G7.2 Bolts in tension
Where bolts on major loaded connection points are in permanent tension, they shall be
fitted with lock nuts.
G7.3 Deterrent to vandalism
All bolts within 3000 mm of the ground should be secured to prevent or significantly deter
their removal by vandalism.
G8 ANTI CLIMBING DEVICES

Unauthorised climbing of structures supporting energized overhead lines is a public safety
issue that requires a national uniform standard of approach.
Consideration should be given to anti climbing devices or measures to prevent or
significantly deter unauthorised climbing.
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G9 PLAN BRACING
Horizontal plan bracing should be installed on all lattice steel towers at—
(a) the first horizontal structural member above ground;
(b) changes of leg slope;
(c) the lower face of all crossarms; and
(d) vertical intervals not exceeding 15.0 m in the tower body.
Reference may be made to CIGRE TB 196 for guidance on choice of an appropriate bracing
panel arrangement.
G10 STRENGTH FACTORS ( φ)

Strength factors ( φ) which takes into account variability of material and workmanship for
structural components used in lattice steel towers shall be taken as 0.9 unless otherwise
provided in the reference standard being used.
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APPENDIX H
ELECTRICAL DESIGN ASPECTS
(Normative)
H1 CORONA
Corona occurs when air is ionized. The most important corona effect for overhead lines is
around the aerial conductors. When the electric field on the surface of an aerial conductor
exceeds the corona inception voltage, the corona discharges in the form of arcs and
streamers can generate radio interference, television interference and audible noise.
Corona discharges usually occur during inclement weather (i.e. rain, fog ) when the surface
voltage gradient on the aerial conductor exceeds 16 kV/cm. During dry weather there is
almost negligible corona generated.
Other possible sources of corona are hardware surfaces and insulators. Polluted insulators
may have significant surface leakage current activity that can also cause corona.
Another related effect is spark discharges that may occur between discs of bridging strings
that are lightly loaded, mechanically. Spark discharges can generate radio interference,
television interference and audible noise.
H1.1 Design
The radial electric field at the aerial conductor surface is known as the surface voltage
gradient. It is influenced by voltage, number of aerial conductors per phase bundle, size of
aerial conductors, phase spacing, and to a lesser extent, line configuration, line phasing,
line height, and line proximity to other lines or wires.
Aerial conductor surface finish also has an effect. Care is required during stringing to
ensure there is no damage to aerial conductor surfaces. Any high points due to scratches on
the aerial conductor will have a high electric field and may act as a source for corona
generation. In the first few months of energized operation, aerial conductor surfaces are not
yet weathered, and corona levels can be above expectations. Over time, the high points are
burnt off and the corona activity reduces.
At voltages above 110 kV, it is often the requirement to meet the RIV, TVI and audible
noise levels which decide the aerial conductor to install on the overhead line rather than
thermal rating requirements. Avoiding corona is the main reason that aerial conductors are
bundled on lines at the higher voltage levels. Bundling has the effect of reducing the
electric field on the surface of the aerial conductors.
The recommended design approach to control corona is to limit the surface voltage gradient
to less than 16 kV/cm. The secondary effects of radio interference, television interference
and audible noise can be estimated based on empirical formulae using aerial conductor
surface voltage gradient as an input.
H1.2 Radio interference voltage
The most important design influence on the corona-generated radio noise levels produced
by any high voltage line is the electric field very close to the aerial conductors. This field is
influenced by voltage, number of aerial conductors per phase bundle, size of aerial
conductors, phase spacing, and to a lesser extent, line configuration, line phasing, line
height, and line proximity to other lines or wires. Radio noise levels are also influenced by
the local earth conductivity and the relative smoothness of aerial conductor and hardware
surfaces.
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Generally, corona generated radio-noise levels become a significant design concern only for
lines operating at voltages of 110 kV or above. For these high voltages, noise-level
prediction methods assume that line hardware is designed or shielded so that only the
corona on aerial conductors will be responsible for observed radio noise levels, and that
aerial conductors are installed taking care not to damage their surface. In the first few
months of energized operation, aerial conductor surfaces are not yet weathered, and radio
noise levels can be a few decibels above ultimate expectations.
Guidance on limits for electromagnetic interference from overhead lines can be found in
AS/NZS 2344.
H1.3 Audible noise
The principal source of foul weather acoustic noise is water drops. Whether hanging from a
wet line or on insulators, arriving at the line as raindrops, or streaming from the line, water
can give rise to various types of discharge. Snow and ice rime on aerial conductors may
also give rise to noise.
H1.3.1 Design influences
The most important design influence on the audible noise levels produced by a high-voltage
line is the electric field very close to the aerial conductors (surface electric gradient). This
field is influenced by voltage, number of aerial conductors per phase bundle, size of aerial
conductors, phase spacing, and to a lesser extent, line configuration, line phasing, line
height, and line proximity to other lines or wires. Audible noise levels are further
influenced by the relative smoothness of aerial conductor and hardware surfaces and
contamination due to hydrophobic materials.
In general, audible noise levels become a significant design concern only for lines operating
at voltages of 110 kV or above. For these high voltages, noise-level prediction methods
assume that line hardware is designed or shielded so that only the corona on aerial
conductors will be responsible for observed audible noise levels in wet weather, and that
aerial conductors are installed taking care not to damage their surfaces.
As with radio noise, audible noise levels may be a little above ultimate expectations during
an initial weathering period.
H1.4 Corona loss
In cases where the surface voltage gradient is very high there can be a power loss along the
aerial conductor due to corona emission. On overhead power lines, corona loss is expressed
in watts per metre (W/m) or kilowatts per kilometre (kW/km). The power loss due to corona
is typically less than a few kilowatts/kilometre in fair weather but it can amount to tens of
kilowatts/kilometre during heavy rain and up to one hundred kilowatts/kilometre during
frost.
The magnitude of fair-weather corona loss is insignificant in comparison with foul-weather
loss (maximum corona loss). However, fair weather losses occur for a large percentage of
time and affect the value of the total energy consumed by the line (yearly average corona
loss).
H2 ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
Electrostatic induction is caused by the electric field surrounding the powerline and these
fields can induce charges on nearby metallic objects. Unless these charges are addressed
properly by proper earthing, they can cause shock to the public. These shocks can range
from fingertip touch perceptible to hand grab annoyance. The thresholds for these
sensations are given in Table H1.
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TABLE H1
REACTION TO SPARK DISCHARGES
Reaction/sensation Threshold
Energy (milliJoules Charge (μCoulombs)
Fingertip touch perception 0.14 0.30
Hand grab perception 0.50 0.50
Fingertip touch annoyance 1.30 0.90
Hand grab annoyance 4.00 1.60
The charge induced to the metallic object is dependent on the surface area of the object and
the overhead line’s electric field strength. The charge can safely be discharged to earth by
installing earth leads to the metallic object.
On extra high voltage lines (above 345 kV) the electric field strength on the power line can
be quite high and lead to high charges on large vehicles parked under the line. The high
discharge currents can be a hazard to the public in proximity to the vehicle.
H3 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic induction is caused by the load current and/or fault currents flowing in the
overhead line. These currents can generate high voltages in parallel metallic circuits. For
telecommunication coordination, the limits are set out in SA HB 102 For pipelines, the
levels are outlined in AS/NZS 4853.
These high induced voltages into nearby circuits or objects can be mitigated by the
following methods:
(a) Earthing the circuit or object at regular intervals.
(b) The installation of insulators to sectionalize the object.
(c) Installing a shield wire on the overhead line.
(d) Increase the separation between the circuit or object and the overhead line.
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APPENDIX I
CONCRETE POLES
(Normative)
I1 GENERAL
Design properties for concrete, reinforcement and tendons shall be as given in AS 3600 or
NZS 3101.1, or as may be otherwise specified.
I2 STRENGTH
I2.1 Characteristic or specified compressive strength
The characteristic or specified compressive strength at 28 days (fNc ), shall be not less than
40 MPa.
I2.2 Characteristic flexural tensile strength or modulus of rupture
The characteristic flexural tensile strength or modulus of rupture after 28 days of standard
curing may be taken as one of the following values as appropriate:
(a) For pole elements subject to sustained tensile stresses, 0.6√fNc.
(b) For pole elements subject to transient tensile stresses, 0.8 √fNc.
I2.3 Combined bending and compression strength
Where a pole is subjected to combined bending and compression load effects, the diameter
shall be such that the following is satisfied:
⎛ M * ⎞ ⎛ N c* ⎞
⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ ≤1 . . .I1
⎝ φ M ⎠ ⎝ φ Nc ⎠
I3 STRENGTH CAPACITY FACTOR

For poles designed by load testing in accordance with Clause 8.5, the strength capacity
factor (φ) should not be taken as greater than 1.0.
For poles designed by calculation, φ shall be taken as not greater than the following values,
as appropriate for the type of action effect being considered:
(a) Bending, 0.9.
(b) Compression, shear, or torsion, or any of these in combination, 0.8.
(c) Bearing, 0.7.
(d) Combined bending and compression 0.9
I4 SERVICEABILITY
I4.1 General
Concrete poles shall meet the serviceability criteria, appropriate to the use of the pole, set
out in Paragraphs I4.2 to I4.3.
I4.2 Deflection and rotation
For electromotive transport poles, communication equipment poles, and some floodlighting
poles, deflection and rotation parameter shall be determined by the operating system
constraints. For most other uses, deflection and rotation shall not be considered a
serviceability constraint unless specified by the purchaser.
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I4.3 Crack width

Crack widths at the serviceability limit state shall not exceed 0.25 mm unless otherwise
provided in design calculations. For sustained dead loads or cable tension loads, the long-
term effects of creep and shrinkage shall be considered.
NOTE: For further information on concrete crack width see Appendix D.
I5 CONCRETE COVER
I5.1 Exposure classifications
The exposure classification for poles shall be determined in accordance with AS 3600 or
NZS 3101.1 as appropriate.
I5.2 Exposure classifications other than C, or U more severe than C
For all exposure classification other than C, or other than U more severe than C, the clear
cover to reinforcement (including tie wires) and tendons shall be not less than the greatest
of—
(a) the maximum nominal aggregate size;
(b) three-quarters of the nominal diameter of the bar, wire or tendon to which the cover is
measured; or
(c) when tested in accordance with Appendix O, if—
(i) absorption ≤5.5%, cover = 9 mm;
(ii) 5.5% < absorption ≤6.5%, cover = 19 mm;
(iii) absorption >6.5%, cover as per AS 3600 or NZS 3101.1; or
(iv) other methods of providing suitable durability.
I5.3 Exposure classification C, or U more severe than C
For exposure classification C, or U more severe than C, or for poles within 1 km from a
coastline with prevailing onshore winds, one or more of the following additional protective
actions should be adopted to achieve the required design life:
(a) Increase the thickness of concrete cover.
(b) Increase the specified strength grade, or otherwise reduce the permeability of the
concrete.
(c) Apply a protective coating to exposed surfaces.
(d) Apply a corrosion-resistant coating to the reinforcement or tendons.
(e) Provide cathodic protection to the reinforcement or tendons.
(f) Seal the base of spun concrete poles.
(g) Any other appropriate action.
I6 REINFORCEMENT AND TENDONS

I6.1 General
All reinforcement and tendons shall be effectively maintained in their correct position
during manufacture of the pole. All supports used for this purpose shall be made from
durable and stable materials that are not deleterious to the concrete or the reinforcement.
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I6.2 Poles designed by load testing

For poles designed by load testing in accordance with Section 8, the following exceptions
apply to the requirements for reinforcement and tendons specified in AS 3600 or
NZS 3101.1:
(a) The minimum clear distances between parallel bars and tendons may be waived.
(b) Lateral restraint of compression reinforcement by ties, or similar fitments, may be
omitted.
(c) Enclosure of bundled bars, or bundled tendons, within ties or similar fitments may be
omitted.
(d) Shear reinforcement may be omitted if the tested prototypes contain no shear
reinforcement and the tests demonstrate that the design strength can be achieved
without failure.
I6.3 Poles designed by calculation
For poles designed by calculation, shear reinforcement may be omitted if the calculated
shear strength provided by the concrete alone is not less than the minimum levels specified
in AS 3600 or NZS 3101.1 for the omission of shear reinforcement in beams.
I7 ELECTRICAL EARTHING
Provision shall be made for bonding electrical equipment and external metalwork to steel
reinforcing and any earthing electrode.
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APPENDIX J
COMPOSITE FIBRE POLES
(Normative)
J1 GENERAL
Poles made from composite materials shall be designed in accordance with the appropriate
and relevant Australian or New Zealand Standard or by theories supported by rigorous
prototype testing.
The materials used shall be suitable for the exposure and design service conditions without
jeopardising operational security of the line.
Special attention shall be given to use of fire resistant materials in rural/semi rural
applications.
J2 STRENGTH
Composite fibre poles are thin walled structures and typically fail due to buckling.
Pull through strength on the wall of the pole applied by bolts may be limited with standard
washers and large curved plates may be required for surface bearing.
Crushing torque is limited and is typically less than 150 Nm.
J3 SERVICABILITY LIMITS
Composite fibre poles typically exhibit large deflection limits and these limits must be
considered in the design. Manufacturer test data will provide deflection limits at appropriate
loads for use in design of the pole.
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APPENDIX K
STEEL POLES
(Normative)
K1 GENERAL
Steel pole structure designs shall comply with the requirements of AS 4100, NZS 3404.1 or
AS/NZS 4600, or ASCE 48-05 as appropriate, and the following provisions.
K2 STRENGTH FACTORS ( φ)
Strength factors ( φ) which takes into account variability of material and workmanship for
steel pole components used shall be taken as 0.9 unless otherwise provided in the reference
standard being used.
Loading considered in design shall include combined bending and axial loading of the pole
element.
K3 MINIMUM THICKNESS
The thickness of steel plate used in any structural pole elements shall be not less than
1.6 mm.
K4 REQUIREMENTS FOR PLATE THICKNESS LESS THAN 3MM

Where the thickness of steel plate used in a pole is less than 3 mm, the following
requirements apply:
(a) Welding Special attention shall be given to weld quality in thin-walled elements and
in particular to the avoidance of weld undercut.
(b) Fatigue Structural detailing shall avoid stress concentrations and connections
subject to cyclic loading which rely on the localized bending resistance of thin-walled
components.
(c) Handling Consideration should be given to the need for special handling of thin-
walled elements to avoid localized distortion.
(d) Durability Due consideration should be given to the potential for accelerated
corrosion at and below ground level where pole elements are direct buried into soil or
where special backfill is used around the embedded pole element.
K5 LOW TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS

Steel grades for poles subject to low temperature conditions shall be chosen in accordance
with the requirements for brittle fracture resistance given in AS 4100 or NZS 3404.1 as
appropriate.
K6 WELDING PROCEDURE FOR THICK BASE PLATES

Care should be applied in the use of thick base plates that have been cut from thick steel
blooms that may contain string inclusions that have the potential to open and delaminate
after cutting, welding and during galvanizing due to release of locked in stresses.
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K7 HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT ISSUES WITH HOT DIP GALVANIZING

AFTER INCREMENTAL BENDING
Where incremental bending techniques or pressing is employed to form thick plates
generally greater than 16 mm and the finished product is acid de-scaled and hot dip
galvanized, care needs to be applied to avoid hydrogen embrittlement of cold worked
materials.
K8 INTERNAL TREATMENT OF STEEL POLES

All closed steel sections will have the potential to accumulate and trap condensation from
the air due to temperature variations. This has the potential to accelerate corrosion of the
internal surfaces if the internal space cannot vent to the atmosphere. Consideration shall be
included in designs for the appropriate treatment of the internal surface to eliminate
corrosion; to minimize corrosion effects; or to provide for limited corrosion of the internal
surfaces over its intended design service life.
K9 SLIP JOINTING
Where joints in segmented construction make use of overlapping close tolerance slip joints
they shall be detailed such as to provide a minimum overlap of 1.3 times the largest
inscribed circle of the components being joined.
Designs shall nominate required dimensional tolerances of fitted sections together with
recommended jacking forces for lap joints to ensure full load transfer can be achieved
between sections being joined.
K10 ANCHOR BOLTS

Pole footing base plate holding-down bolts may be proportioned to comply with Table K1.
K11 ELECTRICAL EARTHING

Provision shall be made for bonding electrical equipment and external metalwork to steel
reinforcing and any earthing electrode.
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TABLE K1
DESIGN OF HOLDING-DOWN BOLTS
Straight anchor Anchor with bend Anchor with plate
D = 4 v = m i n ( l,d1) Io
Lb I1
t > 0,3 r
D
t D d1
l2
Fa,Rd = π × Φ × Lb × fbd Fa,Rd = π × Φ × Lb × fbd Fa,Rd = π × Φ × Lb × fbd
with with
Lb = (l1 + 3.2D + 3.5l2) f cd ⎛ r2 ⎞⎛ r ⎞
Lb = 2.45 φ ⎜ 2 − 0.25 ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ + l0
fbd ⎝Φ ⎠⎝ v ⎠
Fbd = bonding stress of steel into concrete
0.36 f ck 2.25 f c t k 0.05
with: f bd = for plain bars and f bd = for deformed bars
γc γc
with: fck = 0.7 fctm and fctm = 0.3fck2/3
where
fck = characteristic strength of concrete in compression
fctm = average strength of concrete in tension
fctk0.05 = characteristic strength of concrete in tension
γc = bonding reduction factor of 0.67
for example
with N20/25 concrete—
fck = 20 MPa;
fctm = 2.2 MPa;
fctk0.05 = 1.55 MPa; and
fbd = 1.1 MPa for plain bars; or
fbd = 2.3 MPa for deformed bars
The anchoring length shall be such that—
Fa,Rd = π × Φ × Lb × fbd ≥ Ft,Sd
where
Ft,Sd = design tensile force per bolt for the ultimate limit state
The size of the bolt shall be such that—
Ft,SD ≤ Ft,Rd = 0.9 × fub × As × γMb
where
fub = ultimate tensile strength of holding-down bolt
As = tensile stress area of holding-down bolt
γMb = component strength factor on resistance of holding-down bolt = 0.8
NOTE: According to ENV 1993-1-1, when threads are cut by a non-specialist bolt manufacturer, the relevant
value of T r,Rd shall be reduced by multiplying it by a factor of 0.85.
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APPENDIX L
STRUCTURE FOOTING DESIGN AND GUIDELINES FOR THE
GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF SOILS AND ROCKS
(Informative)
L1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
This Standard addresses fundamental performance criteria and the design methods
associated with overhead line footings and their foundations, and are not to be considered
as a rigid set of rules. The principles of this design standard are equally aimed at the design
of new and existing foundations. If the foundations are upgraded to meet new loading
requirements, care must be taken to assure the structural adequacy of the foundation.
Many alternative approaches can be used for the design of footings and the interpretation of
the foundation conditions, and the designer should exercise sound engineering judgment in
determining which method is most appropriate for the situation.
When designing overhead line foundations, the designer has the option to design each
footing for site-specific loadings and subsurface conditions or to develop standard designs
that can be used at predetermined similar sites.
In addition, the relative distribution of the loads between the guys and the support (lattice
tower or pole) depends on the guy pretension and the potential creep of the foundation. The
flexibility of the guy, together with the flexibility of the structure is needed to compute the
ultimate footing reactions and anchor loads. The initial and final modulus of elasticity of
the guys, together with the creep of the guys, should be considered.
Reference should be made to IEEE Standard 691.
L2 GEOTECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF SOILS AND ROCKS

Geotechnical investigation should be carried out along the easement of transmission line to
obtain geotechnical parameters required to design the transmission structure footings. As a
minimum, the investigation should provide geotechnical parameters required to establish
the ultimate load-bearing capacity of the subsurface foundation material and the overlying
material properties. At the completion of a geotechnical site investigation a report should be
prepared.
Generally, to determine the foundation ultimate load carrying capacity the shear strength of
soil is required.
s = c + σntan φ . . .L1
where
s = shear strength
c = cohesion
σn = normal stress
φ = angle of internal friction
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A cohesive soil can generally be expected to resist design loads for a short duration of time
without experiencing significant movements; however when the design loads are applied
over the service life of the structure, they may result in excessive displacements. The
foundation design for long duration loads should be based on the effective stresses and
drained properties of the soil. Soils that have cohesive properties in short term loading
usually exhibit no cohesion under long term loads, though the angle of internal friction will
increase to typically between 20° and 40°.
Granular soils have similar properties under short and long-term conditions and this
standard recommends that for ‘granular’ soils the same properties are to be used under both
long and short term loads. Dense saturated granular materials typically show a reduction in
internal friction of 1° to 2° from the dense dry values
L2.1 Typical soil properties
Geotechnical parameters for soil strata may be taken from Tables L1, L2, and L4. The
values in Table L3 are based on research data and pull out tests on test piles, and their use
should be assessed against any known properties from soil tests where these are available.
The reduction in shear strength may occur when the soil is partially saturated (see below).
In addition, soft clay (or even firm clay) may become very soft clay when it is partially
saturated.
TABLE L1
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF COHESIVE SOILS
Weight Shear strength, C u (kPa)
Term Field guide to consistency
(kN/m 3 ) Unsaturated Saturated
Very soft 16–19 0 to 10 ≤6 Exudes between fingers when squeezed
in hand
Soft 17–20 10 to 25 6 to 12 Can be moulded by light finger pressure
Firm 17.5–21 25 to 50 12 to 25 Can be moulded by strong finger
pressure
Stiff 18–22 50 to 100 25 to 50 Cannot be moulded by fingers. Can be
indented by thumb
Very stiff 21–22 100 to 200 50 to 100 Can be indented by thumb nail
Hard 20–23 ≥200 ≥100 Can be indented with difficulty by thumb
nail
NOTE: Saturated means that all voids are filled with water. The saturated weight is not necessarily buoyant
weight, though there is minimal increase in the degree of saturation required to produce a buoyant condition.
Soils may be partially saturated. At optimum moisture content, this produces the maximum dry density.
Typically OMC range is 10% to 20%. Exceeding that figure will progressively reduce density.
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TABLE L2
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-COHESIVE SOILS
Soil type Unit weight Angle of friction, ϕ
(kN/m3) (degrees)
Loose gravel with sand content 16–19 28º–30º
Medium dense gravel with low sand content 18–20 30º–36º
Dense to very dense gravel with low sand content 19–21 36º–45º
Loose well graded sandy gravel 18–20 28º–30º
Medium dense clayey sandy gravel 19–21 30º–35º
Dense to very dense clayey sandy gravel 21–22 35º–40º
Loose, coarse to fine sand 17–22 28º–30º
Medium dense, coarse to fine sand 20–21 30º–35º
Dense to very dense, coarse to fine sand 21–22 35º–40º
Loose, fine and silty sand 15–17 20°–22°
Medium dense, fine and silty sand 17–19 25º–30º
Dense to very dense, fine and silty sand 19–21 35º–40º
TABLE L3
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK
Ultimate design values Dry density
Type/classification
Shear (kPa) Bearing (kPa) (kg/m 3 )
Hard
Igneous
Basalt 1200 6000 27
Granite
Granodiorites
Metamorphic
Greywacke
Hornfelds
Quartzite
1000 2500 24
Limestone
Schists
Sedimentary
Hard sandstone
Medium rock
Highly fractured hard rocks
Medium sandstones
Hard shale 750 1500 24
Conglomerates
Weathered Granite
Rhyolites
Soft rock
Soft sandstone
Mudstone 275 450 22
Medium shale
Phyllite
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It should be acknowledge that the engineering properties of rock cannot be predicted with
the accuracy typical in a soil investigation. The rock properties are related to rock defects
i.e. weathering, joints, faults, shear and bedding zones etc. In addition, during an
investigation (or construction works) when the core hole penetrates a fault zone additional
breaks in rock may occur. These breaks promoted/produced by these activities should be
included in the estimated rock quality.
L3 FOUNDATION DESIGN FOR POLES

L3.1 Foundation types
Common types of pole footings are bored piers in soil, bored and socketed piers into rock,
large diameter bored or driven caissons (normally with permanent liners), buried slab or raft
footings, anchored footings (in soil or rock), and single pile or pile group foundations (in
soils unable to support loads in surface formations)
This section concentrates on the design requirements for lateral loads and moments only.
When there are special requirement for compression loading the footings should be checked
using established principles.
L3.2 Bored Piers
The Brinch Hansen method presented here is considered to be appropriate to the
dimensional range and characteristics of poles in transmission and distribution line
structures. Other design methods may be used.
This method is applicable to a wide variety of soil types and provides consistent results.
Typically, the correlation between predicted and observed test results has been:
(b) undrained conditions: HL = 1.01 Hcalc with COV = 0.36
(c) drained conditions: HL = 0.60 Hcalc with COV = 0.37
where
HL = nominal failure load
Hcalc = calculated value using recommended method
COV = coefficient of variation
It should be borne in mind that the accuracy of any solution will be limited by the accuracy
of the input data. The appropriate component strength factor (Table 6.2) should be applied
to HL.
The Brinch Hansen method does not provide an indication of the pole rotation at the HL
load. This should be calculated separately using methods recommended in AS 2159 or
another suitable source. (As a general indication, ground line rotational displacements of 1–
2° may be expected at HL, though the centre of rotation is dependent on the foundation
geometry and soil parameters.) If the load displacement plot is assumed to be hyperbolic
and the initial slope and Hmax. value are known, then values along the curve may be
calculated. The initial slope is dependent on the modulus of elasticity for the soil and the
foundation geometry.
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L3.3 Analytical procedure for determination of failure load/moment

The mathematical model of the pole/soil system is shown in Figure L1.
M G ro u n d s u r fac e
H
Z
Rigid body Z1
rotati o n
Zr F2
Z2
Backfill
L P2
C e ntre
of rotati o n
F2
D S o i l p re s s u re d i s tr i b u ti o n
FIGURE L1 MODEL OF THE POLE/SOIL SYSTEM
The system is subjected to a ground line lateral load, H, and bending moment, M. The
‘effective diameter’, D, can be taken as the average pole diameter below ground for soil
backfill situations and the auger diameters for situations where concrete or soil/cement
backfill is used.
The pole is assumed to rotate as a rigid body under the applied loads about a point of
rotation at an unknown depth, zr, below the surface. At the point of failure, this rotation
produces a soil stress distribution as depicted in Figure L2 with the ultimate soil pressure,
p , varying with depth below the ground surface, z.
The ultimate lateral soil resistance at any depth, z, below the surface can be expressed as—
Pz = qzKq + cuKc . . .L2
where
qz = vertical overburden pressure at depth z = γz
γ = soil density (see Table L4)
cu = soil cohesion (see Table L1)
Kq, Kc = factors that are a function of z/D and the soil angle of friction, φ (see
Table L2)
Values of Kq are given in Table L5, and those of Kc are plotted in Table L6.
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TABLE L4
TYPICAL SOIL DENSITIES
Density (kN/m3 )
Soil type
Unsaturated Saturated
Cohesive soils 16–18 9–11
Non-cohesive soils:
Gravel 16–20 9.5–12.5
Coarse and medium sands 17–21 9.5–12.5
Fine and silty sands 17.5–21.5 9.5–12.5
Rock/soil mix—Granite and shales 17.5–21 9.5–12.5
Rock/soil mix—Basalts and dolerites 17.5–22.5 11–16
Rock/soil mix—Limestones and sandstones 13–19 6.5–12.5
NOTE: The saturated densities given above result from the presence of ground water and soil porosity
for the different soil types.
The limiting combination of H and M to cause failure may be obtained by considering the
equilibrium of horizontal forces and moments, and solving the resulting simultaneous
equations for the unknown depth of the centre of rotation, zr. In general form the equations
are—
(a) Horizontal equilibrium
H = F1 − F2 . . .L3
where
zr
F2 = ∫0
pz Ddz
. . .L4
L
F2 = ∫zr
pz Ddz
(b) Moment equilibrium

M = F 2 z2 − F 1 z1 . . .L5
where
z1 = distance to resultant load F1
z2 = distance to resultant load F2
It is usually more convenient to solve the resulting equations by trial and error. That is, for
a given horizontal load, H, and a trial embedment depth, L, the unknown depth of rotation,
zr, and moment, M, can be determined. The process is repeated by varying L until the
required M is obtained.
For non-cohesive soils, e.g. dry sand, the depth of rotation is typically 2/3 of the total
depth. For cohesive soils, e.g. clayey sands, the depth of rotation is typically slightly more
than half depth. As the eccentricity of load increases zr converges to either 2/3 or 1/2 of the
total depth.
Where a bed log is used the calculated soil forces F1 and F2 may be based on the Brinch
Hansen method. The forces should be based on soil pressure pz and the areas of the bed log
and the pole foundation.
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TABLE L5
EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENT FOR OVERBURDEN PRESSURE, Kq
Angle of friction φ
z/D 0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
1.0 0 0.50 1.10 1.85 2.81 4.12 5.99 8.85 13.50 21.81
1.5 0 0.52 1.16 1.97 3.02 4.46 6.53 9.67 14.75 23.72
2.0 0 0.53 1.21 2.07 3.21 4.76 7.02 10.44 15.96 25.59
2.5 0 0.55 1.26 2.16 3.37 5.04 7.46 11.17 17.12 27.43
3.0 0 0.56 1.30 2.24 3.51 5.28 7.88 11.86 18.24 29.23
3.5 0 0.57 1.33 2.32 3.64 5.50 8.26 12.50 19.32 31.00
4.0 0 0.58 1.36 2.38 3.75 5.70 8.61 13.12 20.37 32.74
4.5 0 0.59 1.39 2.44 3.86 5.88 8.93 13.70 21.38 34.45
5.0 0 0.60 1.42 2.49 3.95 6.05 9.24 14.25 22.36 36.13
6.0 0 0.62 1.46 2.58 4.11 6.35 9.79 15.27 24.23 39.39
7.0 0 0.63 1.50 2.65 4.25 6.60 10.27 16.20 25.98 42.55
8.0 0 0.64 1.53 2.71 4.37 6.82 10.69 17.05 27.63 45.59
9.0 0 0.65 1.56 2.77 4.47 7.02 11.07 17.82 29.18 48.54
10.0 0 0.66 1.58 2.82 4.56 7.19 11.41 18.53 30.64 51.39
12.0 0 0.68 1.62 2.89 4.71 7.47 12.00 19.79 33.34 56.81
14.0 0 0.69 1.65 2.96 4.82 7.70 12.49 20.88 35.77 61.90
16.0 0 0.70 1.68 3.01 4.92 7.89 12.90 21.82 37.96 66.69
18.0 0 0.71 1.70 3.05 5.00 8.05 13.25 22.65 39.95 71.20
20.0 0 0.72 1.72 3.08 5.07 8.19 13.55 23.38 41.77 75.46
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TABLE L6
EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENT FOR COHESION, KC
Angle of friction φ
z/D ~0° 5° 10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
1.0 4.8 5.7 6.8 8.2 10.2 12.9 16.9 22.8 31.9 47.2
1.5 5.3 6.4 7.7 9.5 11.9 15.4 20.6 28.4 40.8 61.3
2.0 5.7 6.9 8.4 10.5 13.3 17.4 23.7 33.5 49.1 75.0
2.5 6.0 7.3 9.0 11.2 14.4 19.1 26.4 38.0 56.8 88.1
3.0 6.2 7.6 9.4 11.8 15.3 20.5 28.7 42.0 63.9 100.7
3.5 6.4 7.9 9.8 12.4 16.1 21.7 30.8 45.7 70.6 112.8
4.0 6.6 8.1 10.1 12.8 16.7 22.7 32.6 49.0 76.9 124.5
4.5 6.7 8.3 10.3 13.1 17.3 23.6 34.2 52.1 82.8 135.8
5.0 6.8 8.4 10.5 13.4 17.7 24.4 35.6 54.8 88.4 146.7
6.0 7.0 8.7 10.9 13.9 18.5 25.8 38.0 59.8 98.6 167.4
7.0 7.1 8.8 11.1 14.3 19.1 26.8 40.1 64.0 107.7 186.7
8.0 7.2 9.0 11.3 14.7 19.7 27.7 41.8 67.6 115.9 204.8
9.0 7.3 9.1 11.5 14.9 20.1 28.5 43.2 70.8 123.3 221.8
10.0 7.4 9.2 11.7 15.1 20.4 29.1 44.5 73.6 130.1 237.8
12.0 7.5 9.4 11.9 15.5 21.0 30.1 46.5 78.3 141.9 267.1
14.0 7.6 9.5 12.0 15.7 21.4 30.9 48.1 82.1 151.9 293.3
16.0 7.6 9.6 12.2 15.9 21.7 31.5 49.4 85.3 160.4 316.8
18.0 7.7 9.6 12.3 16.1 22.0 32.0 50.5 87.9 167.8 338.0
20.0 7.7 9.7 12.4 16.2 22.2 32.4 51.3 90.2 174.3 357.3
The over burden pressure and earth pressure coefficients, K qz , K cz at depth z as given in the
table above can be calculated from the formulae below.
NOTE: For more information on these formulas refer to the original Brinch Hansen paper (see
reference at the end of this Appendix).
K0 = 1−sinϕ . . .L6
d c∞ = 1.58 + 4.09tan 4ϕ . . .L7
⎡ π tan ϕ ⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎤
Nc = ⎢e tan 2 ⎜ π + ϕ ⎟ −1⎥ cot ϕ . . .L8
⎣ ⎝4 2 ⎠ ⎦
⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
⎜ π + ϕ ⎟ tan ϕ ⎛1 1 ⎞ −⎜ π −ϕ ⎟ tan ϕ ⎛1 1 ⎞
K q0 = e⎝ 2 ⎠
cos ϕ tan ⎜ π + ϕ ⎟ − e ⎝ 2 ⎠ cos ϕ tan ⎜ π − ϕ ⎟ . . .L9
⎝4 2 ⎠ ⎝4 2 ⎠
K q∞ = N c dc∞ K o tan ϕ . . .L10
K q0 K o sin ϕ
αq = ∞
(K − K ) ⎛1 0
1 ⎞ . . .L11
q
sin ⎜ π + ϕ ⎟
q
⎝4 2 ⎠
z
K q0 + K q∞α q
K z
= D
q . . .L12
z
1+ α q
D
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⎛1 ⎞
⎜ π + ϕ ⎟ tan ϕ ⎛1 1 ⎞
K 0
c = e ⎝2 ⎠
cos ϕ tan ⎜ π + ϕ − 1 ⎟ cot ϕ . . .L13
⎝4 2 ⎠
Kc∞ = N c dc∞ . . .L14
K c0 ⎛1 1 ⎞
αc = ∞
2 sin ⎜ π + ϕ ⎟ . . .L15
(K − Kc )
c
0
⎝4 2 ⎠
z
K c0 + K c∞α c
K z
= D
c . . .L16
z
1+ α c
D
where
z = depth (metres)
D = pile diameter (metres)
ϕ = soil friction angle (degrees)
L3.3.1.1 Shear design for bored piers
While several theories are available to assist in the analysis of forces developed in bored
piers, the following approach is recommended. Soil pressures are assumed to be developed
as indicated in Figure L2.

FIGURE L2 THEORETICAL SOIL PRESSURE DIAGRAM
The maximum shear value to be used in design calculations is as indicated in Figure L3.
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Shear design values
FIGURE L3 EQUIVALENT PILE SHEAR DIAGRAM
L3.3.1.2 Design of shear reinforcement

Basic requirements for calculation shall be based on provisions of AS 3600, and as set out
below:
A bd
d do
FIGURE L4 CALCULATION OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT
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V* = ≤ φV u = φ(Vuc + Vus) . . .L17
Concrete and longitudinal reinforcement contribution—

1
⎛ Ast f c′ ⎞ 3 . . .L18
Vuc = β1β2β3Abd ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Abd ⎠
where
β1as per AS 3600
β2 as per AS 3600
β3 = 1.0
Ast = half of the longitudinal reinforcement area
Abd = concrete area equivalent to AS3600 ‘bvdo’ to be calculated as follows:
2
d2 ⎛d ⎞
Abd = (Π − α ) + ⎜ − c ⎟ tan(α ) . . .L19
4 ⎝2 ⎠
⎛ d − 2c ⎞
α = arccos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ d ⎠
do = d−c
bv = Abd/do
Remaining symbols are as per AS 3600
Shear reinforcement contribution—
⎛ Π ⎞ ⎛ Asv f sv.f d o ⎞
Vus = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ cot θ . . .L20
⎝ 4⎠⎝ s ⎠
The minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided as per AS 3600 and the shear strength
of a column with minimum reinforcement is given by the following:
⎛Π⎞
Vu.min = Vuc + ⎜ ⎟ 0.6Abd . . .L21
⎝4⎠
L4 FOUNDATION DESIGN FOR LATTICE STEEL TOWERS

L4.1 Foundation types
Lattice tower footings typically are designed for vertical forces (uplift or compression)
combined with horizontal shear forces. The affect of footing movements due to differential
settlement and variation in material types at the same site, should be included in the design.
There are many footing types used for transmission lines. This Standard recommends
design principles for the common types only i.e.—
(a) bored straight-sided (and undercut (belled)) piers in clays and sands;
(b) bored piers socketed in soft to medium strength rock;
(c) guy anchors; and
(d) excavated footings.
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Common types of tower footings are bored piers in soil, bored and socketed piers into rock,
large diameter bored or driven caissons (normally with permanent liners), buried slab or raft
footings, grillage footings (constructed on older lines or where access for plant is difficult),
anchored footings (in soil or rock), and single pile or pile group foundations (in soils unable
to support loads in surface formations)
Refer to Figure L5 for typical details.
G ro u n d l eve l G ro u n d l eve l G ro u n d l eve l
Column
Va r i a b l e re i nfo rc i n g
Column Shear Column
d e pth to tra nsfe r
re i nfo rc i n g c o n n e c to r s re i nfo rc i n g
to ro c k l o ad
Ro c k l eve l S h o r t s tu b
Ro c k
S o c ket
A LT ER N AT I V E C O LU M N
A R R A NG EM EN T
Le g stu b Le g stu b
a n c h o rag e a n c h o rag e
C o nstr u c ti o n
ex te ns i o n
BO R ED SO CK E T ED PIER BO R ED
U N D ER R E A M ED PIER
G ro u n d l eve l G ro u n d l eve l
C o m p a c te d
C o m pac te d backfill
O ve r th e
backfill C o m p a c te d m ate r i a l s
backfill
Ro c k l eve l
Column
re i nfo rc i n g
Le g stu b
a n c h o rag e Le g stu b
a n c h o rag e
C e m e nt o r
chemical
g ro u te d
te n d o ns
Base slab
BU R IED SL A B T Y PE RO C K A NCH O R T Y PE
T Y PICA L CL E AT A NCH O R AG E
FIGURE L5 TYPICAL TOWER FOOTING ARRANGEMENTS
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L4.2 Footing design

L4.2.1 Bored piers
Bored piers are formed by auguring a hole into soil (or soft rock), installing a full-length
stub angle or shorter stub angle and a reinforcing cage, and then filling with concrete.
Transfer of force from the stub angle to the surrounding concrete is usually by cleats,
though stud bolts are occasionally used.
The base of the bored pier may be enlarged to form a ‘bell’ using an under-reaming tool.
‘Belling’ a pier in such soil conditions provides enhanced uplift capacity but only for
shallow piers. Belled piers are not suitable for soils which may collapse due to water
inflow, or other causes, during construction.
Soil conditions with strong water inflows or weak soil strata may necessitate a permanent
liner/steel casing for at least part of the depth of the pier being installed. Installation of
permanent liner will reduce the pier’s side resistance that should be accounted for in the
analysis.
L4.2.2 Uplift analysis
The general ultimate pier uplift capacity is given as—
QU = GP + GS + QS +QB . . .L22
where
QU = uplift capacity of foundation
GP = pier weight (dead load)
GS = soil weight (dead load)
QS = side resistance of pier or along cylinder of soil
QB = contribution of bearing on top of bell (where applicable)
Tip suction should not be used in the design of footings.
The failure mechanism depends significantly on the ratio of soil strength to soil stiffness.
Since reliable data on soil stiffness is seldom available, it is recommended that three
simplified failure models be used. The ultimate capacity should be taken for the model
giving the lowest value of QU.
The interaction between soil and the footing is complex. The relative stiffness, strength and
stress state of the soil, all of which vary with depth and are rarely known (outside the
laboratory) with the precision associated with engineered material has lead to the
development of simplified foundation failure models. It is recommended that three
simplified failure models be examined in the design of piers. The ultimate capacity should
be taken for the model giving the lowest value of QU. The pier capacity in uplift is
invariably less than that in compression because movement of the pier will create tension in
the soil mass and will tend to reduce of the lateral stress state in the soil.
L4.2.2.1 Pier pull-out by shear failure model
A pullout capacity is calculated by assuming failure of shaft friction along the depth of
shaft plus the bearing on shoulder of the under-cut if present. (See Figure L6).
The shaft adhesion is a fraction of the soil cohesion. For low cohesion values, the adhesion
is nearly equal to the cohesion. As the soil strength increases, the fraction of cohesion that
can be relied upon for adhesion reduces.
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Ground Level Qu
DS
GP
L1
QS QS L
QB QB
DU
FIGURE L6 SHEAR FAILURE MODEL
QU = GP + QS +QB . . .L23
where
QU = uplift capacity of pier
QS = side resistance of pier
QB = bearing on top of bell (where applicable)
QP = φV C γ C . . .L24
where
VC = volume of concrete
γC = concrete density
φ = capacity reduction factor typically 0.9 for concrete foundation (weights
and aerial conductor vertical loads are known)
⎛ pD L2 ⎞
Qs = φ gfsπDSL1 + γsKtan δ ⎜ s ⎟ . . .L25
⎝ 2 ⎠
where
fs = shaft adhesion factor (see Figure L7)
L1 = length shaft
Ds = shaft diameter
γs = effective unit weight of soil
K = coefficient of horizontal soil stress
δ = friction angle between shaft material and surrounding soil
φg = geotechnical capacity reduction factor varies from 0.8 to 0.5
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1.2
0.8
Reduction Factor,
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 22 0
Undrained Shear Strength cu (kPa)
FIGURE L7 SHAFT ADHESION FACTOR
For undrained condition—

φgπ ( Du2 − Ds2 )
QB = . . .L26
(4(7cB + po ))
For drained condition—
⎛ π ( Du2 − Ds2 ⎞
QB = φg ⎜ ⎟σ v Nc . . .L27
⎝ 4 ⎠
where
CB = bell shear
DU = undercut (bell) diameter
Nc, Nq = bearing capacity factors
σv = effective vertical stress = γ(L − L1) .5 for uniform soil profile
γ = soil weight
φ g = geotechnical capacity reduction factor varies from 0.8 to 0.5
Nq = eπtan φ tan2 (45 + φ/2)
Nc = (Nq − 1)cot φ
Nγ = 2(Nq − 1)tan φ
L4.2.2.2 Pier pull-out by cylinder failure model
This model of failure is based on failure of cohesion on the surface of an equivalent
cylinder which diameter equals to the effective diameter of the undercut DE. The effective
diameter of the undercut DE = Ds + ( Du − Ds)/ ζ should be based on ultimate soil properties
and should be not less than shaft diameter. (See Figure L8).
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The method uses soil cohesion i.e. soil-to-soil friction that is equal to cu in clays and φs in
sands.
QU = GP + QC+QB . . .L28
where
QC = side resistance of cylinder of effective pier diameter
QC = φ g fcπDEL . . .L29
where
fc = soil cohesion i.e. soil-to-soil friction that is equal to cu in clays and φs in
sands
Ds + ( Du − Ds )
DE = effective pier diameter =
ζ
ζ = bell diameter reduction coefficient varies from 1.5 to 3
φ g = geotechnical capacity reduction factor varies from 0.8 to 0.5
QP = φ g VCγC . . .L30
where
φ = capacity reduction factor typically 0.9 for concrete foundation as weight
and aerial conductor vertical loads are known)
Gs = φ g Vsγs . . .L31
where
Gs = soil weight (dead load)
Vs = volume of soil
γCs = effective unit weight of soil
φ = capacity reduction factor typically 0.8
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FIGURE L8 CYLINDRICAL FAILURE MODEL
L4.2.2.3 The earth cone pull-out model

The earth cone pullout assumes that the uplift resistance is given only by the weight of soil
and foundation within the cone. (See Figure L9). Theoretically, when the cone angle is
zero, this method is a lower limit to the uplift capacity because it disregards the soil stresses
and strength. Different soils characteristics require different cone angles, and there is no
rational basis to establish these angles in a general manner. In addition, reference should be
made to IEEE 691 for Kulhawy’s work regarding modification for cone breakout.
This method generally does not govern for deeper footings and tend to underestimate the
uplift capacity for shallow footings (depth ≤10 times shaft diameter) with soil of medium to
dense consistency and stress states corresponding to normally consolidated or lightly over
consolidated. For deeper piers, the computed uplift resistance increases rapidly with depth
while the results of model and field tests show only 1/4 to 1/7 the increase expected from
computed values. This difference between observed and computed values suggests that the
method does not accurately model the influence of embedment depth on uplift capacity.
For that portion of the failure cone or pyramid below the groundwater table, the submerged
weight of the footing and soil should be used to determine the uplift capacity.

FIGURE L9 CONE FAILURE MODEL
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QU = GP + GS . . .L32
where
GS = weight of soil
QP = φVCγC . . .L33
where
φ = capacity reduction factor typically 0.8
GS = φgVSγ . . .L34
where
VS = volume of soil
γ = soil density
θS = varies between 10° to 30°
φg = geotechnical capacity reduction factor varies from 0.8 to 0.5
L4.2.3 Compression analysis
The failure model for compression loading involves a bearing failure in the soil below the
toe of the pier and a shear failure between the pier shaft and soil or within the soil close to
the soil/pier interface, allowing the pier to move downwards in relation to the surrounding
soil. (See Figure L10).
Piers loaded in compression do not reach a clearly defined ultimate capacity. Rather, load
tests demonstrate that pile capacity continues to increase indefinitely as pier settlement
increases. The side resistance of stiff piers (the usual case for transmission structure
foundations) has been shown to be fully developed at displacements of less than 20 mm,
whereas the development of bearing resistance under the toe of the pier is scale dependent.
For this design standard, ultimate capacity for compression loading of piers is defined as
the compression load reached at a settlement of 5% of the pier diameter (or bell diameter
for the case of belled piers), by which stage the side resistance is usually fully mobilized
together with a significant proportion of the end bearing resistance.
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FIGURE L10 COMPRESSION ANALYSIS MODEL
QC = − GP + QS +QB . . .L35
where
QC = compression capacity of pier
QS = side resistance of pier
QB = bearing under pier tip (bell where applicable)
GP = φgVCγC . . .L36
where
φg = geotechnical capacity reduction factor typically 1.2
Qs = φ g fcπDs(L1 − L0) . . .L37

where
fs = shaft adhesion
L1 = length of shaft = L for straight-sided pier
Ds = shaft diameter
L0 = ignore first 0.5 m or 0.5*DS whichever is greater
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φπ Du 2
. . .L38
(4(9CB + p0 ))
where
CB = bell shear
DU = undercut (bell) diameter = DS for straight-sided pier
p0 = overburden pressure = γL for uniform soil profile
γ = soil weight
φg  = geotechnical capacity reduction factor varies from 0.8 to 0.5
L4.2.4 Bored piers socketed into rock
In fractured rock, the failure mechanism is complex and is dependent on strength of the
rock, bedding and fracture planes, and the depth to rock.
Rock can be treated as hard clay or as rock with substantially more stiffness/rigidity.
If rock is assumed to be sound, i.e. no fractures bedding planes etc, then uplift capacity
should be based only on rock – concrete shear strength. Soil friction – adhesion is largely
irrelevant as the footing must move (i.e. fail in rock) before adhesion-friction is realised
(conservative assumptions).
If there is concern about fractures in rock, may assume a 45° fracture surface with weight
only. If heavily, jointed or shattered rock a failure cone of 30° should be assumed. The
failure mode in rock is (nearly) the same as for pier in soil.
Two uplift cases (pier and cone pullouts) shall be considered for piers socketed into rock,
the critical case shall be that giving the lowest capacity.
L4.2.4.1 Mobilization of rock mass

FIGURE L11 ROCK MOBILIZATION MODEL
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The general ultimate pier pull-out capacity is similar to the straight-sided bored pier and is
given as (see Figure L11)—
QU = 0.8GP + 0.8GS + 0.8GR + φg QS +φg QR . . .L39
where
QU = uplift capacity of foundation
GP = concrete density (dead load)
GS = soil density (dead load)
GR = rock density (dead load)
QS = side resistance of pier in soil
QR = side resistance of pier in rock
θR = cone angle in rock
= 35° for rock masses that are closely jointed and/or weathered
45° for other rock masses
θS = cone angle in soil varies between 10° to 30°
φg  = geotechnical capacity reduction factor varies from 0.8 to 0.5
L4.2.4.2 Pier pull-out by shear failure model
Refer to Paragraph L4.2.4.1.
L4.2.5 Guyed anchors
L4.2.5.1 Cast in-situ anchor blocks
Anchors for guys can be installed by boring or excavating a vertical shaft into which feeds
an inclined hole containing the below ground anchor tendon. (See Figure L12). The base
section of the shaft is then partially filled with concrete to form an anchor block.
The analysis of buried concrete guy anchors foundation subjected to uplift is complex and
consequently the following simplified approach may be adopted to enable the guy
foundation to be checked for uplift and sliding resistance.
QU
θA Ground level
QS
GS QS DG
S1
GA
S2 S2 P DA
PP A
S3
B
* L
FIGURE L12 CAST IN-SITU ANCHOR BLOCK
The capacity reduction factor should be 0.5 and not less than the factor applicable to the
stay tension.
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Anchor concrete blocks are frequently installed without any reliable knowledge of
geotechnical soil properties. The appropriate soil properties should be adopted based on the
weakest material in contact with the anchor block. In some cases, this may be backfill
material.
Uplift resistance is—
QV = 0.8GS + 0.8GA + φgQS + φgS2 . . .L40
where
QU = ultimate anchor tension force
K0 = coefficient of earth pressure at rest
QV = vertical component of QU
= QU*sinθA
GA = concrete density (dead load)
GS = soil density (dead load)
φ = angle of shearing resistance
DG = soil depth above anchor
B = anchor width
L = anchor length
DA = anchor depth
QS = side resistance along soil above anchor
= γK0D2G (B + L)tanφ
S2 = shearing resistance on perimeter of anchor
= 2γK0DA (DG + 0.5DA)(B + L)tan φ
Sliding resistance is—

QH = φg ( P P + P A + S 1 + 2 S3 ) . . .L41
where
QU = ultimate anchor tension force
QH = horizontal component of QU
= QUcosθA
PA = active back pressure on back of anchor
= γKP(DG+0.5DA)BL
PP = passive earth pressure on front of anchor
= γKA(DG+0.5DA)BL
S1 = shearing resistance at top of anchor
= γDGBLtan φ
S3 = shearing resistance on sides of anchor
= 2γKDA(DG+0.5DA)BLtanφ
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L4.2.5.2 Bored pier anchors

Bored pier anchors or micropiles comprise a single small diameter inclined concrete filled
bored pier into which the anchor tendon has been inserted prior to pouring the concrete. The
load applied to the anchorage is transferred to the base of the footing by a centrally located
tension tendon.
The anchorage is only designed to withstand the applied guy tensile load.
The principles used in the design are similar to that for normal bored piers.
L4.2.5.3 Rock anchors
Where firm drillable rock is encountered within 1000 mm of the ground surface small
diameter grouted rock anchors can provide an economical solution .
The diameter of the drilled holes for the rock anchors is dependent on the grout used.
If quick setting epoxy resin grout is used the hole diameter should be no larger than the
anchor rod diameter + margin as recommended by manufacturer.
If cement grout is used, the hole diameter should be larger enough to enable the grout
column to be injected and compacted.
Adequate corrosion protection should be applied to the zone above the rock to 300 mm
above ground. Concrete encasement can provide a suitable means of corrosion protection.
Uplift capacity of the anchorage should be determined in accordance with AS 3600 and
AS 4100 using rock’s ultimate bond stress and the capacity reduction factor determined by
the geotechnical investigation.
L4.2.5.4 Proprietary ground anchor systems
The analysis of proprietary ground anchors i.e. screw-in anchors and other forms of soil
anchor systems should comply with the manufactures recommendations.
Anchors should be designed and installed to eliminate in-service creep, (other than a small
amount of initial bedding in), so that guys loads are sustained without the need for
subsequent re-tensioning of the guy wire.
Where possible the installed anchors should be proof-tested to their designed load capacity.
L4.2.6 Spread footings
Spread footings consist of concrete shaft and an enlarged base of either of mass concrete or
a pad (slab) of reinforced concrete. Where the stub extends to base of the footing the shaft
may not be reinforced, particularly in the case of the thick mass concrete types.
Spread footings are formed by excavating square, rectangular or cylindrical holes in soil or
rock using machines or hand-operated tools. The base of spread footings may be straight
sided, which requires formwork, or cast against ground. When cast against ground an
undercut or bell may be formed depending on soil conditions and the construction methods
adopted.
Excavated footings are backfilled with the excavated soil, excavated soils improved by
cement or lime stabilisation, or imported backfill materials when the natural ground is
cannot be compacted to achieve the required uniform strength and/or density.
Grillage footings are also a type of spread footings, which had common use in the past.
Their use is now restricted to sites where access is difficult. Typically grillage footings
consists of steel members forming the pyramid which are fixed to the tower stub. Backfill
requirements are essentially the same as concrete footings.
The design methodology for these types of footings is similar to bored piers, with
appropriate modification for their geometry and the failure occurring in disturbed backfill
material, except for undercut footings where the failure may be in natural in situ materials.
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The three types of failure mechanism considered in the design of spread footings are—
(a) Shear failure—The backfill moves upward in relation to the natural soil, leaving a
vertically sided ‘shear’ surface with plan dimensions equal to the base of the
foundation. Where an undercut is formed, the shear surface will be in natural
material, which usually has superior strength properties to the backfill, provided that
the excavation and backfilling has not significantly affected the in situ materials.
The uplift capacity Qu is—
Qu = φ (W + Qsu + Qtu ) . . .L42
where
W = is foundation weight (Wf) and soil weight (Ws) within foundation
volume
Qsu = side resistance = 2(B + L ) σ K tan δ
Qtu = tip resistance typically assumed to be zero
If the K tanδ over the foundation depth is greater than 1 and D/B is less than 6 a
cone/wedge breakout is possible. The Qsu term is modified as follows:
⎛2+ β ⎞
Qsu modified = ⎜ ⎟ Qsu original
⎝ 3β ⎠
in which
β is K tan δ
(b) Bearing failure—The backfill experiences a bearing failure just above the top of the
grillage or pad, and undercut, if formed. The material above the footing compresses
and ‘flows’ around the bearing surface to the surround soil. The deformation required
to develop the ultimate bearing capacity is usually well in excess of acceptable
movement to ensure the tower’s structural integrity. It is a more likely mode of
failure in deep footings (depth: width ratios in the order of 4 or more) where the limit
on bearing capacity has reached or where the backfill compaction is inadequate.
Where an undercut is formed in natural ground, the incremental bearing capacity
should be based on the plan area of the undercut. The bearing capacity of the undercut
may be treated in a similar manner to the design of belled pier and should incorporate
the capacity reduction factor determined by the geotechnical investigation.
Grillage foundation foundations are more susceptible to bearing failure because the
high bearing stresses generated by relatively small surface area of the steel in contact
with the soil.
(c) Cone failure—The grillage or pad uplifts a wedge of soil in the form of a truncated,
inverted pyramid; uplift loads are resisted by the weight of the soil and grillage or
pad, with soil shear along the failure surface taken as zero. Cone failures are possible
because the spread footings are usually shallow and the horizontal soil stresses (such
as might be found in over consolidated soils) are relatively high.
The design process should check all three proposed models. The strength of foundation is
highly dependent on the method of backfilling, which should be factored into any
calculations. The critical case will be that with the lowest ultimate strength and acceptable
deformations.
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L4.2.7 Rock or soil anchored footings

This type of footing is based on the applied load being transferred to the soil or foundation
material by a number of soil or rock anchors extending below a load transfer cap. The
normal design principle is for the transfer cap to transmit compression forces to the
foundation material and for the anchors to provide uplift capacity.
The progressive de-bonding of the anchor system employed with increasing load due to
elastic extension of the tension tendon should be considered.
Post-tensioned ground anchor systems can also be used to transfer tensile loads to the
ground and provide anchor tendons (bars or pre-stressing strands), connections to the pier
cap, corrosion protection, spacers, centralisers and grout.
Ground anchors are active anchors i.e. they are post-tensioned after installation, and locked
off with an initial load to keep anchor extensions at the design load compatible with pile
cap displacements. Footings are restrained against uplift by post-tensioned ground anchors,
grouted into soil or rock, and connected to tower stubs by a pier cap.
Anchor tendons should not be designed to resist lateral (shear) loads that are not parallel to
the bar lengths. In these cases, pile caps or suitable bearing blocks should be used to
provide resistance to lateral loads.
L4.2.8 Deep piled footings
Where weaker foundation strata are encountered deep piled systems can be used. These may
take a variety of forms and can be based on cast in-situ systems, precast driven systems, and
steel and precast concrete pile systems.
Such systems should be designed to comply with the requirements of AS 2159.
L4.2.9 Raft footings
Where construction is required in difficult soft soil areas or where limited construction
access is available for heavy plant to install deep foundation systems, the use of shouldow
depth raft slab footings above or partially below ground may provide a design solution. The
concrete slab is normally designed to encompass the complete structure site and has
strengthening ribs extending above to also provide containment of soil or rock ballast to
resit vertical uplift loads.
The stability of the footing and structure is provided by the composite action of the mass of
the completed raft.
L4.2.10 Load transfer from tower leg to footings
Connections between tower leg stubs and concrete footings may be means of a base plate
and anchor bolt extending into the concrete of the footing, or by extending the stub into the
shaft and providing suitable means to transfer the stub forces to the concrete.
L4.2.10.1 Design of base plates
Base plate design should be generally based on ASCE 10-97 recommendations, except
when modified by AS 4100 (e.g. shear stress on bolts) and AS 3600 requirements for bolt
anchor length. Note friction of base plate is net friction dependent on degree of prestress in
anchor bolts. Concrete column shafts should be proportioned to resist axial, moment and
shears forces form tower and any localised effects from anchor bolts e.g. bursting.
Bending of base plates should be checked using yield line methods of analysis. If all
possible yield lines patterns have been investigated, the lowest computed value for the
ultimate moment (assuming plastic section properties) is the ultimate capacity.
If bolt distribution or gusset plate geometry is non-symmetrical, a more conservative
capacity reduction factor should be used.
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L4.2.10.2 Design of stubs

The transfer of force from the stub to the surrounding concrete is by a combination of steel-
concrete bond and by shear connectors on the stub that transfer force, in a bearing mode to
the concrete. In stubs that do not extend to the base of the footings, reinforcement in the
shaft transfers the stub forces to the base of the footing.
Bond between the stub and the surrounding concrete is adversely affected by the shape and
finish on galvanised steel stubs. It is recommended that only ‘friction’ bond be considered
in the transfer of force above the studs or cleats. When the stub is tension assumed friction
bond should limited to 0.35 MPa if the stress in the stub is less than 300 MPa, or ignored in
the design calculations if the stress is greater than 300MPa. Assumed friction bond in
compression should not exceed 0.7 MPa.
Most of the stub axial force is resisted by shear connections. The normal method is to
provide bolted or welded cleats or studs attached to the lower end of the leg stub in
sufficient number and spacing to transfer the force below the zone of bond development to
the surrounding concrete, and shaft reinforcement if applicable.
The design of the shear connectors is based on the bearing capacity of the concrete and load
capacity of the connectors as determined by their stiff bearing area and bending capacity of
the connector at its yields stress. It cannot be assumed that where multiple levels of
connectors are required that the loads will be shared equally between connectors. Strain
compatibility between the various elements (stub, connectors, concrete and reinforcement)
imperfect concrete construction methods and the tolerances in bolted cleat connector may
result in some connectors resisting a higher portion of the load. It is recommended that
connectors that are placed in several levels along the stub be designed to resist axial loads
not less than 25% greater than the stub design forces.
Minimizing the distance between cleat levels will result in a more equal distribution of load
between cleats. However, the spacing should be sufficient not to restrict the flow of
concrete around the stub and cleats and to ensure that a punching type shear failure in the
concrete between the cleats will not occur. A vertical spacing between the horizontal legs of
the cleats of twice the cleat flange size will generally satisfy this requirement. Cropping of
the ineffective part of the horizontal cleat leg will assist the flow of concrete when space
may be limited, such as in reinforced concrete shafts.
Where the load transfer cleats are positioned at the base of the footing, the footing design
should also be checked for punching shear under both maximum compression and uplift
loads.
When the stub end is within the shaft, longitudinal reinforcement is required to transmit the
axial force to the concrete base. The forces transfer is usually assumed to be in a 45° cone
between the shear connectors and reinforcement. The length of the reinforcement above the
cone intersection should be sufficient for the development of full bond strength in the
reinforcement.
L4.3 Foundation testing
Foundation testing may be used as a means of determining the load capacity of the footing
or its components and its foundation materials to meet design requirements.
The method of testing should be appropriate to the types of footing, ground conditions,
loads and conditions the foundation will be subjected to while in service.
Tests should be generally in accordance to AS 2159.
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L4.4 Cathodic protection

Consideration should be given in the design process to the inclusion of an appropriate
cathodic protection system where aggressive soil conditions may exist that could adversely
affect the design life of the footing. Such systems can be of the sacrificial anode or
impressed current types.
L5 REFERENCE
1 Bulletin No. 12 issued by the Geoteknisk Institut (The Danish Geotechnical Institute
– Copenhagen 1961) Topics: BRINCH HANSEN, J., The ultimate resistance of rigid
piles against transversal forces, CHRISTENSEN, N.H., Model tests with
transversally loaded rigid piles in sand.
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APPENDIX M
APPLICATION OF STANDARDIZED WORK METHODS
FOR CLIMBING AND WORKING AT HEIGHTS
(Informative)
M1 GENERAL OVERVIEW
There have been significant changes in legislation and work practices in the building and
construction industries to make work sites safer and this has necessitated changes in work
practices.
The following sets out a standardized approach for construction and maintenance work
practices on overhead lines, in an effort to reduce further unnecessary hazards for personnel
moving between overhead line networks, and to provide uniform work practices around
Australia and New Zealand.
M2 REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR CLIMBING AND WORKING AT HEIGHTS

AS/NZS
1891 Industrial fall arrest systems and devices
1891.1 Part 1: Harnesses and ancillary equipment
1891.2 Part 2: Horizontal life line and rail systems
1891.3 Part 3: Fall arrest devices
1891.4 Part 4: Selection, use and maintenance
NENS 05 National fall protection guidelines for the electricity industry
EEA/NZ Use of personal fall arrest systems
EEA/NZ Guide—Operation and maintenance of elevating work platforms
M3 METHODS FOR ACCESSING WORK POSITIONS

M3.1 Use of elevating work platforms (EWP)
All line construction and maintenance work on both pole and steel tower overhead line
construction should be assessed on the basis of use of using EWPs as the first option to gain
access and work at heights.
If due to access constraints or the need to access poles and towers by climbing then attached
climbing is permissible if appropriate fall arrest systems are used.
This is coupled with an increasing need for all overhead line feeders to have greater
operational availability and increased use of live line maintenance techniques, work
methods should consider the use of EWP’s to the maximum extent.
The use of man boxes attached to cranes may provide an alternative to use of EWPs .
M3.2 Climbing techniques
M3.2.1 Pole structures
Where access for the safe use of an EWP is not available, climbing access may be used only
if safe climbing work methods on the structure are possible.
Where structures are placed in difficult terrain and access for EWPs is not possible, the
structure should be designed for climbing access, and for safe work from the structure.
This will require the provision of fittings and devices to assist with the safe access and
positioning of workers on the structure.
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M3.2.2 Lattice steel tower structures

All lattice steel structures should be fitted with facilities to allow climbing access to any
work position to permit both de-energized and energized maintenance work.
Some live line maintenance techniques on high voltage lines require the placement of
workers on the structure as well as in the bucket of an EWP. This may require the transfer
of personnel from an EWP to a structure superstructure in order to provide the safest means
of access.
M4 FALL PREVENTION SYSTEMS

Where any climbing or working at height is likely to be required the structure is to be
designed to provide for linepersons to use a portable fall prevention system in accordance
with AS/NZS 1891.
For overhead line construction and maintenance activities this requires the provision of the
following to minimize risk of potential injury with attachment at all times to provide either
‘restrained fall’ or ‘limited free fall’ restraint.
M4.1 ‘Restrained fall’ fall arrest
M4.1.1 Provision and use of a line workers body belt or work positioning harness
This is a full body harness that also has inbuilt shock absorption characteristics.
A combination of anchorage placement and fixed length restraint line or pole strap length,
which will permit only a restrained fall. This requires 6 kN ultimate strength anchorage for
restraint devices. Any structural element should be capable of supporting this load as a
single point load application, in a deformed state but without failure.
M4.2 ‘Limited free fall’ fall arrest

M4.2.1 Provision and use of a line workers body belt or work positioning harness
This is a full body harness that also has inbuilt shock absorption characteristics.
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A combination of anchorage placement and fixed restraint line or length of pole strap which
will permit only a limited free fall to <600 mm
This requires the anchorage point to have a 12 kN ultimate strength anchorage.
M4.3 Use of static lines

Where multiple workers are required to ascend or descend a structure or to be able to move
from position to position on a horizontal plane, the use of a static line may be used as a
means of restraint.
Where static lines are to be used a maximum of two people may be attached to the line at
any one time and a top anchorage capacity of 21 kN is required.
This can be achieved by attachment of a fibre sling around a climbing leg-bracing node
point or other structural member node points.
M4.4 Double lanyard restraint

In order to provide for M4.2 and M4.3 above a double lanyard or double pole strap restrain
arrangement should be used to provide for the worker to be attached at all times while
climbing or while in a work position or moving while in a work area.
In all cases of restrained work, the attachment/detachment of lanyard or pole strap is to be
always above the waist position.
Where the above is not possible due to the structural framing arrangement in relation to the
required work position then an alternative restraint technique should be used and considered
in the design with anchorage above the work position. This may require the provision of
anchorage points to support devices such as inertia reels and static lines.
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M5 SPECIFIC STRUCTURE DESIGN PROVISIONS

Where pole steps or step bolts are required they should be in accordance with the provision
of AS/NZS 1559.
NOTE: Where a tower or pole rescue is required, each pole step may need to support the weight
of two persons. For safety in climbing a step bolt size of 20 mm diameter and a clear shank length
of 180 mm may be considered.
Attachment to any bracing node points on a lattice steel tower in general will provide an
anchorage capacity of 15 kN.
Once a work position is reached, the worker is required to use a work positioning restraint
pole strap, in a ‘restrained fall’ position, and this requires the selection of anchorage points
with at least 6 kN capacity. Any structural load carrying or redundant brace member fixed
with a single 16-diameter bolt at each end can provide this load restraint capacity in a non-
deformed or deformed state.
In general, attachment should be at bracing node points wherever possible in order to
provide containment of any potential lanyard movement, and afford more secure anchorage.
The following anchorage capacities are required to be provided by the structure design:
(a) Inertia reel attachment points for work on cross-arm tips—15 kN.
(b) Attachment to bracing node points for work on E/W peak—15 kN.
(c) Attachment to bracing node points—15 kN.
(d) Typical static line attachment point above climbing step bolts—21 KN.
(e) Typical horizontal restraint of any member in a tower—6 kN.
Refer to Figure M1 for typical arrangement of anchorage points on lattice steel structures.
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Ty p i c a l s t ati c l i n e Inte r tia Re e l at tachme nt

at t a c h m e nt p o i nt a b ove p o i nts fo r wo r k o n
c l i m b i n g s te p b o l ts – 21 k N c ro s s a r m ti ps – 15 k N
At tac h me nt to bracing
n o d e p o i nts fo r wo r k
o n E / W p e a k – 15 k N
At tac h me nt to bracing
n o d e p o i nts – 15 k N
At tac h m e nt to 20 m m
s te p b o l ts, o r a n c h o r
l o o ps, – 6 k N
D O N OT AT TACH
TO 16 m m ST EP BO LTS
L i m i t of l a nya rd
at t a c h m e n t a n c h o r a g e
re stra int – Ine r ti a re e l
m u s t b e u s e d b eyo n d
th i s p o i nt
L i m i t of l a nya rd at tac h m e nt
a n c h o rag e re stra i nt
– at t a c h m e nt p o i nt m u s t b e
a b ove wa i s t p o s i ti o n ( exc e pt
fo r L i ve L i n e ac c e s s i n
c ro u c h e d p o s i ti o n
to C ro s s-a r m ti p b u t w i th
at t ac h m e nt a l ways a b ove wa i st )
FIGURE M1 TYPICAL STEEL TOWER CLIMBING ATTACHMENT POINTS AND

ANCHORAGE CAPACITIES
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APPENDIX N
UPGRADING OVERHEAD LINE STRUCTURES
(Informative)
N1 SCOPE
This Appendix provides guidelines on the requirements to be fulfilled for the modifications
of existing structures and foundations to maintain structural integrity or upgrade structural
capacity. Structures should include transmission or distribution towers/poles supporting
high voltage electrical aerial conductors or radio communication masts/poles and associated
foundations.
Criteria for condition assessment of existing structure, remedial work to repair corrosion
and third party damage or disrupted members due to overload conditions are excluded from
the scope of this Appendix.
N2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
The following factors should be considered for the up-gradation of transmission structures:
(a) Structure upgrade designs should be prepared and authorised by a qualified structural
design engineer with appropriate experience in transmission/distribution structures or
radio communication structures.
(b) The structure as a whole and its component parts should comply with stability,
strength and serviceability limit states defined elsewhere in this Standard.
(c) The designer should select an appropriate structure model for analysis that provides
an accurate representation of the actual structure performance and justify assumptions
regarding load transfer between existing components and modified components and to
foundations.
(d) The designer should consider changes in OHS legislative requirements, work
practices or other directives related to construction safety and personnel access that
need to be accommodated in preparation of the scope of modifications.
N3 PURPOSE OF UPGRADE
Structural upgrade is defined as actions taken to improve structural and foundation
performance beyond the initial design specifications. This may be undertaken for a variety
of purposes including the following:
(a) Improve structure reliability.
(b) Change in structure load criteria or operational duty.
(c) Change in maintenance procedures.
(d) Modify structure geometry to accommodate increased electrical aerial conductor
operating temperature or improve electrical/radiation clearances.
(e) Fixture of new components to comply with updated OHS criteria for personnel
access.
(f) Adding of new/larger telecommunication equipment.
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N4 STRUCTURAL ASSESMENT
The appropriate stress analysis of transmission tower requires calculation of the total forces
in each member of the tower under action of combination of loads externally applied, plus
the dead weight of the structure. These loads should have to be evaluated as per
requirements specified in this Standard for the changed operational condition.
When performing an analysis of an existing structure, careful attention should be given to
the method of analysis employed when the structure originally designed. If the steel
material property and member properties are not documented, material testing and careful
engineering assessment is required. The designer should have to prepare documents for
such material testing and engineering assessment that should form an integral part of the
structural up-gradation proposal.
Field inspection is a pre-requisite for the structural assessment of existing structures to
ensure that the structures are in good condition and/or to adjust the capacity of individual
structural member.
It is possible that the original structure capacity was not utilized fully for various reasons
such as unusual terrain conditions, site-specific restrictions, availability of materials or
conservative 2-D method of analysis. In such cases, structure upgrade can possibly be
achieved with minimum effort. However, all original design assumptions should be re-
examined again and the designer should determine and document if there is any major
difference in the load distribution of the structure with new analysis. A correlation of past
model assumptions with new model assumptions should have to be performed for the entire
structure.
N5 WORKING ON LOADED STRUCTURES

The designer should carryout a comprehensive structural analysis of the transmission
structures considered for upgrading prior to any fieldwork, personnel access, structure
and/or foundation modification. Existing aerial conductor tensions, component dead weight
and resulting loads transferred onto structural supports should be carefully examined and
taken into account when developing work procedures and selecting required equipment.
N6 LOAD TEST ON STRUCTURES

Load testing can be used to verify that the performance of the structure or component is
consistent with the theoretical design or the trialing of options without design.
The number of tests and applied load to suit the required COV should be in accordance with
AS/NZS 1170.0 or an equivalent recognized standard. This should reflect the accuracy of
the calculations, the degree of difficulty in installation of the reinforcement and the security
required. Some subjective judgement may be required on the part of the designer to
establish loading and performance criteria.
Consideration should be given by the designer to any influence the test rig may have on the
performance of the structure or component.
Testing of components should account for actual stiffness and possible variations of the
surrounding structure. This should happen due to the modified stiffness matrix at a joint
and/or pre-loading on existing member.
Testing should preferably be continued maximum 150% of ultimate load or to destruction
(whichever occurs first) to verify the presence of any brittle failure close to ultimate load.
The tests should be carried out to a test plan, which is prepared to demonstrate or test the
performance in sympathy with the design process.
The records of the test should include as a minimum—
(a) test plan and purpose of each test;
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(b) load and deflection;

(c) localized deformation;
(d) any variations of the tested structure or component from the proposed final design
and what influence this may have on the test outcome; and
(e) conclusion.
N7 STRUCTURE UPGRADE
N7.1 Lattice steel structure upgrade
The main purpose to upgrade the existing structure is to keep the resistance of the structure
(including individual elements of a structure) within the limit of design resistance for the
modified loading conditions and/or line design criteria. A list of preferred modification
options is given in Paragraph N9.
N7.1.1 Tension member upgrade
Strength of tension member can be achieved by replacing existing member with higher
profile or by adding new member to the existing member.
The designer should have to propose the temporary load transfer arrangement as well as
sequential working procedure for the replacement of any existing member with new one.
Tensile strength can also be increased with the use of splice angles bolted with the existing
leg member and supplementing angle section to cruciform/T-section by an additional angle.
However, increase in wind area should have to be taken into consideration for re-
assessment of the structure with this arrangement. Strengthening within the nodes and
across, the joint is not necessary if the net cross section multiplied by the yield strength of
the material is higher than the maximum force. If strengthening within the nodes and across
the joint is required, the supplemented angle should have to pass through the joints by
providing adequate distance to clear the bolt threads of existing joint by providing splice
angles with appropriate thickness. The splice angles should be arranged at least at one-third
distance of the total buckling length.
It is preferable to weld (or service level non-slip bolted joint) the splice angle at the
circumference with fillet seams to the supplemented sections in the workshop and after
galvanizing, the same adjust them to the existing members at site. However, Welding is not
desirable in many cases due to the poor fatigue performance of welded connections. Refer
to Paragraph N7.1.3 for connection details and Paragraph N7.1.4 for load transfer between
old and new members.
N7.1.2 Compression members upgrade
The strength of compression member can be increased by reducing its unsupported length
or end restrained condition.
Unsupported length can be reduced by inserting additional redundant members or changing
the redundant pattern.
Increasing the number of bolts at end of single bolted members should change the end-
restrained condition of compression member, which in turn should increase the compression
strength.
Addition of new member should also increase compression strength of members. Refer to
Paragraph N7.1.1 for the requirement of such modification. However, the sub-members
should have to be bolted in such a way so that the composite member can be treated as a
single member (i.e. fully composite section).
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T-section should have the improved slenderness ratio and hence, changing compression
member to that profile (especially to increase the diaphragm strength by providing T-shaped
horizontal edge member) should increase the compression strength. (See Figure N1).
Y 0.5 L
NOTE: Critical slenderness ratio should be the maximum of 0.51/rxx and L/ryy.
FIGURE N1 CRITICAL SLENDERNESS RATIO OF T-SECTION
However, improvement in buckling performance is the best way to increase the

compression strength of any member unless the modification in angle section yields an
efficient load transfer.
See Paragraph N7.1.3 for connection details and Paragraph N7.1.4 for load transfer between
old and new members.
N7.1.3 Connection upgrade and consideration in connection design
Connection can be upgraded by the use of high strength bolts confirming to specification
AS/NZS 1252. Use of additional bolts at joint should also increase the connection capacity.
Special attention should be given while designing connection between supplemented and
existing angle sections. The connection between old member and supplemented member
should have to be designed for a shear force equal to 2.5% of the composite member
compression force. At least two bolts should be used at each connection. The bolt spacing
should not be more than 6 xdb, where db is the diameter of hole. The connection between
existing member and the supplementing member may be designed as non-slip joint.
However, due care should be given to verify the bolt pretension and the faying surface
condition at site to ensure the requirements considered during design are properly
implemented. The slip factor should have to be assumed as per recommendation given in
AS 4100. The surface should be roughened by means of hand wire brushing (after hot dip
galvanization) and the treatment should be controlled to achieve visible roughening or
scoring (but not removing the coating). Power wire brushing is not permitted because it
may polish rather than roughen the surface, or remove the coating.
N7.1.4 Force distribution in newly formed composite section
Addition of an angle section (as described in Paragraphs N7.1.1 and N7.1.2) moves the
centroidal axis of the leg members outwards. However, since the existing member is pre-
loaded with external forces, the supplemented member will not carry the load
proportionately with respect to the relative stiffness. This initial loading condition causes a
higher proportionate axial load to the existing member and a lower one to the supplemented
section. Due care should have to be taken during design to account such effect arising from
the installation condition. It is essential to confirm minimum relative movement of sub-
members of the newly formed compound member to ensure balanced load distribution. In
such case, slip in the serviceability limit state is required to be limited and connections
should be designed for bolts serviceability limit state (see AS 4100).
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N7.1.5 Guying of structures

Guys can be used in various arrangements to reinforce structures. The design of the guy
system and supported structure should as a minimum account for—
(a) possible variations in the effective stiffness of individual guys within the system
caused by variations in initial installed tension, foundation movement, variation in
structure stiffness compared to actual stiffness. As a minimum it is recommended that
combinations of guy stiffness varying to 150% and 50% of the proposed cable be
considered. Load testing of the guy anchors is recommended to ensure against
excessive slippage. Other considerations such as relaxation of individual guys should
be made;
(b) the flexibility of the guy, together with the flexibility of the tower, is needed to
compute the foundation reactions and anchor loads. Tower and anchors can be
designed for the maximum amount of specified anchor slippage. The initial and final
modulus of elasticity of the guys together with the creep should have to be
considered; and
(c) differential movement of the structure foundations relative to the guy anchor
foundations. This can be assessed by comparing the depth of embedment of the
foundation and likely soil heave or settlement. On narrow masts, small movements of
the footing may relieve load.
Selection of the guy cable should satisfy strength requirements in accordance with AS 3995.
Consideration should be given to the sizing of the cable for suitable stiffness.
The guy cable should be as a minimum earthed for fault currents.
The guy attachments should be designed for the full tensile capacity of the guy cable. The
guy anchor foundations may be designed for less than the full capacity of the anchor.
Consideration should be given to the termination fittings of the guy to allow coarse and fine
length adjustment, tension measurement of the installed guys (by vibration frequency,
mechanical tensiometer, measurement of sag), temporary removal of load to allow
adjustment of the length and attachment points on the anchors for temporary replacement of
the normal guys.
Because of the large elongation of non-steel ropes, only steel cables should be used for
temporary or permanent guys.
Buried components of the guying system should be designed to allow for the extreme level
of corrosion for the type of installation.
Guying systems may be considered either as a continuation of the aerial conductors (i) OR
as structural components (ii)—
(i) if the guying system is designed as continuation of the aerial conductors using aerial
conductor hardware then allowance should be made for broken cables and
attachments.
ii) If the guying system is designed as a structural components the guy fittings should
have suitable WLL markings and be selected in accordance with the WLL under EDT
and WLL*3 under ultimate loads. The designer should check that the selected
components have an ultimate capacity of at least 5*WLL.
(iii) (as alternate of (ii)) If the guying system is designed as a structural components,
usually the guy fittings will not be able to develop the full rated breaking strength
(RBS) of the guy but should have to be designed for 70% of RBS under weather loads
and 85% of RBS under failure containment conditions. The mechanical efficiency
should be marked on guy fittings, which may be defined as the percent of the guy
RBS up to which the guy fitting is able to sustain.
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Pretension of guys should be at least 5% of CBL of the cable and preferably closer to 10%
of CBL (with maximum ±10% tolerance).Depending on the procedure, the designer should
specify either—
(A) pretension values; or
(B) a tensioning sequence controlled by the pole top displacement.
The minimum pretension should be such that the leeward guys do not go slack under
frequently occurring winds (e.g. yearly wind) or other everyday weather related load
combination. At the lower range, the sag of the cable may be excessive for visual and
stiffness considerations.
Guy fittings should have split pins or double nuts for locking against vibration.
The guy attachment points on the structure should allow for possible variations in the
installation of the guy position causing changes in the force components at the attachment.
Pretensioning of the guy cable can be used to pre-load the foundations of the reinforced
structure.
Guy systems can be used to carry torsional load at a level in a tower but the effectiveness is
dependent on the stiffness of the structure.
N7.2 Structure upgrade
N7.2.1 Wooden pole structure upgrade
N7.2.1.1 Hardwood poles
Timber poles have been found to deteriorate over time in the ground line zone due to
termites attack or soft rot mechanisms and at height due to the long term exposure to the
natural elements.
Where soft rot is detected in its early stages, poles can be assessed for loss of strength and
limits set on the minimum permissible load factor to be provided before further
reinforcement of the pole element is required.
Pole nails provide a means of providing reinforcement of poles and extending their service
life.
Various strengths and types of pole nails or nail systems that are rigidly attached to the pole
are available to either temporarily reinforce or to replace completely the base section of
poles.
Where temporary reinforcing type systems are used careful consideration needs to be made
of the level of serviceable strength that is provided over time under conditions where the
wood pole butt suffers further deterioration.
N7.2.1.2 Softwood poles
In general CCA treated softwood poles should not require upgrading during their design
service life.
N7.2.2 Steel pole structure upgrade
N7.2.2.1 Direct embedded poles and socketed base type poles
Tubular form steel poles directly embedded into soil will normally have either a hot dip
galvanized finish or a duplex tar epoxy coating applied over the galvanized.
Galvanized steel in direct contact with soils will not have significant life unless in low
rainfall or semi arid areas and replacement of the base section is likely during the life of the
structure.
Duplex coated poles should not require upgrading during its design service life unless the
coating system breaks down.
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Poles socketed into concrete base sockets will perform generally in accordance with the
above provisions. It should be assumed that any cast in situ socket will fill with water over
time, due to capillary action on the pole/seal interface.
Accelerated loss of zinc coating will most likely occur to some extent, in the immediate
above ground zone due to the daily drying/wetting cycle with dew particularly in grassed
footpath areas.
N7.2.2.2 Base plate mounted poles
The weakest element in this type of construction is the corrosion protection of the holding
down bolts and any projections of bolt threads. Specific maintenance of the region is
required in order to extend the service life of the structure.
N7.2.2.3 Slip joints and internal surface protection
All cylindrical galvanized steel poles joined in the field with slip joints can be expected to
have some but limited corrosion of the mating surfaces of the joint without any significant
loss of strength, but needs to be checked over the life of the line.
Temperature effects can have a major effect on the ingress of moisture into the inner void
of steel poles due to the ‘breathing’/expansion of the pole drawing in moist air.
Condensation will then occur during low temperature cycles that will cause corrosion of the
inner zinc surfaces. To counteract this complete sealing of the inner void will limit
available oxygen.
Periodic internal boroscope inspection of the inner base section would be beneficial to
extending the service life of poles.
N7.2.3 Concrete pole structure upgrade
Most concrete poles are made from high strength concrete using a high compaction process.
Some are also prestressed.
Poles of this type have been in service for over 80 years without any degradation of the pole
element.
Limited scope exists to upgrade the design capacity of these structures unless by the use of
composite elements attached to the outer or inner surfaces of the pole.
N7.2.4 Composite pole structure upgrade
This type of pole has limited service experience at the time this Standard was prepared but
is seen to be similar to concrete poles.
N8 FOUNDATION UPGRADE
Increased reaction from super-structure for the purposes stated in Paragraph N3 should be
transferred safely to the existing foundation system. The designer should have to design an
appropriate anchoring system to satisfy this requirement.
Additional uplift force can be counter measured by increasing the dead weight of the
footing. However, due attention is required for the integrity between the new concrete
section to the old concrete section.
Lateral support can be achieved by methods as simple as modifying engineering properties
of soil adjacent to the footing member (compaction, soil stabilising). Other methods may
include enlarging the footing bearing area or installing tie beams between individual
footings.
New foundation can be installed to transfer higher load from super structure and after
completion of the new foundation construction, the structure can be re-positioned onto the
new foundation. In such case, the old foundation may be abounded or may be used as a part
of new foundation.
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The designer should have to prepare the temporary load transfer arrangement as well as
sequential working procedure required for safe strengthening of existing foundation
system/construction of new foundation or safe re-positioning of structure onto the new
foundation.
Appropriate geotechnical investigation is required prior to any foundation modification or
installation of new foundation for increased load transfer. The designer should have to carry
out appropriate investigation to predict any potential stability hazard that may arise to
existing foundation while constructing new foundation or modifying existing foundation
causing soil disturbance.
N9 MODIFICATION OF LATTICE STEEL STRUCTURE

Lattice steel structures can be strengthened by means of following measures:
(a) Adding new profile with existing structural element (e.g. adding back-to-back angle
with existing angle at horizontal edge members/bracing members/compression chord
of X-arm to enhance the buckling resistance).
(b) Introducing additional redundant members/modifying redundant pattern to increase
the compression strength of the structure component.
(c) Modifying tower geometry to optimize the load distribution pattern within the
structure (e.g. introducing additional diaphragm between panels).
(d) Replacement of angle sections with larger section members.
(e) Addition of guy (stay) wires.
(f) Addition of bolts/splice plates to enhance end restrained condition of compression
member or
(g) Up-gradation of bolts to higher grade and/or diameter.
(h) Modification in tower top geometry for thermal or voltage uprating of line.
(i) Install tower on new base and/or use of tower extension above waist to increase
height
N10 MODIFICATION OF POLE STRUCTURE

Pole structures can be strengthened by means of following measures:
(a) Adding stays.
(b) Pole nails for wooden poles.
(c) Doubling up concrete poles, some times even a small pole maybe added.
(d) Inserting the steel section on the base of a wooden pole to increase height.
(e) Use of fibre reinforced polymer to increase the flexural capacity of steel monopoles.
N11 SAFETY
N11.1 Construction and maintenance work procedures
The designer should have to confirm the following aspects:
(a) Production of construction and maintenance procedures complying the design
assumptions and requirements.
(b) All potential constraints are documented.
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However, review of working procedures for independent engineering assessment to ensure

the compliance with design assumptions and specified constraints should be required prior
to commencing the fieldwork.
N11.2 Personnel access
Personnel access controls developed to comply with OHS legislative requirements and other
directives have seen the specification of significantly increased maintenance and fall-arrest
loads and fixing of more sophisticated climbing aids. The designer should consider whether
such scope for the upgrade work on structures installed prior to these requirements should
be inclusive of these requirements.
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APPENDIX O
WATER ABSORPTION TEST
(Normative)
O1 SCOPE
This Appendix sets out the method for the determination of the water absorptive property of
concrete poles, in a batch of poles.
NOTE: The test method is based on AS 4058.
O2 PRINCIPLE
The relative water absorption of the pole concrete is taken as a measure of the resistance of
the concrete to atmospheric moisture penetration. The relative water absorption is measured
as the difference in mass between an oven-dried specimen and the saturated surface-dry
mass of the specimen after a fixed period of immersion in boiling water, expressed as a
percentage of the oven-dried mass.
O3 APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of the following items:
(a) A ventilated drying oven of sufficient capacity to hold a test specimen and capable of
maintaining a temperature of 105 ±3°C.
(b) A desiccator of sufficient capacity to hold the test specimen from Item (a).
(c) A water bath of sufficient plan area and depth for the test specimen to be completely
immersed in water and in which the water can be maintained continuously at boiling
point for at least 5 h.
(d) Cutting and grinding equipment for preparing the specimen.
(e) Drying cloths and implements for handling the specimen from oven to desiccator to
bath.
(f) A weighing mechanism capable of determining the mass of the test piece, during the
various stages, to an accuracy of ±0.5 g.
O4 CONDITION OF SAMPLE POLES

The age of the sample pole(s), from the time of casting to the time of preparation of the test
specimens, shall not be less than 14 days nor greater than 28 days. The poles shall not have
been subjected to any previous testing, which would affect the absorptive properties of the
concrete. The area of the surface from which the test specimens are to be cut shall be free
from cracks visible by normal or corrected vision.
O5 PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMEN

From each sample pole, extract a radial core that extends through the entire thickness of the
wall, with end faces corresponding to the internal and external surfaces of the pole of area
between 1.0 × 104 mm2 and 1.5 × 104 mm2.
NOTE: A cylindrical specimen, made by cutting radially through the wall with a coring bit of
115 mm diameter, or 125 mm nominal diameter, would satisfy these area requirements.
The cut surfaces of the specimen shall be ground smooth and the specimen kept in a damp
condition until tested.
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O6 TEST PROCEDURES
O6.1 General
The test shall be carried out when the age of the concrete in the specimen is not greater than
28 days.
NOTE: The ability of concrete to absorb water diminishes with increasing time after casting and
with increasing duration and quality of curing. Absorption tests made on 28-day-old concrete
will, therefore, yield lower percentage values than tests on concrete less than 28 days old. Hence,
if an early-age value is less than the permissible limiting value, no further test will be required.
However, if this is not the case, a further test at 28 days would be required.
O6.2 Procedures
O6.2.1 Determination of dry mass (m1)
The procedure is as follows:
(a) Weigh the damp specimen to the nearest gram and record the mass as m0.
(b) Dry the specimen at 105 ±3°C in the drying oven until consecutive weight
measurements of the specimen, when made at intervals of not less than 4 h, show a
change in mass of not greater than 0.1% of m0. Record the lowest value, determined at
room temperature as the dry mass (m1) to the nearest gram.
Each consecutive weighing required may be carried out either—
(i) by first allowing the specimen to cool from oven temperature to room temperature in
the desiccator and then weighing; or
(ii) by weighing the hot specimen within 1 min of its removal from the oven then, if no
further drying is required, cooling it to room temperature in the desiccator and
reweighing it as soon as possible, The latter reading is recorded as the dry mass (m1).
O6.2.2 Immersion procedure
Immediately following the determination of the dry mass, suspend the specimen in the bath
so that no part of the specimen is closer to a direct source of heat than 50 mm. Introduce
potable water into the bath at room temperature until all surfaces of the specimen are
covered by at least 25 mm of water.
Once the specimen has been covered to the required depth, heat the water rapidly to 100°C
and maintain it at that temperature for 5 hours keeping the specimen covered with water
throughout. At the end of this period, cool the specimen uniformly over 2 h to 20 ±5°C, by
gradually replacing the hot water with colder water.
O6.2.3 Determination of saturated surface-dry mass (m2)
At the end of the immersion procedure, remove the specimen from the bath, allow it to
drain for not more than 1 min, and then remove any remaining water from the surface with
the absorbent paper or cloth.
Weigh the specimen in this saturated surface-dry condition and record the mass as (m2), to
the nearest gram.
If the specimen contains reinforcement, remove it from the concrete and clean off any
adhering mortar. Weigh the reinforcement and record its mass as (m3), to the nearest gram.
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O7 CALCULATIONS
The absorption of each test specimen shall be calculated from the following equation:
( m2 − m1 ) ×100
k wj = . . .O1
( m1 − m3 )
where
m1 = the dry mass, in grams
m2 = the saturated surface-dry mass, in grams
m3 = the mass of reinforcement, in grams
O8 RECORDS AND REPORTS

O8.1 Records
For each batch of poles for which water absorption tests are taken, the following records
shall be kept:
(a) A means of identifying the individual test specimens and the batch from which they
were taken.
(b) The date on which the test specimens were taken from the batch, or the age of the
concrete at that date.
(c) For each specimen tested from the batch—
(i) the measured values of m1, m2 and m3;
(ii) the calculated value of kwj; and
(iii) the date on which m1 was determined.
O8.2 Reports
For each batch of poles for which water absorption tests have been carried out, a report
containing the following information shall be prepared:
(a) Identification of the test specimens and the batch from which they were taken.
(b) The date on which the first test specimen was taken from the batch or the age of the
concrete on that date.
(c) The calculated values of kwj for the batch.
(d) A statement as to whether or not these values satisfy the criteria given in
Paragraph I5.2.
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APPENDIX P
INSULATION GUIDELINES
(Informative)
P1 INSULATION COORDINATION BASICS

Pollution flashovers can occur under wet or high humidity conditions. An overhead line
should be designed to avoid a power frequency flashover. Even if the insulation can
withstand the initial flashover without damage, upon reclosure of the line there is every
likelihood of a subsequent flashover should the wetting conditions continue.
Switching surges on overhead lines should also be considered and the appropriate amount
of insulation installed to avoid these surges. Switching surges can reach up to 3 times the
normal operating voltage and in the case when high speed autoreclosing is used, in the
presence of trapped charges, the surges can be up to 4 times normal operating voltage
P2 DESIGN FOR POLLUTION

Pollution design recommendations are given in AS 4436. The basic concept is to increase
the surface creepage distance so that it is long enough to prevent a pollution flashover
across the surface.
TABLE P1
GUIDE FOR SELECTING INSULATORS IN CONTAMINATED ENVIRONMENTS
Contamination severity ESDD range (1) Minimum nominal specific
creepage distance (2)
g/m mm/kV
Light 0 to1.2 16
Medium 1.2 to 2.0 20
Heavy 2.0 to 3.0 25
Very heavy Above 3.0 31
(1)
ESDD is the equivalent salt deposit density.
(2)
Ratio of leakage distance measured between phase and earth over the r.m.s phase to phase voltage of the
highest voltage of the equipment.
(3)
Consideration should be given to increasing the creepage distances is areas where there are long periods
without rainfall or very close to the marine coast
Example:
Select a suitable disc insulator string for a 33 kV line subject to light contamination. Use
normal disc profiles where the creepage length is 300 mm.
Voltage of line = 33 kV
Minimum nominal specific creepage = 16 mm/kV for light contamination
distance
Required creepage distance for 33 kV = 528 mm
Number of discs = 528/300 = 1.76 → 2 discs
The pollution performance of insulators can also be improved with the use creepage
extenders or hydrophobic coatings such as Room Temperature Silicon Rubber (RTV).
These coatings have a finite life and will need to be replaced during the life of the insulator.
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Pole top fires may occur when high leakage currents from polluted insulators track across
interfaces between conductive to non-conductive material e.g. insulator to crossarm, and
crossarm to pole.
P3 DESIGN FOR SWITCHING SURGE DESIGN AND LIGHTNING

PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS
A good coverage on the design for switching surge is given in AS 1824.2. When designing
for switching surges, one of the parameters which is difficult to obtain is the switching
surge impulse voltage. There are two main types of electrical tests conducted on insulators;
one being the lightning impulse and the other the power frequency flashover (wet and dry).
Switching tests have been conducted in laboratories and the flashover voltages have been
inconsistent and found to be dependent on the shape of the surge, the type of electrodes and
the presence of earth planes.
In lieu of adequate test data on switching surges a good approximation for the switching
surge flashover voltage is 0.8 times the lightning impulse flashover voltage.
The insulator parameter that determines the insulator impulse performance (i.e. switching
surge and lightning) is the arc distance across the insulator.
Line insulation is usually selected independent of substation insulation. It is necessary to
check substation insulation impulse performance and install surge arresters, especially when
the line insulation is longer than the substation insulation.
P4 SELECTION OF INSULATORS
The two main class of insulators are ceramic (glass and porcelain) and composite (EPDM,
silicon rubber and cycloaliphatic). Ceramic insulators have traditionally been installed on
overhead networks and have provided a reliable service in light to moderately contaminated
environments.
P4.1 Standard and fog profile disc insulators
A typical 254 mm × 146 mm standard profile disc generally has a creepage length of
approximately 300 mm. The profiles are variable between manufacturers who have to
balance the requirements of having an aerodynamic shape to attract fewer pollutants, deeper
skirts to increase creepage length and greater distance between skirts to reduce arcing.
A typical 254 mm × 146 mm fog profile disc has a creepage length around 430 mm. This is
a 40% improvement in leakage distance over the standard disc. The additional creepage
length is gained by having deeper skirts and this comes at a higher cost. It is common
practice to install fog profile insulators in heavy to extreme contamination areas. This is
acceptable for a marine or industrial environments that are exposed to regular rainfall, but
in desert environments, contaminants can be trapped under the skirts and build up to such
levels that they bridge the skirts. This then dramatically lowers the creepage length of the
insulator. For areas of extremely low rainfall, it is common for the aerodynamically dinner
plate shaped insulators to be used.
P4.2 Ceramic pin, shackle and posts
Ceramic pin, shackle and post insulators have been manufactured since the early years of
last century. These insulators come in various lengths and profiles to meet the electrical and
mechanical loads. The pin insulator is prone to puncture especially from steep fronted
lightning strikes because of the small amount of ceramic material between the top of the
insulator and the metallic bolt inserted in the bottom of the ceramic. Pin insulators usually
have less creepage length compared to the post types but can be designed with larger skirts
to handle heavy contaminated conditions.
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Shackle insulators are installed in positions where there are higher conductor loads, such as
angle or termination structures. These insulators have a disadvantage to the pin and post
types in contaminated environments because the aerial conductor attachment in the centre
of the insulator reduces the creepage length of the insulator.
Post insulators have an advantage over pin insulators in withstanding electrical puncture
because there is a larger amount of ceramic material between the top of the insulator and
the metal base. Post insulators generally have the highest creepage lengths and can be
manufactured with wider skirts to handle increasing amounts of pollution. The advantages
of the post insulator come at a higher cost.
P4.3 Composite long rod and line post insulators
Composite insulators are made with a fibreglass core and either EPDM or silicon rubber
weathersheds. One major advantage of the composite insulators over the ceramic ones is
that they do not have intermediate metal parts between the end fittings. Hence, they have a
superior creepage to dry arcing distance ratio.
Composites are generally regarded as being superior to ceramic for low to moderately
contaminated environments because of their ability to maintain hydrophobicity. One of the
polymers, EPDM, does lose hydrophobicity from the effects of UV radiation and arcing on
the surface whilst the other, Silicon Rubber, has the ability to maintain hydrophobicity for a
long period. This is due to the continuous migration of silicon oils from the bulk of the
material to the surface. Ageing performance is commensurate with price. Silicon Rubber is
slightly more expensive than EPDM. In heavy to extreme environments, both types of
polymers have shown significant evidence of ageing (erosion and cracks along the axis of
the polymer).
Polymeric insulators are increasingly being accepted and advantages over ceramic
insulators include the following:
(a) Lightweight (long rods are 10% of the weight of an equivalent ceramic string) making
it easier to install and maintain.
(b) Less visual impact.
(c) Vandal proof.
(d) Lower cost.
(e) Few couplings.
However, some disadvantages of polymeric insulators are as follows:
(i) Not yet proven to have a life span to match ceramics.
(ii) Low torsional strength.
(iii) Limited diagnostic testing available.
(iv) Risk of damage from bird attack, especially when de-energized.
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APPENDIX Q
MID SPAN SEPARATION CALCULATIONS
(Informative)
Q1 GENERAL
In Section 3 an equation was developed to determine mid span phase to phase separation.
The following example outlines the method of calculation.
MID SPAN SEPARATION
Example 1:
Single circuit 19/3.25 AAC at 33 kV 3-phase on pin insulators in a delta configuration with
a span of 200 m. What is the mid span vertical separation required between phases if a
crossarm with a separation of 2.1 m between outer phases is used?
Sag at 50°C is 6.07 m and sited in Region A.
Refer Figure 3.6.
Where—
∴X = 1.05
U = 33
k = 0.4
D = 6.07
li = 0
U
X 2 +(1.2Y ) 2 ≥ + k D + li . . .Q1
150
33
1.052 +(1.2Y ) 2 ≥ + 0.4 6.07 + 0 . . .Q2
150
1.052 +(1.2Y ) 2 ≥ 0.22 + 0.985 . . .Q3
1.052 +(1.2Y ) 2 ≥1.205 . . .Q4
0.591
Y≥ . . .Q5
1.2
Y ≥ 0.493 . . .Q6
Therefore, required minimum vertical separation for centre phase is 0.493 m.
Example 2:
Upper circuit 19/3.25 AAC at 33 kV 3-phase on pin insulators in a delta configuration with
a span of 200 m located directly above the lower circuit. The lower circuit aerial conductor
is 19/.064 copper at 11 kV. The lower circuit has a 120°phase differential to the upper
circuit.
What is the mid span vertical separation required between circuits if a crossarm with a
separation of 2.1 m between outer phases is used?
Sag at 50°C is 6.07 m 19/3.25 AAC and 5.81 m for 19/.064 Copper sited in Region Type A.
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See Figure Q1.
FIGURE Q1 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SEPARATION AT MID SPAN (TWO CIRCUITS)
Because the circuits are located vertically above each other the horizontal component is
taken as zero and—
U = Va2 + Vb2 − 2 VaVb Cosφ from ‘U’ above

2 2
⎛ 33 ⎞ ⎛ 11 ⎞ 33 11
= ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ −2 × × Cos120°
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ 3 3
= 22.9 kV
∴X = 0
U = 22.9 (the difference in the vector r.m.s. potential of the circuit voltages)
k = 0.4 (Region A)
D = 6.07 (greater of the two sags)
li = 0 (Pin insulators)
U
X 2 +(1.2Y ) 2 ≥ + k D + li . . .Q7
150
22.9
0 +(1.2Y ) 2 ≥ + 0.4 6.07 + 0 . . .Q8
150
(1.2Y ) 2 ≥ 0.153 + 0.985 . . .Q9
1.2Y ≥1.138 . . .Q10
1.2Y ≥ 1.2052 − 1.052 . . .Q11

1.138
Y≥ . . .Q12
1.2
Y ≥ 0.948 . . .Q13
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APPENDIX R
INSULATION SWING ANGLE CALCULATIONS
(Informative)
R1 INSULATOR SWING
The swing angles of suspension insulator strings for wind conditions can be approximated
using the following formula.
⎛ Fwi ⎛θ ⎞ ⎞
⎜ WP * d * Sw + 2 + 2 H sin ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟
Angle of insulator swing φ = tan−1 ⎜ ⎝ ⎠⎟
. . .R1
⎜ W ⎟
⎜ Wc + i ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
where
WP = reference wind pressure in Pascals
d = aerial conductor diameter in metres
Sw = wind span affecting the insulator string in metres
Fwi = wind load on insulator in Newtons = 1.2 × projected area of insulators ×
wind pressure
Wc = effective aerial conductor weight in Newtons (weight span × weight per
unit length)
Wi = weight of insulator string in Newtons
H = horizontal component of aerial conductor tension in Newtons
appropriate to the reference wind
θ = line deviation angle
R2 AERIAL CONDUCTOR BLOWOUT

For aerial conductor blowout calculation, the suspension insulator swing plus the aerial
conductor catenary swing should be considered.
The swing angle of a aerial phase conductor catenary in a single span for wind conditions
can be approximated using the following formula.
⎛ WP * d * Sw ⎞
Angle of aerial conductor swing (blowout) φ = tan−1 ⎜ ⎟ . . .R2
⎝ Ws ⎠
where
WP = reference wind pressure in Pascals
d = aerial conductor diameter in metres
S = span length in metres
Ws = effective aerial conductor weight in Newtons (span length × weight per
unit length)
NOTE: It is important to note that the insulator swing formula above may produce different swing
angles for suspension insulators at supports on either side of a line catenary where different wind
to weight span ratios may exist.
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The horizontal displacement of any point on the aerial conductor in the span can be
calculated from the results produced by the two equations above by considering their
combined effect and is given by the following (see Figure R1):
⎛ x1 ⎞
horizontal displacement y1 = S g sin φc + i1 sin φ i1 + ⎜ ⎟ (i2 sin φi2 −i1 sin φi1 ) . . .R3
x
⎝ 1 + x2 ⎠
where
Sg = sag for point on aerial conductor under consideration in metres
φc = angle of aerial conductor swing (blowout) in degrees
φi1 = angle of first insulator swing in degrees
φi2 = angle of second insulator in degrees
i1 = length of first insulator string in metres
i2 = length of second insulator string in metres
x1 = first span length fraction to point on aerial conductor under
consideration in metres
x2 = second span length fraction to point on aerial conductor under
consideration in metres
NOTE: At blowout wind speeds the aerial conductor temperature for sag determination can be
taken as ambient air temperature.
l2
12
B l owo u t rot ati o n a x i s
i1
11
Sg
c
x1 x2 y1
T R A NSV ER S E V IE W LO NG I T U D IN A L V IE W
FIGURE R1 HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT
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R3 AERIAL CONDUCTOR TENSION FOR BLOWOUT CALCULATIONS

For the aerial conductor tension H should be based on—
(a) still air or low wind ..............................average temperature over the coldest month;
(b) high wind .......... 500 Pa wind at average temperature over the coldest month +10°C.
R4 DETERMINATION OF REFERENCE WIND PRESSURE FOR BLOWOUT

CALCULATIONS
The estimation of swing angles may be made using a simplified deterministic approach or a
detailed procedure using meteorological data. The latter method should be used when
greater precision is required or where unusual and/or extreme local conditions prevail.
Part A—Detailed procedure
The reference wind velocity Vr should be obtained from local weather records
corresponding to a suitable return period and an averaging time, and corrected for terrain
and height effects.
The selection of the wind return period should be based on the degree of reliability
required, and when directional effects are considered, the swing angle return period is about
twice that of the corresponding wind.
Thus for the high wind case, a 50 year return period and an averaging time of 5 min (5 min
gust) will provide a satisfactory operational performance for most applications with a
probability of exceeding the calculated swing angle of about 1%.
For the low wind condition, a wind return period of one year averaged over 5 min (5 min
gust) is recommended for similar reasons.
Table R1gives factors for converting wind velocities from one averaging time to another for
each terrain category.
A correction factor k takes into account the distribution of the wind along the span, drag
force coefficient and the averaging time for Vr. For the heights of aerial conductors that are
normally encountered, k may be considered to be independent of height and terrain effects.
The correction factor k should be multiplied by the derived wind pressure to determine the
reference wind pressure for swing out calculations. The values for k should ideally be
selected on the basis of studies and local experience. However, for most applications a
value selected from Figure R2 produces satisfactory results.
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1.05
FAC TO R k 1.0 0
0.95
0.9 0
0.85
0.80
20 0 300 40 0 50 0 600
W I N D S PA N S w (m)
FIGURE R2 CORRECTION FACTOR K
TABLE R1
FACTORS FOR CONVERTING A 3 S GUST WIND SPEED
Gust period Terrain Terrain Terrain Terrain
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
3s 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
1 min 0.735 0.797 0.844 0.878
2 min 0.680 0.749 0.807 0.847
5 min 0.614 0.658 0.764 0.808
10 min 0.553 0.646 0.727 0.784
Part B—Simplified procedure

For condition (a)—Still air or low wind
Wind pressure .....................................60 to 100 Pa depending on local weather conditions
(replace the term 0.6 Vr2 in Equation B1 by the selected wind pressure)
Value for k .................................................................................................................... 1.0
For condition (b)—High wind or maximum swing
Wind pressure (0.6 Vr2) ........................................................................................... 500 Pa
Value for k .................................................................................................................... 1.0
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APPENDIX S
AERIAL CONDUCTOR SAG AND TENSION
(Informative)
The method employed to determine aerial conductor tension due to a change of state of
temperature, wind loading and or ice loading depends on whether the design operating
tension is within the linear stress strain regime or whether design tension excursions are in
the non linear stress strain regime. The linear stress strain model may be employed using
the modulus of elasticity determined in accordance with Appendix W. For non linear stress
strain design, two methods are commonly used and are the ‘graphical’ and ‘strain
summation’. Both methods have been analysis, compared and described in some detail. [1]
To employ the non linear stress strain detailed knowledge of the particular aerial conductor
stress strain loading and unloading characteristic as detailed in Appendix W is required.
In addition to whether the non linear or linear methods are used two methods are employed
for each method to determine the aerial conductor tensions and are either the equivalent
span theory [2] or the complex finite element analysis. [3] The equivalent span theory
explained in Paragraph S4 may be used for the majority of overhead line designs.
This informative discusses inclined span, aerial conductor sag, ruling span, aerial conductor
loading conditions, tension constraints, tension changes and presents a number of catenary
and parabolic equations. In addition resultant aerial conductor structure loads are also
presented.
The geometry of an inclined span is given in Figure S1.
V2 T2
Y
( x 2, y 2)
H
D S2
T1 V1
H ( x 1 , y 1) ( x 3 , y 3)
(0,0) X
S1
FIGURE S1 INCLINED SPAN GEOMETRY
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S1 TERMINOLOGY
Deadend span A span where both aerial conductors are terminated
Inclined span A span where the aerial conductor supports are at different
levels.
Level span A span where the aerial conductor supports are at the same
level
Ruling span A hypothetical level deadend span used to model the tension
behaviour of a section.
Sag The maximum vertical departure of the catenary from a chord
joining the support points (approximately mid span).
Section That portion of an overhead line between strain structures
consisting solely of intermediate suspension structures for
which the ruling span concept is valid.
Suspension span A span where either or both aerial conductor supports are free
to swing longitudinally along the line
Tension constraint The maximum allowable horizontal component of aerial
conductor tension for a given loading condition. The tension
constraint may vary with the ruling span.
Transition Span The ruling span where two tension constraints produce
identical unstressed aerial conductor lengths. Aerial
conductor tension for ruling spans above and below the
transition span will be controlled by different tension
constraints
S2 VARIABLES
∝ = coefficient of linear expansion (°C−1)
Δ = aerial conductor slack (m)
ε = plastic strain from strand settling and metallurgical (mm/km
or με)
π = 3.14159
ρ = ice density (kg.m-3)
σ = stress (MPa)
A = total aerial conductor cross-sectional area (mm2)
Aa = cross-sectional area of the aluminium component of an aerial (mm2)
conductor
As = cross-sectional area of the steel component of an aerial (mm2)
conductor
C = resultant catenary constant (m)
Ch = horizontal component of the catenary constant using Wh (m)
Cv = vertical component of the catenary constant using Wv (m)
d = overall aerial conductor diameter exposed to transverse wind (m)
D = aerial conductor sag (m)
E = modulus of elasticity of the load bearing material (MPa)
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h = height difference between aerial conductor supports ( = y2 – y1) (m)

H = horizontal component of aerial conductor tension T (N)
I = chord length between aerial conductor supports ( = L2 + h 2 ) (m)
L = span length (x2 − x1) (m)
Lh = wind span for a structure (m)
Lr = ruling span of a section (m)
Lv = weight span for a structure (m)
m = aerial conductor unit mass including covering or insulation (kg.m-1)
P = transverse component of wind pressure (Pa)
r = radial ice thickness (m)
S = stressed aerial conductor length (m)
S0 = unstressed aerial conductor length at 0°C (m)
t = average aerial conductor temperature (°C)
T = tangential or axial tension (N)
Ta = average axial tension (N)
V = vertical component of tension T (N)
W = resultant distributed aerial conductor inclined load (N.m-1)
Wh = transverse component of distributed aerial conductor load (N.m-1)
Wv = vertical component of distributed aerial conductor load (N.m-1)
S3 INTRODUCTION
A flexible, inelastic aerial conductor with constant load (W per unit of arc length)
suspended between supports assumes the shape of a catenary—
⎛ ⎛x⎞ ⎞ H
y = C ⎜ cosh ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎟ where the catenary constant C = . . .S1
⎝ ⎝C ⎠ ⎠ W
An approximation of the catenary is the parabola which uses a constant load (W per
horizontal unit length)—
x2
y = . . .S2
2C
For span lengths less than 0.7 C, or sags less than 9% of the span length, the difference in
sag between the catenary and the parabola is less than 1%.
These mathematical models are adequate for describing inelastic aerial conductors at any
given tension. To determine the tension at different loading conditions the equations should
be modified for temperature, elasticity, wind pressure, ice weight and age (creep).
S4 RULING SPAN
The ruling span, also known as the equivalent span or the mean effective span (MES), is
defined as that level dead-end span whose tension behaves identically to the tension in
every span of a series of suspension spans under the same loading conditions. The ruling
span concept can only model a uniformly loaded section, that is where identical wind and or
ice on one span exists on all spans in the section.
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It is assumed that the insulator is free to swing along the line and the insulators are long
enough to equalize the tension in adjacent spans without transferring any longitudinal load
onto the structure. In general, spans shorter than the ruling span tend to sag more than
predicted whilst spans longer than the ruling span sag less than predicted at temperatures
above the stringing temperature (assuming that the tensions were equal at the time of
stringing aerial conductor).
The ruling span concept may not apply to fixed pin and post insulators because the
structures may not be flexible enough to equalize tensions. However, if the stringing
tension is low, or the spans are short, or the spans are approximately equal, then there is
little difference in tension across the fixed attachment point under identical loading
conditions in each span.
For cases where the ruling span method does not accurately predict sags and tensions, the
exact solution will be between the aerial conductor tension results produced by—
(a) using the ruling span method where insulators are assumed to move longitudinally to
equalise tensions; and
(b) assuming every structure in the section as a strain structure with a fixed attachment
point.
The actual ruling span can only be calculated after the structure locations are determined
Therefore an assumed value for the ruling span is made before spotting the structures. In
most cases, the actual ruling span should be greater than or equal to the assumed ruling
span to ensure that design clearances are met. However, the situation sometimes arises for
large ruling spans when the controlling constraint is associated with a heavy loading
condition and the tension decreases with increasing ruling spans at the maximum operating
temperature. Under these circumstances the actual ruling span should be less than or equal
to the assumed ruling span.
The ruling span is calculated using—
n
∑ L3i
i =1
Lr = n
for level spans . . .S3
∑ Li
i =1
n
L4
∑ Ii
i
i =1 . . .S4
Lr = Lr = for inclined spans
n
∑ Ii
i =1
where
Ii = L2i + hi2 = the chord length between the supports of span i
Li = the horizontal span length of span i

hi = the support height difference of span i
n = the number of spans between strain structures
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For a single level, dead-end span the ruling span is Lr = L. However, for a single inclined
dead-end span, Lr = L2/I
To overcome the limitations of the ruling span method, a finite element model of the aerial
conductor and structure system is required. Usually the structures are modelled using
stiffness matrices, however the ideal model is one that includes the structural elements.
S5 LOADING CONDITIONS
Once the aerial conductor is strung, its tension can be influenced by the following factors
considered by this Appendix:
(a) Aerial conductor temperature (t).
(b) Wind pressure transverse to the aerial conductor (P).
(c) Radial ice on the aerial conductor (r).
(d) Age of aerial conductor as measured by the creep strain (ε).
Wind and ice loading affect the horizontal and vertical component of load per unit length.
Wh = P(d + 2r) . . .S5
Wv = g.(m + ρπr(d + r)) . . .S6
where ρ ranges from about 300 kg/m3 for rime to 916 kg/m3 for ice.
The resultant distributed load is the vector sum of Wh and Wv
W = Wh2 + Wv2 . . .S7
The catenary constants C, Ch and Cv are functions of W, Wh and Wv respectively. Ch is used

for aerial conductor swing-out calculations, Cv is used to calculate vertical clearances and C
is used for calculating tension changes.
Longitudinal and yawed wind loading and point loads such as cable chairs, droppers, strain
insulator strings and aircraft warning spheres require analytical tools not covered by this
Standard.
S6 TENSION CONSTRAINTS
Tension constraints are used to limit the horizontal tensions for one or more of the
following reasons—
(a) to restrict fatigue damage caused by Aeolian vibration. This constraint is frequently
referred to as the everyday tension (EDT) constraint. The tension limit is influenced
by the climate, terrain, extent of vibration protection, aerial conductor material, aerial
conductor self-damping characteristics and type of aerial conductor support. For an
informative on everyday tension refer to Appendix Z;
(b) to give a margin of structural safety under extreme weather conditions of wind and
ice;
(c) to limit the tension for short ruling spans under cold conditions. For short spans there
are large variations of tension with temperature changes; and
(d) to give a margin of safety for personnel performing maintenance and stringing
operations which may be carried out under light wind conditions.
The age of the aerial conductor at which a particular tension constraint applies should be
stipulated if the creep is significant. The tension reduces as the aerial conductor creeps. An
age of 10 years is usually applied since strand settling and metallurgical creep are virtually
completed in that period.
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The controlling constraint is the most restrictive tension constraint, producing the largest
sags and the least tensions for any given loading condition. For a given ruling span usually
only one tension constraint controls (or limits) the tensions for all other loading conditions.
At the transition ruling span, two tension constraints produce identical values of unstressed
lengths, that is there are two controlling constraints.
A tension constraint can alternatively be expressed as a catenary constant, aluminium stress,
support tension, sag or an amount of slack. Each of these alternatives can be converted to a
horizontal tension as follows:
(i) Catenary constant (C)
H = WC . . .S8
(ii) Aerial conductor stress (σ)
For an ACSR aerial conductor with a steel to aluminium modulus ratio of three and
with the aluminium and steel in tension the aluminium stress can be converted to
tension using—
H ≈ σ(Aa + 3As) . . .S9
For a homogeneous aerial conductor
H = σA . . .S10
(iii) Tangential tension (T) at a support (based on the parabola and a level span)
2
T ⎛T ⎞ (WLr ) 2
H = + ⎜ ⎟ − . . .S11
2 ⎝2⎠ 8
(iv) Sag (D) (based on the parabola)
Wv L2r
H = . . .S12
8D
(v) Slack Δ
L3r
H = W . . .S13
24Δ
The advantages of constraining the tension based on slack are—
(A) the specified amount of slack is available when required to uncouple the hardware
fittings when changing strain insulator strings. This is important for short spans;
(B) The tension reduces with the ruling span length and this makes aesthetic short span
geometry; and
(C) Light duty strain structures may be used for short spans with only a small penalty in
terms of increased structure height.
For a given ruling span the tension constraint producing the shortest unstressed aerial
conductor length as given by equation S14 is the controlling constraint. The aerial
conductor length at 0°C, under no tension and at an age when the creep strain is zero is
S
S0 =
Ta . . .S14
1+ + αt + ε
EA
where the stressed aerial conductor length is
⎛L ⎞
S = 2Csinh ⎜ r ⎟ . . .S15
⎝ 2C ⎠
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and for the parabola is

L3r
S = Lr + . . .S16
24C 2
It is common practice to assume that Ta ≈ H; however, Ta is evaluated more accurately in
Paragraph S10 for the catenary and Paragraph S11 for the parabola.
S7 TENSION CHANGES
The tension change or change of state equation equates the unstressed aerial conductor
length for two different loading conditions. The relationship between the stressed and
unstressed length is based on Hooke’s law for linear elastic materials. Any thermal strain or
plastic strain (creep and strand settling) is modelled by a strain translation of the linear
stress/strain curve. Therefore the tension change equation only applies for aerial conductors
behaving elastically as shown in Figure S2.
Linear model
u n d e r e s ti m a te s
te n s i o n s
Initial modulus
curve
STRESS
Fi n a l m o d u l u s s l o p e
L i n e a r m o d e l a c c u r a te l y
e s ti m ate s te n s i o n s
L i n e a r m o d e l u n d e r e s ti m ate s te n s i o n s
S T R A I N (% e l o n g a t i o n)
FIGURE S2 LINEAR ELASTIC NON HOMOGENOUS AERIAL CONDUCTOR MODEL
For one loading condition such as the controlling tension constraint Hi is defined. For the
other loading condition the tension Hf is desired and is determined by the tension change
equation. The tension change equation is:
Si Sf
S = =
Hi Hf . . .S17
1+ + αt i + ε i 1+ + αt f + ε f
EA EA
The value of S 0 is known because by definition the controlling constraint is the tension
constraint producing the smallest value of S0. Note that Sf is a function of Hf and can be
evaluated using either the catenary Equation S15 or the parabolic Equation S16.
When the parabola is used and the average tension and the average tension is assumed to be
the horizontal component of tension, the tension change equation becomes,
H 3f + aH 2f − b = 0 . . .S18
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where
⎛ W 2 L2 ⎞
a = EA⎜⎜ i r2 + α (t f − ti ) + (ε f − ε i )⎟⎟ − H i
⎝ 24 H i ⎠
EAW f2 L2r
b=
24
In practice, there is negligible difference between the results from tension change equations
derived from the catenary and that derived from parabola.
When the plastic strains are ignored, equation S18 is called the time independent tension
change equation.
S8 SAGGING TENSIONS
For the purpose of determining sagging tensions, the variables with subscript ‘f’ shall refer
to the controlling constraint whilst variables with subscript ‘i’ shall refer to loading
conditions at the time of sagging. Therefore εf is the creep strain that has occurred up until
the age of the aerial conductor when the controlling constraint applies which is usually 10
years. The creep strain εi occurs prior to sagging.
The plastic strain is the sum of metallurgical creep and strand settling. Guidance on
metallurgical creep strain can be obtained from references provided in Appendix V. The
strand settling strain can be approximated from the stress strain curve by subtracting the
elastic strain from the initial composite strain. A plastic strain allowance may be made for
the aerial conductor to reach its maximum stress level during its lifetime. Therefore the
strand settling associated with this level of stress would apply to final sags and tensions but
rarely to initial stringing sags and tensions. The total creep strain is the sum of
metallurgical creep and strand settling.
It is common practice to convert the difference in creep strain (εf – εi) to an equivalent
thermal strain (αtc) and overtension the aerial conductor by using a temperature lower than
that which actually applies at the time of sagging. Therefore if the controlling constraint
applies at say 10 years, then the final sags and tensions are calculated using equation S17
with εf = εi = 0 and the initial sags and tensions are determined by applying a negative
temperature correction of t c = 1 (ε f − ε i ) to the final sags and tensions.
α
The following methods may be used to compensate for plastic strain:

(a) A clearance buffer is added to the statutory ground clearance and new aerial
conductor is sagged to the final (10 year) values. The disadvantage of this method is
that the magnitude of the buffer depends upon the span lengths. Normally a buffer is
also used for errors that arise from surveying, design and construction. This method is
not recommended for long spans unless additional clearance is provided.
(b) Add a temperature buffer to the maximum operating temperature and provide final
(10 year) sags for stringing new aerial conductor. This method may provide excess
ground clearance when a non-linear ACSR model is used. That is because the design
temperature is not the maximum operating temperature and high temperature sags are
larger when aluminium goes into compression. This method results in the final actual
tension being below the final design tension, thus producing a suboptimum solution
for long spans.
(c) Prestress the aerial conductor prior to sagging with the final (10 year) values. The
high prestress tension is used to quickly remove future metallurgical creep and strand
settling. Its disadvantage is that it reduces the structural safety margin during the
stringing operation.
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(d) Over tension the aerial conductor by providing initial (1 hour) sag values or by using
a negative temperature compensation value along with the final sags (as described
above). The disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult to sag the entire section
quickly enough to avoid difficulties resulting from the high initial rate of creep. It
also exposes the aerial conductor to a higher risk of aeolian vibration damage during
the early life of the line.
A combination of methods (c) and (d) provides an acceptable solution however the method
requires information regarding the tension and temperature experienced by the aerial
conductor during the pre-sag period.
S9 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The ruling span concept assumes that the tension in each span of the ruling span section is
the same. Once the aerial conductor tension has been determined for a particular load case
and aerial conductor age using the ruling span for the section, the physical characteristics of
each span in the section may be determined using either inelastic catenary or inelastic
parabolic equations.
S10 CATENARY EQUATIONS

⎛ ⎞
−1 ⎛
h⎞ L −1
⎜ h ⎟ L
x1 = C tanh ⎜ ⎟ − = C sinh ⎜ ⎟− . . .S19
⎝S⎠ 2 ⎜ 2C sinh L ⎟ 2
⎝ 2C ⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞
h L ⎜ h ⎟ L
x2 = C tanh−1 ⎜ ⎟ + = C sinh −1 ⎜ ⎟+ . . .S20
⎝S⎠ 2 ⎜ 2C sinh L ⎟ 2
⎝ 2C ⎠
2
⎛ L ⎞
⎟ +h
2
S = S1 + S2 = ⎜ 2C sinh . . .S21
⎝ 2C ⎠
x1
S1 = −Csinh = weight span contribution to structure 1 . . .S22
C
x2
S2 = −Csinh = weight span contribution to structure 2 . . .S23
C
S
= wind span contribution to structure 1 and structure 2 . . .S24
2
Δ=S−I . . .S25
x1
V1 = − H sinh = Wv S1 . . .S26
C
x2
V2 = − H sinh = Wv S 2 . . .S27
C
⎛ x ⎞
y1 = C ⎜ cosh 1 −1⎟ . . .S28
⎝ C ⎠
⎛ x ⎞
y2 = C ⎜ cosh 2 − 1⎟ . . .S29
⎝ C ⎠
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x1
T1 = H cosh = H + Wy1 . . .S30
C
x2
T2 = H cosh = H + Wy2 . . .S31
C
T2 − T1 = W × h . . .S32
WS
T2 − T1 =
L . . .S33
tanh
2C
x1 S1
tan θ1 = − sinh = . . .S34
C C
x2 S 2
tan θ 2 = − sinh = . . .S35
C C
h
x3 = Csinh−1 (mid span) . . .S36
L
S ⎛ L ⎞ IC ⎛ L ⎞
D≈ C ⎜ cosh − 1⎟ = ⎜ cosh − 1⎟
L ⎝ 2C ⎠ L ⎝ 2C ⎠ . . .S37
2C sinh
2C
⎛ L ⎞
D = C ⎜ cosh − 1⎟ (for a level span) . . .S38
⎝ 2C ⎠
CH ⎛ S 2 + h 2 L L ⎞
Ta = ⎜ 2 2 sinh + ⎟ . . .S39
2S ⎝ S − h C C ⎠
1⎛ HL ⎞
Ta = ⎜T + ⎟ (for a level span where T1 = T2 = T) . . .S40
2⎝ S ⎠
S11 PARABOLIC EQUATIONS

Ch L
x1 = − = weight span contribution to structure 1 . . .S41
L 2
Ch L
x2 = + = negative weight span contribution to structure 2 . . .S42
L 2
L
= wind span contribution to structure 1 and structure 2 . . .S43
2
The equation for calculating the arc length of a parabola is more complex than that of the
catenary, therefore a Maclaurin’s series approximation of the catenary equation is used.
L4
S = l+ . . .S44
24C 2 I
L4 8D 2
Δ = S−L= = . . .S45
24C 2 I 3I
Wv L Hh
V1 = −Wvx1 = − . . .S46
2 L
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Wv L Hh
V2 = −Wvx2 = + . . .S47
2 L
h2 h
y1 = D+ − . . .S48
16 D 2
h2 h
y2 = D+ + . . .S49
16 D 2
H
T1 = x12 + C 2 . . .S50
C
H
T2 = x22 + C 2 . . .S51
C
tan θ1 = x1 h − 4 D
= . . .S52
C L
tan θ2 = x2 h + 4 D
= . . .S53
C L
Ch
x3 = (mid span) . . .S54
L
L2
D = (independent of h) . . .S55
8C
H ⎛ I2 L3 ⎞
Ta = ⎜ + ⎟ . . .S56
S ⎝ L 12C 2 ⎠
HL2 HL3
Ta = + (for h=0)
S 12SC 2
. . .S57
⎛ L⎞
= H⎜2− ⎟
⎝ S⎠
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S12 MULTIPLE SPAN CALCULATIONS

S12.1 Structure loads
Dir pone
com
C o n d u c to r s u p p o r t
ect
ion t of w
of
n
tra ind
nsv
ers
e
p or t H1 H2
sup
n ex t N2 N1
To
r
to
uc
nd
PL A N V IE W
co
t
ou
n
w
lo
B
FIGURE S3 AERIAL CONDUCTOR LOADS
At a strain structure where the loads from both sections are combined at a single point e.g.
pointed crossarms, the orthogonal components of aerial conductor load (relative to the
structure geometry) are—
FL = (H 1 cos θ1 − N1 sin θ1 ) − (H 2 cosθ 2− N 2 sin θ 2 )
FT = (H 1 sin θ1 + N1 cos θ1 ) + (H 2 sinθ 2+ N 2 cos θ 2 ) . . .S58
Fv = V1 + V2
At a structure with square crossarms, the load contribution from each span shall be assessed
independently so that torsional loading on the crossarm can be considered.
At the aerial conductor attachment point of a suspension insulator H1 = H 2 = H (assuming
tension equalisation in the ruling span section). This assumption is valid if the transverse
wind pressure is the same in both adjacent spans. If the aerial conductor deviation angle is
2θ and the structure is constructed with its transverse axis on the bisect of the deviation
angle then,
θ1 = θ2 = θ. Thus for a flying angle or suspension angle—
FL = (N 2 − N 1 )sin θ
FT = 2 H sin θ + ( N 1 + N 2 ) cos θ . . .S59
Fv = V1 + V2
If the deviation angle is 0°, which is typical for most suspension structures, then—
FL = 0
FT = N 1 + N 2 . . .S60
Fv = V1 + V2
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The transverse and vertical components of tension are calculated using—

N 1 = Lh1Wh1
N 2 = Lh 2Wh 2
. . .S61
V1 = Lv1Wv1
V2 = Lv 2Wv 2
where
FL, FT, FV = longitudinal, transverse and vertical (to the structure) component of
aerial conductor load at the aerial conductor support
H1, H2 = left and right longitudinal (to the span) component of aerial
conductor tension
N1, N2 = left and right transverse (to the span) component of aerial conductor
tension
V1 , V2 = left and right vertical component of aerial conductor tension
Lh1, Lh2 = left and right partial wind spans such that Lh = Lh1 + Lh2
Lv1, Lv2 = left and right partial weight spans such that Lv = Lv1 + Lv2
Wh1, Wh2 = left and right transverse (to the span) component of distributed aerial
conductor load
Wv1, Wv2 = left and right vertical component of distributed aerial conductor load
S12.2 Weight span to wind span ratio (based on parabolic simplification)
For spotting suspension structures, a lower limit of weight span to wind span ratio is
derived from the maximum allowable transverse insulator swing angle β measured from
vertical, which satisfies the electrical clearance requirements under the maximum wind
condition.
FIGURE S4 WIND AND WEIGHT SPANS
Neglecting insulator weight and wind on insulator, the allowable weight span to wind span
ratio for the suspension structure and aerial conductor combination is—
Lv Wh
≥ . . .S62
Lh Wv tan β
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The spotted weight span to wind span ratio based on the parabola is—
Lv 2bC v L + L2
= where the wind span Lh = 1 . . .S63
Lh L1 L2 2
Note that b is negative when the support is below the chord joining adjacent supports which
is indicated by the dashed line of Figure S4.
Therefore by combining Equations S62 and S63, a value for ‘ei’ that includes the allowable
insulator swing and spotted weight span to wind span ratio is obtained as
L1L2 ⎛ Wh ⎞
b≥ ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ . . .S64
2Cv ⎝ Wv tan β ⎠
Thus it is possible to visually inspect a plan and profile drawing to determine whether there
will be any insulator swing violations by checking the b’ values. This check can be done
without ever calculating the weight span or weight to wind span ratio at the wind pressure
used to determine the insulator swing that violates some electrical clearance criterion.
Although computer programs perform these checks automatically, it is prudent to review
the design to detect any input data errors or omissions.
A detailed procedure of calculating insulator swing is provided in Appendix R.
S12.3 Variation of weight span with aerial conductor tension (based on parabolic
simplification)
If the weight span Lv1 is known for a given tension H1 then the weight span Lv2 at any other
tension H2 is—
C2
Lv2 = Lh + ( Lv1 − Lh ) . . .S65
C1
where
H1 H
C1 = and C2 = 2 . . .S66
Wv1 Wv2
Longitudinal profile drawings can be used to measure the weight spans for the plotted
catenaries (e.g. the maximum operating temperature or sometimes the maximum working
wind or ice load). The above formula can be used to calculate the aerial conductor weight
spans at other conditions of temperature, ice, wind or creep.
S13 REFERENCES
1 CIGRE SCB2.12.3 Sag Tension Calculation Methods for Overhead Lines. CIGRE
Technical Brochure No.324, June 2007.
2 BOYSE, C.O. & SIMPSON, N.G. The Problem of Conductor Sagging on Overhead
Transmission Lines. Journal of the Inst. of Elec. Eng. Vol 91, Pt II, Dec 1944, pp 219
– 231.
3 BARRIEN, J Precise Sags and Tensions in Multiple Span Transmission Lines.
Electrical Engineering Transactions IEAust, Vol II, No.1, 1975, pp 6-11.
4 OVERHEAD CONDUCTOR DESIGN BICC WIRE MILL DIVISION PRESCOT,
Lancashire, England, 1967, pp 21-28. For details regarding the non-linear modelling
of conductors, refer to Sag-Tension.
5 NIGOL, O., BARRETT, J.S. Characteristics of ACSR Conductors at High
Temperatures and Stresses, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Volume PAS-100, Issue 2, Feb. 1981, pages 485 – 493.
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6 MOTLIS, Y., BARRETT, J.S., DAVIDSON, G.A., DOUGLASS, D.A., HALL, P.A.,
REDING, J.L., SEPPA, T.O., THRASH JR. F.R., WHITE, H.B. Limitations of the
ruling span method for overhead line conductors at high operating temperatures,
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Volume 14, Issue 2, Apr 1999, pages: 549 –
560
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APPENDIX T
AERIAL CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND SAG
MEASUREMENT
(Informative)
T1 AERIAL CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Various measuring techniques have been used to establish the temperature for stringing new
aerial conductors. The actual temperature of the aerial conductor should be measured during
sagging of the aerial conductor to avoid aerial conductor over-tensioning or loss of ground
clearance.
The actual aerial conductor temperature can be determined reasonably accurately by using a
stainless steel dial type thermometer with the stem inserted into the core of the aerial
conductor of similar material. For smaller bare aerial conductor the stainless steel dial type
thermometer alone is usually sufficient. The thermometer should be hung in an exposed
location parallel to the aerial conductor and at a height similar to the aerial conductor. A
sufficient period should be allowed for the temperature to stabilize before it is read
immediately prior to sagging of the aerial conductor.
NOTE: Temperature correction may be required to allow for aerial conductor inelastic stretch.
T2 AERIAL CONDUCTOR SAG MEASUREMENT

Aerial conductor sag may be measured by direct methods, such as sight boards mounted on
the structures or by theodolite measurement, or by measuring the aerial conductor tension
by dynamometer.
T3 SIGHT BOARD METHOD

To produce a required sag a sight board is fitted at the required distance below the point of
attachment at each end of the span and the aerial conductor is tensioned until the tangent of
the catenary is in line with the two boards. To measure an unknown sag the tangent of the
catenary is sighted from a known distance (A) below the first point of attachment to a point
below the second aerial conductor attachment (distance B).
2
⎛ A+ B⎞
D = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . . .T1
⎝ 2 ⎠
where
D = aerial conductor sag
A = distance below the first aerial conductor support
B = distance below the second aerial conductor support
(See Figure T1).
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FIGURE T1 QUANTITIES ASSOCIATED WITH SIGHT BOUND METHOD
T4 THEODOLITE METHOD
This method is more accurate and is recommended for long spans where the sag is greater
than the height of either aerial conductor attachment points above the ground. A theodolite
is set up below the aerial conductor attachment and the angle of tangency to the catenary is
measured. The sag can be calculated by solving the following equation:
4 AD + H − 4 D
tan θ = . . .T2
L
where
θ = angle of tangency to the catenary
D = aerial conductor sag
A = vertical distance from the centre of the theodolite to the aerial conductor
support
H = difference in height of the aerial conductor supports (positive when the
support furthest from the theodolite is the higher)
L = span length
(See Figure T2).
FIGURE T2 QUANTITIES ASSOCIATED WITH THEODOLITE METHOD
This method should not be used where the point of tangency is greater than 80% of the span
length because of the magnification of sighting errors.
A
P = 50 . . .T3
D
where
P = point of tangency expressed as a percentage of the span length (%)
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T5 WAVE SAG METHOD

One indirect method, known as wave sagging, relies on the relationship between aerial
conductor tension and the speed at which a mechanical pulse travels along the aerial
conductor. The aerial conductor is struck at one end of a span with a suitable striker and at
the same time, a stopwatch is started. The pulse will be reflected at the other end of the
span back to the striker. To reduce errors in measurement the time for three cycles is
usually recorded.
2
9.81 ⎛ t ⎞
D = ⎜ ⎟ . . .T4
32 ⎝ N ⎠
where
t= time (seconds) for N return waves
N = number of return waves (usually three)
g = gravitational acceleration—normally taken as 9.8067 (m/s2)
This relationship is based on the parabolic simplification of the catenary equation and
should only be used for the relatively shorter distribution spans (e.g. up to 500 m) and for
relatively level spans.
T6 SWING SAG METHOD

Another indirect method, known as swing sagging, is based on a pendulum. The aerial
conductor is pulled to one side and released. The time for the aerial conductor to swing
from one side to the opposite and back is recorded.
2
⎛ t ⎞
D = ⎜ ⎟ . . .T5
⎝ 1.7961N ⎠
where
t = time for aerial conductor to swing N times from one side to the opposite side
and back (seconds)
N = number of swings timed
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APPENDIX U
RISK BASED APPROACH TO EARTHING
(Normative)
U1 RISK ANALYSIS
A probabilistic risk analysis is a calculation of the probability and consequences of various
known and postulated accidents. Probabilistic risk analyses are therefore an applied
extension of statistics and are affected by the same limitations and assumptions from which
the methods are derived. In this guide, the probabilistic risk analyses are used to determine
the probability of causing fatality to one or multiple individuals.
The calculation of the probability of fatality is limited by the accuracy of the available data
and the conditions under which the hazard may occur. The calculation of the probability of
fatality may be simplified significantly if the following conditions are met:
(a) The occurrence of a hazard is random.
(b) The occurrence of a hazard is independent of the presence of an individual.
(c) The occurrence of a hazard will be independent of the occurrence of past hazards.
(d) The hazard occurs at a constant rate per unit of time, one at a time*.
The development of a probabilistic risk approach on the basis of these assumptions restricts
the application of the calculation to individuals who will not contribute to or cause the
hazard to occur, and situations for which a fault which causes the hazard will not cause the
generation of additional faults. If the probability of a fault occurring satisfies the above
conditions the occurrence of faults may be classified as a ‘Poisson Process’ and the
probability of an individual being in a hazard zone during a fault can be described by Pc:
1
Pc = λH × λE × (LE + LH) . . .U1
365 × 24 × 60 × 60
where
λH = hazard rate factor (average number of faults per year)
λE = exposure rate factor (average number of exposures per year)
LH = average hazard duration (in seconds)
LE = average exposure duration (in seconds)
* In certain situations, hazards separated by short intervals derived from a single cause may be approximated
as a single fault.
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Pc is the probability that an individual is in a hazard zone during the fault. Hence, it can be
thought of as the probability that the exposure of an individual and the presence of a fault
coincide. To convert this probability to a probability of a fatality there are many variables
to consider. Following a coincidence, a fatality depends on factors such as the footwear,
clothing, age and health of the person in the hazard zone, as well as other environmental
factors and the exact position of the individual. Hence, although Pc is a useful measure of
the probability of coincidence, it is a conservative estimate of the probability of death and it
is extremely difficult to know whether it is a good approximation or highly conservative.
This lack of precision is due to the multitude of unknown factors that control whether a
coincidence becomes a fatality. In summary, Pc is an effective metric for the probability of
fatality and can be used to rank hazard situations. However, it is difficult to estimate
directly the probability of a fatality. The coincidence probability is therefore be considered
equivalent to the probability of fatality.
In some cases it may be more useful to set the coincidence probability, Pc, to the high and
low limits, Phigh (=10−4), Plow (=10−6) and back calculate the limits for the total time spent
inside the hazard zone each year.
31,536,000 × 1 × 10−6 LE 31.5 LE
μlow-int = × = × . . .U2
λH LE + LH λH LE + LH
31,536,000 × 1 × 10−4 LE 3153.6 LE

μint-high = × = × . . .U3
λH LE + LH λH LE + LH
The method of defining the exposure limits according to the fault rate, and comparing the
calculated risk according to limits of 10−4 and 10−6 are mathematically equivalent. These
limits provide a simple method that may be used by on-site personnel to estimate whether
the exposure is likely to exceed the tolerable limits set. The cumulative exposure of an
individual may be expressed as:
μ = λELE . . .U4
where
λE = exposure rate factor (average number of exposures per year)
LE = average exposure duration (in seconds)
μ = cumulative exposure per year (in seconds)
In complex cases for which the rate at which hazards occur has large seasonal variations,
the risk should be determined by using the coincidence probability.
U2 FAULTS ON TOWERS AND CABLES

To assist with calculations, where data that is more accurate is not available, some typical
data on overhead line fault rates and protection fault clearing times can be found in
Table U1 and Table U2, respectively. For considering faults on overhead lines, if the line
length of interest is known, then the average number of faults per unit time on overhead
lines in Table U1 can be used to estimate the rate at which hazardous voltages will occur
on a tower λH.
The fault rates for underground cables are much lower than for overhead lines. Typical
underground cable fault rates are 2 to 3 per 100 km for 11 to 33 kV and less than 1 for
higher voltages. The average fault duration, LH, can be estimated from values given in
Table U2. Note that for close in faults, earth fault current is high and the protection
operates quickly. However, for faults further out along the feeder, line impedance causes
lower fault current that takes longer to be seen by the protection. Consequently, different
fault locations need to be considered to determine the worst case EPR and clearing time
combination.
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TABLE U1
TYPICAL OVERHEAD LINE FAULT RATES
System voltage Overhead line fault rate
(phase to phase) (faults/100 km year)
LV 20–150
11 kV–33kV 5–10 shielded, 10–40 unshielded
66 kV 2–5
100 kV–132 kV 1–4
220 kV–275 kV <1.0
330 kV <0.5
400 kV <0.5
500 kV <0.5
NOTES:
1 The rate at which faults occur on a tower is different to the rate at which
hazards occur. The hazard zones around towers connected by OHEWs are
reduced by the flow of current transferred through adjacent towers, however
this transferred current can also create hazards at those towers. The rate at
which hazards occur can therefore be significantly larger than the tower fault
rate.
2 The higher outage rates occur in northern Australia where there is more
frequent high wind and lightning storms.
3 The lower outage rates occur in southern Australia and New Zealand where
there is less frequent high wind and lower lightning activity.
TABLE U2
TYPICAL PRIMARY PROTECTION CLEARING TIMES
System voltage Primary protection clearing time
(phase to phase)
LV 2s
11 kV–33 kV 1s
66 kV 0.5 s
100 kV–250 kV 220 ms
251 kV–275 kV 120 ms
330 kV 120 ms
400 kV 120 ms
500 kV 100 ms
NOTE: The primary protection clearing times for >100kV are based on National
Electricity Code fault clearing time requirements for remote end.
U3 SIMPLIFIED CALCULATION OF PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMITS

The above calculation may be simplified if certain additional conditions are met—
(a) the length of time for which a person is within a hazard region is significantly greater
(more than 100 times greater) than the average length of a fault;
(b) the rate at which faults occur over time is constant (i.e. faults are equally likely to
occur at any time of the day or season); and
(c) there is only one source of hazards within the hazard region.
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The above conditions are usually too strict for most situations as slight variations in fault
rate and exposure length can occur. Further analysis is required for such situations however
the analysis does not usually alter the calculated probability significantly. If conditions (a),
(b), and (c) are met, the limits for cumulative exposure per year can be calculated as—
3153.6 31.5
μ high = , μlow = . . .U5
λH λH
The coincidence probability may be calculated using the simplified equation—
1
Pc = λH × λE × LE . . .U6
365 × 24 × 60 × 60
Example 1
Problem
A jogger goes for a run every day of the week. At the end of each run, the jogger leans
against a 11 kV concrete pole to do stretching exercises for two minutes. Hazards occur at
the pole once every 150 years and create a hazard on and around the pole. The length of an
exposure is significantly longer than the fault clearing time.
Solution 1
The average length of time that the jogger is exposed in the hazard region LE is 120 s, and
the average number of exposures per year, λE, is 365. Faults occur once every 150 years on
average. The fault rate factor is therefore—
1 hazard
λH = = 6.67 × 10−3 hazards per year . . .U7
150 years
The equivalent probability is therefore—
1 6.67 ×10−3 × 365 120
Pc ≈ λH × λE × LE = 9.3×10−6 . . .U8
365 × 24 × 60 × 60 365 × 24 × 60 × 60
This risk level is above the tolerable level of 10 −6 and falls in the Intermediate risk category
defined in section Consequently, risk treatment measures should be investigated to reduce
the risk to as low as reasonably practical.
Solution 2×
The hazard rate λH is equal to—
1 hazard
λH = = 6.67 × 10−3 hazards per year . . .U9
150 years
The limits for the cumulative exposure per year are—
3153.6 3153.6
μ high = = = 472,803 s per year = 9092 s per week . . .U10
λH 6.67 ×10−3
μlow = 0.01 × μlhigh = 4728 s per year = 91 s per week . . .U11

The jogger’s exposure is above the lower limit of 91 s per week and falls in the
‘Intermediate’ risk category defined in Section 10. As expected, the methods used in
Solution 1 and Solution 2 produce the same result.
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U4 ADVANCED CALCULATION OF THE PROBABILITY OF FATALITY

If a situation does not meet one or all of conditions (a)–(c), a more rigorous analysis may be
required to calculate the probability of fatality. The appropriate method of calculating the
coincidence probability will be outlined for situations that do not meet the specified
conditions in the following paragraphs.
U5 CALCULATION OF THE PROBABILITY OF FATALITY FOR COMPARABLE

EXPOSURE AND FAULT LENGTHS
The simplified calculation approximates the coincidence probability as the probability that
a fault will occur while an individual is within the hazard region. For situations in which
the length of exposure is comparable to the length of the fault however, a significant
proportion of the coincidence probability is derived from the arrival of an individual into a
faulted hazard area. This is taken into account by the original calculation for the
coincidence probability that takes into the case that a hazard is occurring when an
individual enters a hazard region and the case that a hazard will occur while an individual is
in the hazard region.
Example 2:
Problem:
A jogger goes for a run every day of the week. At the halfway point of each run the jogger
touches a metal gate next to a 275 kV tower for 1 s. Faults occur at the pole once every
120 years and create a touch voltage hazard on the gate for 1 s.
Solution 1:
The risk associated with this scenario may be calculated directly using equation B1 as
shown. The average length of an exposure LE is approximately 1 s, the average length of a
fault LF is 1 s, and the number of exposures per year that occur λE is 365. The rate at which
hazards occur is—
1 hazard
λH = = 8.33 × 10 −3 hazards per year . . .U12
120 years
The coincidence probability per year is therefore—
1
Pc = λH λE ( LH + LE )
365 × 24 × 60 × 60
1
= (8.33× 10−3 ) (365) (1 + 1)
365 × 24 × 60 × 60 . . .U13
= 8.33× 10−3 × 365 × 6.34 × 10−8
= 1.93 × 10−7
The difference between the risk for cases in which the fault length is similar to the exposure
length is therefore significant and in this case doubles the calculated risk. This risk level is
below the tolerable level of 10−6 defined in Paragraph U6. Consequently, no risk treatment
action is necessary.
Solution 2:
The fault rate factor is therefore—
1 hazard
λH = = 8.33 × 10 −3 hazards per year . . .U14
120 years
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The limits for the cumulative exposure per year are—

3153.6 ⎛ LE ⎞ 3153.6 ⎛ 1s ⎞
μhigh = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ = 189, 291 s per year
λH ⎝ LH + LE ⎠ 8.33×10−3 ⎝ 1s +1s ⎠ . . .U15
= 3640s per week
μlow = 0.01 × μlhigh = 1893 s per year = 36 s per week . . .U16
The exposure of an individual in the hazard zone can be calculated by using—
μ = λE LE = (120) (365) = 43,800 s per year = 840 s per week . . .U17
U6 TOLERABLE RISK LIMITS

Any injuries or fatalities to workers or members of the public are unacceptable, however the
inherent danger of electricity and disproportionate cost of protecting every individual from
every conceivable hazard require that some level of risk be tolerated. Tolerable limits vary
according to the classification of the risk.
Individual Limits
The unacceptable and acceptable individual fatality probability limits in the context of this
document are shown in Table U3.
TABLE U3
RISK MANAGEMENT MATRIX—FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE VERSUS
SEVERITY OF CONSEQUENCE
Probability of single Risk classification for Resulting implication for risk treatment
fatality public death
(per year)
≥10 −4 High Intolerable

Must prevent occurrence regardless of costs.
10 −4 –10 −6 Intermediate As low as reasonably practical for intermediate
risk
Must minimize occurrence unless risk reduction
is impractical and costs are grossly
disproportionate to safety gained.
≤10 −4 Low As low as reasonably practical for low risk
Minimize occurrence if reasonably practical
and cost of reduction is reasonable given
project costs.
U7 RISK TREATMENT MEASURES

U7.1 General
When designing earthing systems, the following risk treatment methods should be
considered to manage the risk associated with step, touch and transferred voltage hazards:
(a) Reduction of the impedance of the earthing system.
(b) Reduction of earth fault current using neutral earthing impedances or resonant
earthing.
(c) Reduction of the fault clearing times.
(d) Surface insulating layer.
(e) Installation of gradient control conductors.
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(f) Separation of HV and LV earth electrodes.

(g) Isolation.
Often a combination of risk treatments will be required to control EPR hazards.
The above methods are detailed below.
U7.2 Reducing earth grid impedance
Reduction in the impedance of an earthing system can be effective in reducing the EPR
hazards. However, since the fault current usually increases as the earth grid impedance
decreases, the effectiveness of the reduction depends on the impedance of the earth grid
relative to the total earth fault circuit impedance. For the reduction to be effective, the
reduced impedance needs to be low compared to the other impedances in the faulted circuit.
Typically, the earth grid impedance must approach the power system source impedance
before the EPR starts decreasing significantly.
If the earthing system earth impedance is reduced by enlarging the earthing system, then
even though the EPR on the earthing system will reduce, the resultant EPR contours may be
pushed out further. In some circumstances, the increase in the size of the EPR contours may
be significant for a small reduction in the EPR of the system. As a result, the size of any
transferred EPR hazard zones will increase. Whether this is a desirable end result will
depend on the specifics of a particular situation.
If the earthing system earth impedance is reduced by bonding remote earths to it, then the
resultant reduced EPR is also spread to the remote earths. This also introduces new
transferred EPRs onto the earthing system when there are earth faults at any of these remote
earths. Examples of this include bonding pylons to substations via overhead earth wires,
and bonding the earthing system to extensive LV network systems. This risk treatment
measure can be very effective in significant urban areas where an extensive earthing system
can be obtained by bonding together protective earth and neutral (PEN) conductors from
adjacent LV networks.
The following methods may be considered when attempting to reduce the impedance of
earth electrodes.
U7.3 Overhead shield wires
Shield wires are typically used on transmission lines at or above 66 kV usually at least over
a short section of line out from the substation. Shield wires are also sometimes used on
distribution lines (11 kV and above) for the first kilometre out from the substation but this
is not common.
While the primary purpose of the shield wires is to provide lightning shielding for the
substation, bonding of the shield wires to the substation earth grid can significantly reduce
earth fault currents through the earth grid for faults at the station or at conductive poles or
towers bonded to the shield wires.
Inductive coupling between the shield wire(s) and the faulted aerial phase conductor can
significantly reduce the earth return current during fault conditions at conductive poles or
towers bonded to the shield wire(s). This, in turn, reduces the EPR levels at both the
substation and at the conductive pole or tower. However, the incidence of (transferred) EPR
events at the conductive poles or towers will become more frequent since each station EPR
will be transferred to the nearby towers/poles.
For a bus earth fault at a substation, the shield wires can divert significant current away
from the substation earth grid. The net effect of the shield wires is to reduce the impedance
of the overall earthing system (earth grid and tower/pole footing electrodes in parallel)
thereby reducing the EPR.
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Consideration shall be given to the shield wire size (fault rating), particularly for the first
few spans from the substation.
U7.4 Cable screen
Bonded cable screens provide galvanic and inductive return paths for fault current for both
cable faults and destination substation faults.
Bonding of cable screens to the earthing systems at both ends is advantageous in most
situations. However, the transfer of EPR hazards through the cable screens to remote sites
should be considered as part of the design.
The bonding of single core cables at both ends may affect the rating of the cables,
depending on the cable configuration (due to induced currents in the screens and sheaths).
Care should be taken to ensure the rating of the cable is adequate for the application.
The rating of the cable screen should be adequate for the expected fault current and for the
current induced in the screen during normal operation.
U7.5 Earth electrode enhancement
If the soil resistivity is high and the available area for the grounding system is restricted,
methods of enhancing the earth electrode may be required. Such methods include the
encasement of the electrode in conducting compounds, chemical treatment of the soil
surrounding the electrode and the use of buried metal strips, wires or cables.
These methods may be considered in certain circumstances as a possible solution to the
problem of high electrode resistance to earth. They may also be applied in areas where
considerable variation of electrode resistance is experienced due to seasonal climatic
changes.
Chemical treatment of the soil surrounding an electrode should only be considered in
exceptional circumstances where no other practical solution exists, as the treatment requires
regular maintenance. Since there is a tendency for the applied salts to be washed away by
rain, it is necessary to reapply the treatment at regular intervals.
U7.6 Reduction of earth fault current
Earth fault currents flowing through earthing systems may be reduced by the installations of
neutral earthing impedances such as neutral earthing resistors (NER). Alternatively,
resonant earthing such as Petersen Coils, Arc Suppression Coils, Earth Fault Neutraliser
Earthing, may be very effective.
NERs are typically employed in distribution networks to limit the current that would flow
through the neutral star point of a transformer or generator in the event of an earth fault.
NERs may be an effective way of reducing the EPR at faulted sites and thereby controlling
step, touch and transferred voltages especially in urban areas where distribution system
earth electrodes are bonded to a significant MEN system. However, the reduction in EPR
may not always be significant if the impedance of the earthing system is relatively high.
The use of NERs for the control of EPR hazards should be investigated on a case-by-case
basis.
NERs can be very effective in reducing induction into parallel services such as
telecommunication circuits or pipelines.
Resonant earthing (Petersen coils) are very effective is controlling step, touch and
transferred voltages.
A Petersen coil is an inductance that is connected between the neutral point of the system
and earth. The inductance of the coil is adjusted so that on the occurrence of a single phase
to earth fault, the capacitive current in the unfaulted phases is compensated by the inductive
current passed by the Petersen coil.
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Upon the occurrence of an earth fault, the system capacitance discharges into the fault and
the faulted phase voltage collapses to a very low value leaving a very small residual current
flowing in the fault. This current is so small that any arc between the faulted phase and
earth will not be maintained and the fault will extinguish. Transient faults do not result in
supply interruptions and in some jurisdictions permanent earth faults can be left on the
system without the supply being interrupted while the fault is located and repaired.
Modern systems provide automatic tuning of the inductance to accommodate changes in
network topology.
To increase safety and to eliminate restriking faults on underground cables, some systems
also provide electronic compensation to reduce the remaining residual current and voltage
on the faulted phase to zero.
Resonant earthing can reduce MEN EPR to a safe level even in systems with high
MEN resistance.
U7.7 Reduction of fault clearing times
EPR hazards can be mitigated by the reduction of the fault clearing time. This may be easy
to implement in certain situations and may be very effective.
Reduction of the fault clearing time may require significant protection review and upgrade,
and may prove impracticable. The need for adequate protection grading may also limit the
effectiveness of this measure.
U7.8 Surface insulating layer
To limit the current flowing through a person contacting a temporary livened earthed
structure, a thin layer of high resistivity material, such as crushed rock and asphalt, is often
used on top of the ground surface. This thin layer of surface material helps in limiting the
body current by adding resistance to touch and step voltage circuits.
Crushed rock is used mainly, but not exclusively, in zone substations and transmission
substations for the following reasons:
(a) To increase tolerable levels of touch and step voltages during a power system earth
fault.
(b) To provide a weed-free, self-draining surface.
Asphalt may also be used in zone substations and transmission substations but is likely to
be more expensive than crushed rock. Asphalt has the advantage of providing easy vehicle
access. Vehicle access over crushed rock may sometime be problematic especially if the
basecourse is not prepared correctly.
Asphalt and crushed rock can also be used to control touch and step voltages around towers
and poles.
Limited data is available on the flashover withstand of asphalt which may be as low as 4 kV
for a 50 mm thick sample. Therefore, where asphalt is used for mitigation, touch voltage
should typically not exceed 4 kV and step voltage should not exceed 8 kV. For applications
where these limits are exceeded, the withstand voltage should be determined based on the
type of asphalt that is being considered.
For design purposes the following criteria applies:
(i) A resistivity of 3,000 Ω-m and a minimum thickness of 100 mm should be used for
crushed rock.
(ii) resistivity of 10,000 Ω-m and a minimum thickness of 50 mm should be used for
asphalt.
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The insulating property of crushed rock can be easily compromised by pollution (e.g. with
soil). Therefore, regular inspection and maintenance of a crushed rock layer is required to
ensure that the layer stays clean and maintains its minimum required thickness.
The insulating property of asphalt can be compromised by cracks and excessive water
penetration. The integrity of the asphalt layer used for surface treatment shall be
maintained.
Close attention is required to the preparation of the ground prior to the application of
crushed rock or asphalt. Suitable basecourse shall be prepared before laying the crushed
rock or asphalt.
Chip seal should not be used since the resistivity of the chip seal surface is not typically
very high and its breakdown voltage is usually low.
Concrete should not be used to control touch and step potentials due to its low resistivity
unless the reinforcing in the concrete is used to provide an equipotential zone.
U7.9 Gradient control conductors
Touch voltages on a structure can be mitigated to some extent by using gradient control
conductors buried at various distances from the structure. Typically, gradient control
conductors are buried at a distance of one metre from the structure. Additional gradient
control conductors are also buried further out from structures as required.
In zone and transmission substations, gradient control conductors are typically used for the
control of touch voltages outside the station security fence. These conductors are very
effective when used in conjunction with a metre wide strip of crushed rock or asphalt
installed around the outside of the fence. When designing zone and transmission
substations, provision should be made to allow such a strip to be installed, if required.
Gradient control conductors can also be used to control touch voltages on distribution
substations and equipment.
Step voltages cannot be controlled with the use of gradient control conductors.
U7.10 Separation of HV and LV earth electrodes
When an earth fault takes place at the HV side of a distribution centre, the EPR on the HV
earth electrode is transferred to the LV system via the PEN conductor. By separating the
HV and LV electrodes, the transfer of EPR from the HV system to the LV system can be
controlled.
The minimum separation distance required between the HV and LV earthing systems is
dependent on—
(a) the size of the HV earthing system;
(b) the maximum EPR on the HV earthing system; and
(c) the distances to the earths bonded to the LV system.
A minimum separation distance of 4 m is suggested between the HV and LV earthing
systems. In some instances, the required separation may be much larger (i.e. low/high
resistivity layering with a LV network of limited extent).
The integrity of the separated HV and LV earthing systems may be difficult to maintain into
the future since other earthed structures may be installed at later stages within the physical
separation distance.
Separated HV and LV earthing systems may not be effective in controlling hazardous step
and touch voltages in the event of a HV line to LV line contact at the distribution
transformer, or on a conjoint HV/LV line section. The following options may be considered
for protecting against HV to LV contacts:
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(i) Ensuring the configuration of LV lines at the distribution transformer poles is such
that a HV line to LV line contact is unlikely.
(ii) Replace the LV lines over conjoint HV/LV spans with—
(A) LV buried cable;
(B) LV lines on a separate poles; or
(C) LV aerial bundled conductor cable that is insulated to withstand the full HV
conductor voltage.
The transformer shall be rated to withstand the maximum EPR on the HV earthing system,
without breaking down to the LV side of the transformer (e.g. via HV/LV winding
breakdown, or transformer tank to LV winding breakdown).
When the LV earthing system is segregated from the HV earthing system at a distribution
substation, the total earth impedance of the LV earthing system plus associated
MEN earths, shall be sufficiently low to ensure the HV feeder protection will operate in the
event of a HV winding to LV winding fault. A safety factor should be considered when
calculating this maximum earth impedance value.
U7.11 Isolation
Access to structures where hazardous touch voltages may be present can be restricted by the
installation of safety barriers or fences. These barriers or fences would typically be non-
conductive such as wood, plastic or rubber. For example, a tower could be surrounded by a
wooden fence to restrict access to the tower base, or a sheet of rubber could be wrapped
around the base of a steel or concrete pole. The installation of isolation barriers usually
requires ongoing maintenance but can be very effective in reducing the risk.
Third party fences should be isolated from the substation security fence using non-
conductive section of fences. Non-conductive sections may also be required at additional
locations along third party fences.
Mitigation of step and touch voltages of metallic pipelines e.g. water pipes connected to a
HV or LV network earthing system can be effectively achieved by the installation of plastic
pipes.
Example 3:
To illustrate the principles of risk based earthing design following the simplified method
presented in this guide, a simple case study is detailed below. The case study follows the
steps detailed in Section 10
The case study involves an existing 33 kV concrete pole located close to a bus stop. This
pole was identified as potentially carrying an EPR risk for people using the bus stop. People
travelling to work typically use the bus stop and it can therefore be assumed that footwear
is worn around the pole.
Step 1—Basic data:
(a) The prospective earth fault current at the source substation is 7 kA.
(b) The resistance to earth of the 3 kV pole was measured as 20 Ω.
(c) The resistivity of the top soil layer was measured as 50 Ω-m.
(d) The earth fault clearing time is 0.5 s.
(e) The earth fault frequency for the line is 5 per year.
(f) The line consists of 200 poles.
Step 2—Functional requirement
The pole already meets the functional requirements.
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Step 3—Connection to other earthing systems

In this case, bonding the 33 kV pole to nearby earthing systems is not practical.
Step 4—Pole EPR
Using parameters associated with the earth fault current path for an earth fault at the pole,
the EPR on the pole was calculated as 6 kV.
Step 5—Prospective tolerable step and touch voltage limits
The touch voltage limit was determined from Figure 10.2 for a fault clearing time of 0.5 s
and for a soil resistivity of 50 Ω-m (footwear included).
The step voltage limit was determined from Figure 10.1 for a fault clearing time of 0.5 s
and for a soil resistivity of 50 Ω-m (footwear excluded).
VT (limit) = 600
VS (limit) = 5000
Step 6—Is EPR ≤VT (limit) and VS (limit)?
The EPR on the pole is greater than the touch and step voltage limits.
Step 7—Calculate actual step and touch voltages
The actual touch voltage on the pole was calculated as approximately 3000 V
The actual maximum step voltage was calculated as approximately 2000 V
Step 8—Are actual touch and step voltages ≤VT (limit) and VS (limit)?
Actual touch voltage exceeds the touch voltage limit but the actual step voltage is less than
the step voltage limit. Therefore, only touch voltage hazards exist.
Step 9—Risk analysis
The only hazardous components at the pole are the touch voltages onto the concrete pole.
The risk can be assessed by calculating the coincidence probability.
Applying equation U6
1
Pc = λH × λE × LE
365 × 24 × 60 × 60
The frequency of earth faults for the line with 200 poles is 5 faults per year. Therefore—
5
λH = = 0.025
200
If for the purpose of this case study, we assume that the pole is being touched once a day
for 5 min (i.e. someone leans against the pole) for five days of the week (i.e. for 260 days
per year), λE = 260.
LE = 5 min × 60 s = 300 s
1 (0.025)(260)(300)
Pc = λH × λE × LE = = 6 ×10 −5
365 × 24 × 60 × 60 (365 × 24 × 60 × 60)
Since only one person is typically affected, N2 = 1 and the equivalent probability is—
Pe = N2Pc = Pc = 6 × 10−5
The risk is therefore ‘Intermediate’ and should be minimised unless the risk reduction is
impractical and the costs are grossly disproportionate to safety gained. A cost benefit
analysis should be carried out to determine whether the costs of risk treatment options are
disproportionate to safety gained.
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Calculate the present value (PV) of the liability—

Value of a statistical life (VOSL) = $10,000,000
Liability per year = 10,000,000 × 6 × 10−5 = $600
PV = $13,000 (assuming an asset lifespan of 50 years and a discount rate of 4%)
Step 10—Risk treatment options
A number of risk treatment options can be considered. Examples of risk treatment options
are—
(a) Installing an underslung earth wire on the line.
(b) Installing a gradient control conductor and an asphalt layer around the pole.
(c) Installing an insulating barrier around the pole to prevent people from touching the
pole.
(d) Moving the pole.
(e) Moving the bus stop.
A few of the above risk treatment options are detailed below to illustrate the principles.
(i) Installing an underslung earth wire on the line
A study has shown that an underslung earth wire would reduce the EPR on the pole to
600 V. The resulting touch voltage on the pole would then reduce to 300 V which is
below the tolerable touch voltage limit. The cost of this risk treatment option has
been determined to be approximately $200k. Comparing the cost of risk treatment to
the prevent value of the liability indicates that the cost of this risk treatment option is
grossly disproportionate to the safety gained.
(ii) Installing a gradient control conductor and an asphalt layer around the pole
With a gradient control conductor installed at a distance of one metre around the pole,
the touch voltage reduces to 900 V. This touch voltage exceeds the touch voltage
limit. However, if asphalt is also installed around the pole, the touch voltage limit
increases to 2000 V with the result that the touch voltage is lower than the limit. The
cost of this risk treatment option is $10k and is below the present value of the
liability. There may be some additional ongoing costs associated with maintenance of
the asphalt.
(iii) Installing an insulating barrier around the pole to prevent people from touching the
pole
An insulating barrier could be installed around the pole to prevent people from being
able to touch the pole. Such an insulating barrier could take the form of a wooden
enclosure or a fibreglass jacket. The cost of this risk treatment option is $5k and is
significantly below the present value of the liability. There may be some additional
ongoing costs associated with maintenance of the insulating barrier.
(iv) Additional risk treatment options may be considered as required
Clearly, economically viable risk treatment options exist for this case and one of the
options should be implemented. The cheapest risk treatment option may not be the
best option. Other considerations may dictate which risk treatment option is selected.
For example, an underslung earth wire may be the best option if a number of other
EPR issues exist along the line.
For other cases, the costs and practicality of the selected mitigation option may be
such that there is some residual risk in the intermediate category after mitigation is
applied.
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The remaining steps detailed in Section 10 should then be considered as required.

The exposure corresponding to the transition from low to intermediate and from
intermediate to high may also be calculated as a sensitivity/sanity check. The calculations
below show that the exposure would have to be in excess of 41 minutes per week for the
risk to be come high. In this case, it is unlikely that someone would be exposed for so long
every week.
3153.6
μ high = = 126,144 s per year = 2426 s per week
λh
For the risk to fall within the low risk category, the exposure for a person would need to be
less than 24 s per week as shown below. In this case, it appears that the exposure is likely to
exceed 24 s per week.
31.5
μlow = = 1260 s per year = 24 s per week
λh
The above sensitivity check confirms that an intermediate risk level should be adopted for
this case.
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APPENDIX V
AERIAL CONDUCTOR PERMANENT ELONGATION
(Informative)
V1 GENERAL
Aerial conductor permanent elongation expressed as a function of time, temperature, aerial
conductor stress and aerial conductor constants is given as—
ε = ktc1σc2ec3(θ−20) . . .V1
where
ε = unit strain in mm/km
t = time in years
σ = aerial conductor average stress in MPa
θ = aerial conductor average temperature in °C
k, c1, c2 and c3 are constants
In many cases, the aerial conductor exposure period at elevated temperatures is very small
relative to an everyday exposure temperature assessed to be 20°C hence the above equation
may be reduced to—
t = ktc1σc2 . . .V2
Aerial conductor constants are determined by aerial conductor creep tests as described in
AS 3822. Typical creep test results are illustrated in Figure V1 and yield the creep
constants k, c1, c2 and c3.
LO G ( ELO NG AT I O IN )
T85C = 20 % C B L
T20C = 40 % C B L
T20C = 3 0 % C B L
T20C = 20 % C B L
I n i ti a l c re e p
LO G ( T IM E )
FIGURE V1 TYPICAL AERIAL CONDUCTOR CREEP TEST RESULTS
The cumulative aerial conductor permanent elongation is dependent on the aggregation of

permanent elongation intervals characterized by differing aerial conductor stresses and
temperatures. Graphically, an aerial conductor may be subjected to a number of differing
stress levels and temperatures each with a given time interval as illustrated in Figure V2. In
this example, the initial exposure is at 20% CBL and 20°C with a duration, t1 to t2 which
will result in creep accumulation of ε2 − ε1 as the aerial conductor behaviour moves from a
to b.
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LO G ( ELO NG AT I O N )
T85C = 20 % C B L
3
d b e
2 c
1 T20C = 20 % C B L
a
t3 t1 t4 t2 t5
LO G ( T IM E )
FIGURE V2 TYPICAL AERIAL CONDUCTOR PERMANENT ELONGATION

ACCUMULATION
At c, the aerial conductor experiences an elevated temperature at say 16% CBL and 85°C
with duration, t3 to t4, which will result in creep accumulation of ε3 − ε2 as the aerial
conductor behaviour moves from c to d. At d, the aerial conductor may return to the
original condition and hence the original creep curve and transition to point e.
Thus, aerial conductor permanent elongation may be determined for the predicted operating
duty of the transmission line. Whilst this has been illustrated as a graphical representation
of the creep accumulation, the application of the elongation equation knowing the aerial
conductor stress history, exposure duration and aerial conductor temperature allows a
mathematical determination of the creep accumulation.
Also illustrated in this example is that—
(a) the creep at a low temperature is much less than that at an elevated temperature; and
(b) the creep from one creep curve may be translated to another creep curve (i.e. from
point b to point c and also from point d to point e).
Aerial conductor creep is cumulative for a given set of operating conditions of time,
temperature and stress.
c1
⎡ σ (i−1) ⎤ c 2t ( i −1) . . .V3
Teq(i) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ σ1 ⎦
where
Teq(i) = the equivalent time in years for unit strain at stress level σ(i)
σ(i-1) = the stress level in MPa associated with time interval t(i−1)
σ(i) = the stress level in MPa associated with time interval teq(i)
t(i-1) = time interval in years associated with stress level σ(i−1)
One of the most important aspects of understanding aerial conductor permanent elongation
is determining design allowances for the long-term aerial conductor behaviour. The design
allowance for aerial conductor elongation is necessary to account for the changes in aerial
conductor sag and hence ground clearance over time. To compensate for aerial conductor
inelastic stretch it is necessary to carry out one or a combination of the following:
(i) add a margin on the statutory ground clearance requirements;
(ii) subtract an allowance on the maximum design temperature;
(iii) prestress aerial conductors prior to final sagging; and or
(iv) over-tension aerial conductors.
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Reference: CIGRE WG 22.05 ‘Permanent Elongation of Conductors Predictor Equations

and Evaluation Methods,’ CIGRE Electra No 75 1981.
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APPENDIX W
AERIAL CONDUCTOR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
(Normative)
W1 GENERAL
Typical homogeneous aerial conductor modulus of elasticity is given as:
Eal = 64 GPa (aluminium) . . .W1
Est = 193 GPa (SC/GZ) . . .W2
Figure W1 illustrates a stress strain curve for a homogenous aerial conductor. Essentially
the figure shows the loading and unloading as a function of stress and strain where strain is
expressed as a percentage of elongation. As the applied load exceeds the elastic limit of the
aerial conductor, some permanent elongation will result as shown in Figure W1.
H o m o g e n o u s c o n d u c to r
ST R ES S
Le a d i n g
Unloading
Pe r m a n e nt e l o n g ati o n
ST R A IN (% ELO NG AT IO N )
FIGURE W1 STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR A HOMOGENOUS AERIAL CONDUCTOR
Figure W2 illustrates a stress strain curve for a non-homogenous aerial conductor such as
an ACSR construction.
C o m p o s i te c o n d u c to r
ST R ES S
Outer wires (al)
core (gz)
Tra ns i ti o n p o i nt
ST R A IN ( % ELO NG AT I O N )
FIGURE W2 STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR NON HOMOGENOUS AERIAL

CONDUCTOR
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The initial characteristics of the aerial conductor stress strain may be described by a
polynomial equation as follows:
με = A0 + A1S + A2S2 + A3S 3 + AnSn . . .W3
where
με = aerial conductor strain
An = coefficients derived from aerial conductor test
S = aerial conductor stress
‘A0’ is general very small and can be ignored. Usually a 3rd order polynomial describes the
data adequately, however in some cases higher orders may be more appropriate. Similar
polynomials are derived for the initial curves of the steel core and the aluminium outer
layer. Linear regression may be applied to the unloading curves and is used to determine the
line of best fit. The slope of the line is termed the final modulus of elasticity.
For a non homogenous aerial conductor, consisting of dissimilar materials, the composite
modulus above the transition point may be theoretically determined knowing the weighted
ratios of the aluminium and steel components to the composite aerial conductor and the
material modulus of aluminium and steel and is given as—
A1 E1 + A2 E2
Ecomp = . . .W4
A1 + A2
where
A = cross sectional area
E = aerial conductor modulus of elasticity
1 = subscript denoting material 1
Below the transition point the modulus will be that of the core material and in the case of an
ACSR/GZ, the modulus will be that of the GZ wires.
Equation W4 does not account for the wire geometry of a helical stranded aerial conductor
and this equation will always over-estimate the modulus by about 1%. A 1% error in
modulus will generally result in aerial conductor sag error of about 2%.
In more recent times, Nigol and Barrett (see reference at end of this Appendix) discovered
that the stress and strains in helically stranded aluminium wires of an aerial conductor were
not the same as those of the individual straight wires. By examining the wire geometry of a
helically stranded wire, Nigol and Barrett derived an equation for the aerial conductor strain
related to the wire strain, and to the change of layer radius R. From this work, a more
accurate modulus may be determined and for a non-homogenous aerial conductor with
multiple layers the composite modulus is given by—
1 ⎡ Ni
⎡ n ⎤⎤
Ec = ⎢ core core ∑ ⎢ ∑ ni,j Ai,j Ei,j ⎥ ⎥
E A + . . .W5
Ac ⎢⎣ j =1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦ ⎥⎦
where
E = conductor final modulus of elasticity
Ni = number of wires in the aerial conductor
Nij = number of wires in i layer of material j
c = subscript denoting composite
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The modulus for AAC, AAAC and ACSR/GZ aerial conductors are published in relevant
Australian Standards.
The final stress strain curve of a non-homogeneous construction includes a transition
tension/stress load point defined as the point on the final modulus composite aerial
conductor curve where the slope of the curve changes from the composite modulus to that
of core modulus. This is an unloading point where the aluminium because of permanent
elongation does not support any stress and the total aerial conductor stress is supported by
the core. The aerial conductor modulus below the transition point is that of the steel core
material.
Of particular interest is the change in transition tension/stress with a change in temperature.
A phenomenon reported by Nigol Barrett known as the birdcaging temperature, when above
this temperature the aerial conductor expands at the rate of the steel core. With increasing
tensions the birdcaging temperature will increase because additional thermal expansion is
required in the aluminium before the load is transferred wholly to the steel core.
Aerial conductor tension changes shall be determined in accordance with Table W1.
TABLE W1
AERIAL CONDUCTOR TENSION DETERMINATION MODELS
Model Modulus of Elasticity
Non-linear stress strain Aerial conductor stress strain described by a polynomial equation and
determine aerial conductor permanent elongation for tension excursions
Linear stress strain Use final modulus for either homogeneous of non homogeneous aerial
conductors
Reference
NIGOL, O. and BARRETT, J.S., Development of an Accurate Model of ACSR Conductors
for Calculating Sags at High Temperatures—Part III. Report prepared for the Canadian
Electrical Association, March 1980.
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APPENDIX X
AERIAL CONDUCTOR COEFFICENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION
(Informative)
X1 GENERAL
Homogeneous aerial conductor coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is given as—
αal = 23 × 10−6 (aluminium)
αst = 11.5 × 10−6 (sc/gz)
Non-homogenous aerial conductor, consisting of dissimilar materials, the composite CTE
above the transition point is given as—
A1 E1α1 + A2 E2α 2
α comp = . . .X1
A1 E1 + A2 E2
where
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
E = aerial conductor modulus of elasticity
Below the transition point, the CTE will be that of the core material and in the case of an
ACSR/GZ, the CTE will be that of the GZ wires.
Equation X1 does not account for the wire geometry of a helical stranded aerial conductor
and this equation will always over-estimate the CTE by up to 5%. A 5% error in CTE will
generally result in aerial conductor sag error of about 2%.
A more accurate CTE may be determined by examining the wire geometry and an increase
in temperature that will cause an increase in wire length resulting in an increase in lay
length. Hence, for a non homogenous aerial conductor with multiple layers the composite
CTE is given by—
1 ⎡ Ni
⎡ n ⎤⎤
αc = ⎢ core core core ∑ ⎢ ∑ ni,j Ai,jα i,j ⎥ ⎥
E A α + . . .X2
Ec Ac ⎣⎢ j = 1 ⎣ i =1 ⎦ ⎦⎥
where
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
E = aerial conductor final modulus of elasticity
Ni = number of wires in the aerial conductor
Nij = number of wires in i layer of material j
c = subscript denoting composite

CTE for AAC, AAAC and ACSR/GZ aerial conductors are published in the relevant
Australian Standards.
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APPENDIX Y
AERIAL CONDUCTOR DEGRADATION and SELECTION FOR DIFFERING
ENVIRONMENTS
(Informative)
Y1 GENERAL
To one degree or another, most materials experience some form of interaction with a range
of diverse environments. Often these interactions result in degradation of material ductility,
strength and in the case of aerial conductors, effective cross sectional area and hence
conductivity. Aerial conductor corrosion susceptibility depends on the material, the
construction and the protective mechanisms employed in the design. The severity of the
corrosive environment and the presence of chlorides, sulphur dioxide and other pollutants
will accelerate corrosion. Atmospheric corrosion takes place in aqueous environments and
the exposure duration of wetness is a principal factor.
Y1.1 Pit corrosion
Pitting is the loss of parent material at a localised site on a surface exposed to the
environment. Pitting may be caused by corona corrosion in UHV lines or more commonly
by localised electrolytic reaction in which water and oxygen must be present. Pit growth
rate is generally very small.
Surface pitting is generally associated with an exposure to industrial and coastal
environments. With time, pit corrosion will continue to be initiated and existing shallow
pits may widen. Catastrophic localised corrosion is not likely to occur and the overall effect
would be the gradual loss of cross sectional area.
Y1.2 Crevice corrosion
When an electrolyte such as water is present in the interstitial spaces between wires,
localised etching or crevice corrosion may occur. This may be associated with aerial
conductor suspension fittings coupled with environments of particularly high rainfall,
frequented by fogs and or perhaps in close proximity to chloride and or sulphate
atmospheric depositions. Corrosion may take place and voluminous grey to white slightly
moist deposits between the penultimate and ultimate aluminium layers will be found.
Chemical investigations generally reveal levels of aluminium oxide, sulphates and chlorides
of about 60%, 5% and 1% respectively.
Y1.3 Homogenous Al and Al alloy aerial conductors
The corrosion mechanism is generally limited to pit corrosion and is influence by
atmospheric chloride and sulphate levels. The performance is generally excellent due to
firstly, the formation of a resistive coating of aluminium oxide and secondly that the PH
levels of aluminium ranges from 4 to 8.5 which results in passive behaviour. Nevertheless
all aluminium aerial conductors show some pit corrosion and the level of pit corrosion is
dependent on the level of impurities held in the substrate. One example is aluminium alloy
6201 that employs compound Mg2Si, is anodic in aluminium and reactive to acidic solutions
and tends to dissolve away leaving an inactive pit.
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Y1.4 Homogenous copper aerial conductor corrosion

The corrosion mechanism is generally limited to pit corrosion and is influenced by the
presence of ammonia in the atmosphere. The performance is generally excellent due to the
formation of a protective coating of copper oxide however, severe corrosion will result
when copper aerial conductors are used near abattoirs and or fertiliser factories. When in
contact with aluminium, special jointing techniques are critical to avoid severe and rapid
galvanic corrosion of the aluminium from copper oxides in the presence of an electrolyte
such as water.
Y1.5 Homogenous galvanized steel wire aerial conductors
The corrosion mechanism is limited to initially the gradual loss of zinc followed by
localized galvanic action of the steel substrate. The rate of corrosion is approximately linear
and is generally determined by the classification of the environment. Hence, the most
critical element in determining the life of the zinc coating is coating thickness and this
provides a reliable correlation in determining the expected life of zinc coated wires.
Application of the known corrosion rates to zinc coated steel wires, the associated age and
the location of the line enables the deterioration of the wires to be determined. The
corrosion rates for zinc and steel are given in Table Y1.
TABLE Y1
CORROSION RATES FOR ZINC AND STEEL
Corrosion rate
Corrosivity μm/yr− 1 Zinc/steel corrosion
classification ratio (approx)
zinc steel
Mild <1 <10 1:10
Moderate <2 10 – 20 1:20
Tropical <2 20 – 50 1:50
Industrial 2–4 20 – 50 1:15
Marine (>1 km) 2–4 20 – 80 1:20
Severe marine (<1 km) 4 >10 80 -200 1:20
Y1.6 Non homogenous Al aerial conductors steel reinforced

Initially a galvanic cell is set up with the zinc coating of the steel wires as the anode and the
aluminium wires as the cathode with the zinc corroding in the presence of sulphur oxides.
After some time the zinc will expose the steel substrate. At this stage, the aluminium will
then act as an anode and the steel as a cathode resulting in the aluminium being sacrificial
to the steel. At this stage, the aluminium corrosion rate accelerates rapidly.
The most effective method of reducing corrosion is to prevent moisture, sulphur oxides and
other corrosive substances from coming into contact with the zinc aluminium interface.
This may be achieved by applying a protective material such as grease, bitumen, paint or a
plastic film over the zinc wires.
Y1.7 Protective greases
Protective greases provide a layer or barrier to corrosion products and aerial conductors
may be partly greased which provides better performance than ungreased aerial conductors
do. Fully greased aerial conductors provide superior performance in the most aggressive
environments.
The performance of the grease is influenced by consideration of the drop point, which
should be much greater than the maximum operating temperature of the line.
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If the drop point of the grease is less than the maximum operating temperature of line, then
grease will liquefy, run to centre of span, form droplets and for lines greater than 66 kV
cause radio interference.
A cautionary note, that bituminous compounds used in 50’s and 60’s in ACSR/GZ have a
drop point of about 70°C and there are many examples where lines may now be operating at
or near maximum operating temperatures and the compound may have liquefied, run to the
centre of the span and fallen as droplets.
Y1.8 Application recommendations
Carter (see reference 2 at the end of the Appendix) reviewed the types of aerial conductor
constructions in common use and surveyed service experience and resistance to corrosion
under varying conditions. Also published were results of corrosion tests in severe saline
environments, commenced in 1964 in collaboration with Illawarra County Council
(predecessor of Integral Energy). The results were consistent with those reported by other
international and national authors at the time and indicate the following general
conclusions—
(a) for aluminium, slight external pitting generally less than 250 μm will occur after
about 3 years;
(b) there is no difference in an aerial extent of external pitting between 1350 aluminium
and 6201 aluminium alloy;
(c) there is good internal and external corrosion resistance provided by homogenous
aerial conductor constructions;
(d) for ACSR/GZ protection of the aluminium wires will occur up to the point that
degradation of the zinc coating has occurred;
(e) severe attack on bare galvanized wires up to 3 years and complete removal of the zinc
coating will occur in 3 years with salt deposition > 160 g.m−2; and
(f) a delay in the onset of internal corrosion results will occur from the use of protective
grease.
When selecting conductor for a hostile environment the following factors should be
considered:
(i) Full or partial greasing of the aerial conductor significantly improves corrosion
resistance.
(ii) Ensure that all fittings are compatible so that electrolytic corrosion does not occur.
(iii) Insulated/covered aerial conductor systems may provide protection against corrosion
provided the aerial conductors are completely sealed by the insulation/covering and
do not provide traps for corrosive solutions nor allow ingress of moisture.
(iv) The aluminium coating on SC/AC is very soft and should be treated carefully if it is
to provide adequate corrosion protection. The corrosion resistance of SC/AC is very
dependent on the thickness of the coating.
Table Y2 gives the aerial conductor selections for differing environmental conditions.
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TABLE Y2
AERIAL CONDUCTOR SELECTION FOR DIFFERING ENVIRONMENTS
Salt spray pollution Industrial pollution
Aerial conductor
type Bay, inlets and
Open ocean Acidic Alkaline
salt lakes
AAC Good Good Good Poor
AAAC/6201 Good Good Average Poor
AAAC/1120 Good Good Good Poor
ACSR/GZ Poor Poor Average Poor
ACSR/AZ Average Good Average Poor
ACSR/AC Good Good Average Poor
SC/GZ Poor Poor Poor Average
SC/ZC Good Good Good Poor
OPGW Good Good Average Poor
HDCu Good Good Average Good
References
1. ROBINSON, J., Development of A Durability Branding System for Steel Construction
Products, Corrosion Management, Vol 10, No. 2, pp 3 – 10, November 2001
2. CARTER, R.D., Corrosion Resistance of Aluminium Conductors in Overhead
Service. MM Metals Report released to the Aluminium Development Council.
3. BRENNAN, G.F., Methodology for Assessment of Serviceability of Aged
Transmission Line Conductors Postgraduate Thesis, Wollongong University, 1989.
4. Guidelines for design and maintenance of overhead distribution and transmission
lines, Electricity Supply Association of Australia Publication C(b)1, 1991.
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APPENDIX Z
AERIAL CONDUCTOR STRESS AND FATIGUE
(Informative)
Z1 GENERAL
Fatigue failures of overhead line aerial conductors occur almost exclusively at points where
the aerial conductor is secured to fittings. The cause of such failures is dynamic stresses
induced by vibration combined with high static stresses. It is necessary therefore to limit
both the static and dynamic stresses if the aerial conductor is to have acceptable fatigue
endurance.
Z2 STATIC STRESSES
Z2.1 Static tensile stress
The line aerial conductor tension produces static tensile stresses in the individual aerial
conductor wires. For homogeneous aerial conductors, the outer layer stress can be
calculated by dividing the tangential tension in the aerial conductor by the cross-sectional
area. For non-homogeneous aerial conductors, the static tensile stress in the aluminium
wires can be estimated by—
T
σ A1 = . . .Z1
AA1 + nASt
where
σAl = stress in aluminium wires
AAl area of aluminium
ASt = area of steel
T = aerial conductor tension
n = Efe/Eal
Eal = 68 GPa (aluminium)
Est = 193 GPa (sc/gz)
The ratio of the density of steel to aluminium is similar to the ratio of their moduli of
elasticity and Equation Z1 may be rewritten as—
T
σ A1 ∝ . . .Z2
m
In the case of ACSR aerial conductors, the stress in the aluminium wires decreases with
time as the metallurgical creep in the aluminium is much greater than in the steel and
results in a load transfer from the aluminium to the steel. This effect becomes more
predominant as the percentage of steel in the aerial conductor decreases.
Z2.2 Static bending stress
Static bending stress results from the bending of the aerial conductor at the support point
and is a function of the span length, tension, self-weight and flexural stiffness of the aerial
conductor and the radius of curvature of the support clamp.
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Z2.3 Static compressive stress

Static compressive stresses arise because of tensile and bending forces in the individual
wires of the aerial conductor and the aerial conductor’s self-weight on the support and from
external clamping pressures.
While the stresses are primarily bearing or radial stresses with very small associated
longitudinal stress, they are a source of aggravated fretting which can significantly reduce
the fatigue endurance of the aerial conductor.
Z3 DYNAMIC STRESSES
Dynamic stresses are alternating bending stresses caused by wind-induced vibration in the
aerial conductor and the stresses can vary widely in magnitude, frequency and duration. The
fatigue fracture of an individual wire within an aerial conductor is the result of a large
number of stress cycles, which cumulatively exhaust the fatigue strength or endurance limit
of the material.
The wind induced vibration or commonly known as Aeolian vibration occurs when laminar
wind flows across an aerial conductor causing vortices to be shed alternatively from top and
bottom of the aerial conductor. This continuous shedding of vortices causes an alternating
force to be applied to the aerial conductor, thus causing vibration predominantly in the
vertical plane.
The severity of the vibration problem is determined by the nature of the wind flow, its
direction with respect to the line, the line tension and the frequency of occurrence of the
laminar winds. It is therefore necessary when considering dynamic stresses to take into
account the topographical and climatic conditions of the line route.
Laminar flow winds are generally most prevalent in early morning in winter. The vibration
induced by wind velocities between 0.5 m/s and 7 m/s is characterized by short wave
lengths, relatively high frequencies and low amplitudes. Wind velocities less than 0.5 m/s
do not have sufficient energy to induce vibration and velocities greater than 7 m/s are
turbulent in nature and do not produce the vortex shedding necessary to induce vibration.
The temperature under which the horizontal tensions are applied should therefore be based
on this condition. The average temperature over the coldest month is generally used for this
purpose.
Practically all fatigue failures of aerial conductors originate at wire crossover points or at
support contact points where fretting occurs. Fretting is the form of damage that arises
when two surfaces in contact are exposed to slight periodic relative motion. The fretting
produces abraded particles and in the case of aluminium, the product consists of black
aluminium oxide. Fretting initiates fatigue cracks and the overall fatigue strength of the
aerial conductor is significantly reduced.
Aerial conductor fatigue endurance is related to bending and compressive static stresses and
is relatively insensitive to static tensile stresses. However as static stress levels increase, the
aerial conductor self-damping characteristics are reduced. This reduction in aerial
conductor self-damping, coupled with the dynamic stress induced by laminar winds, which
are terrain dependent, and length of time exposure to transverse laminar winds are
considered to be the most significant factor in aerial conductor fatigue endurance.
Z4 LIMITING OUTER LAYER STRESSES

Z4.1 Limiting static stresses
The outer layer stresses (OLS) used for the derivation of Table Z1 are generally based on
work carried out by CIGRE and the Swedish State Power Board, and represent the
allowable static tensile stress in the outer layer of an aerial conductor under certain
specified conditions.
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An aerial conductor, which is most likely to experience damage due to vibration, will be
supported in a short bolted clamp or on a pin insulator with no armour rods or dampers in a
terrain conducive to laminar wind flow. This combination of factors defines the base case
outer layer stress.
A conductor which is least likely to experience damage due to vibration will be fully
supported, fully damped and erected in a terrain not conducive to laminar wind flow. This
combination of factors defines the recommended maximum outer layer stress levels.
In Table Z1, the base case outer layer stresses have been converted to a base case horizontal
tension expressed as a percentage of the calculated breaking load (CBL). The values listed
in Table Z1 are expressed as horizontal tension, rather than tangential tension. This
approximation is satisfactory, except for very long spans or for spans in very steep terrain.
Some adjustments have been made in the light of operational experience, in particular with
regard to small diameter ACSR aerial conductor with high steel content where experience
has shown that, with effective damping, these aerial conductors can be strung to higher
allowable tensions.
The static bending and static compressive stresses resulting from the support arrangement
used for the base case can be reduced by using long radius shaped clamps, armour rods,
preformed ties or helical support/suspension units. Because of appropriately designed
supports, a higher static tensile stress may be tolerated.
Shaped long radius clamps and armour rods, or pin insulators with armour rods, allow an
increase in the static tensile stress of 5% to 7%, while helical support/suspension units, or
preformed ties with elastomer inserts, used in conjunction with armour rods on pin
insulators allow an increase of 10% to 15% on the base case. These allowable increases
have been converted to a percentage of CBL and included in Table Z1 under ‘clamp
category’.
The performance of AAAC irrespective of alloy is considered to related to fretting fatigue
and Table Z1 reflects this consideration.
Z4.2 Limiting dynamic stresses
Control of dynamic stresses is the most significant factor in the fatigue endurance of
overhead aerial conductors. Dynamic stresses can be limited by—
(a) terrain not conducive to laminar wind flow. Factors such as mountainous terrain, tree
cover and urban development will minimize conductor vibration;
(b) the use of effective vibration dampers;
(c) the use of spacer dampers with bundled aerial conductor; and
(d) the presence of some or all of the above factors will allow the static tensile stress
(design horizontal tension) to be increased in accordance with Table Z1.
Combinations of open or rolling terrain without dampers are in general not recommended
because the level of dynamic stresses that result can cause the fatigue life of the aerial
conductor to be reached at a very early stage. In this case the fatigue life may be relatively
insensitive to everyday tension. This is particularly important for steel and small diameter
high steel content ACSR aerial conductors which have little inherent self damping.
Z5 VIBRATION DAMPERS
Use of effective dampers is critical if use is to be made of this factor in the selection of the
higher horizontal tensions from Table Z1. Selection of dampers should be based on the
recommendations of the manufacturer and compliance with the relevant Australian or New
Zealand or equivalent International Standards. Vibration damping requirements may be
calculated, for example for Stockbridge type dampers using energy balance considerations,
which may allow higher tensions to be used. The following considerations are relevant:
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(a) Damper type Spiral dampers are generally considered more effective for aerial
conductor diameters up to 12 mm, and Stockbridge type dampers for aerial conductor
diameters above 15 mm. In the range 12 to 15 mm either type may provide an
effective solution, alternatively an optimum solution may involve a combination of
the two types
(b) Damper construction Robustness of design to achieve a useful life compatible with
that of other line components; avoidance of aerial conductor damage at the point of
attachment consideration of working live line working; and corona discharge and
radio frequency interference limited to acceptable levels
(c) Damping characteristics (Stockbridge dampers only)—
(i) Frequency response and energy dissipation Should be capable of limiting
bending stress and strain anywhere along the aerial conductor to permissible
levels for all frequencies of vibration encountered in Aeolian vibration; as the
frequency is dependent on aerial conductor diameter, dampers with different
responses will be required for different aerial conductors. It is important that
the dampers have adequate energy dissipation over a wide frequency range and
cover the highest level of expected frequency; and dampers which meet the
performance criteria of AS 1154.1 will generally provide acceptable energy
dissipation and frequency range;
(ii) Impedance The reactive and resistive mechanical impedance of the damper
should match the aerial conductor as closely as possible;
(iii) Endurance The fatigue life of the damper itself should be sufficient to endure
the rigorous service life of the aerial conductor. The performance of the damper
should not deteriorate due to fatigue and ageing. With hardware using elastomer
inserts, degradation due to exposure to ozone and ultra violet light should be
taken into consideration; and
(iv) Damper stress The dampers should not create significant stresses on the aerial
conductor due to clamping or damping forces exerted by the bending stresses at
the damper clamp.
(d) Number of dampers per span For fully damped aerial conductors the number of
dampers in a span should be sufficient to dissipate wind-induced energy in the aerial
conductor. It should also be noted that dampers to be used in Category 1 Terrain
should provide substantially more energy dissipation than those used for higher
terrain categories to damp fully the aerial conductor. Consideration should be given to
damper life when selecting the number of dampers in a span. There could be
situations when effective energy dissipation can be achieved with fewer dampers, but
this may be at the expense of the damper life.
(e) Damper location The ideal location is the anti-node of the vibrating loop, however,
as vibration frequency and loop length is a function of wind velocity, the
Manufacturer’s recommendation for a location to suit the full range of frequent wind
velocities should be obtained.
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DRAFT ONLY
TABLE Z1
AERIAL CONDUCTOR EVERYDAY LOAD HORIZONTAL TENSION (H)
Recommended incremental increase in horizontal tension
(% CBL)
Recommended
Static stress considerations Dynamic stress considerations
Base case maximum
Damping/terrain category horizontal
Aerial conductor or overhead horizontal
earthwire type tension No dampers Fully tension
(% CBL) Clamp category* damped all (% CBL0
Terrain category† terrain
categories
A B C 1 2 3
COPPER 25 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 34
SC/GZ, SC/AC 10 0 2.5 5.0 0 5 10 16.0 31
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AAC 18 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 27

AAAC/1120 15 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 24
AAAC/6201 13 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 5.5 21
ACSR 3/4, 4/3 10 0 2.0 4.0 0 4 8 13.0 27
ACSR 6/1, 6/7 17 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 7.5 27
266
ACSR 30/7 16 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 25
ACSR 54/7, 54/19 18 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 27
AACSR/1120 6/1, 6/7 14 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 23
AACSR/1120 18/1 16 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 7.5 26
AACSR/1120 30/7 13 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 22
AACSR/1120 54/7, 54/19 14 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 23
AACSR/6201 6/1, 6/7 13 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 22
AACSR/6201 18/1 14 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 23
AACSR/6201 30/7 12 0 1.5 2.5 0 2 4 6.5 21
Optical conductor 14 NA NA 2.0 NA NA NA 4.0 20
* Clamp category: Type A Short trunnion clamp, post or pin insulator with ties (without armour rods)
Type B Post or pin insulator (clamped or tied) with armour rods or shaped trunnion clamps with armour rods
Type C Helically formed armour grip with elastomer insert or helically formed ties with armour rods
† Terrain Category: Type 1 Flat, no obstacles (See Note 12)
Type 2 Rolling terrain with scattered trees (See Note 12)
DRAFT ONLY
Type 3 Mountain, forest or urban
NOTES: to Table Z1:

1 Generally, the temperature under which the horizontal tensions from Table Z1 are applied is based on the
average temperature over the coldest month, which in the absence of detailed data may be calculated as
the average of daily mean maximum temperature and daily mean minimum temperature.
2 Limits for covered aerial conductors are subject to further research.
3 Limits for LVABC are given in Clause 4.4.1.5.
4 Limits for HVABC should be based on the limits for the support aerial conductor (subject to further
research).
5 The tension values given in Table Z1 are a guide only and need not apply to situations where proven line
performance indicates that a higher or lower tension would be appropriate. This could apply for example
to a new line built adjacent to an existing line where the aerial conductor and support (the same as the type
to be used) have shown adequate performance.
6 When using the tension limits in Table Z1, additional considerations may need to be given to—
(a) The aerial conductor diameter, as this is the governing factor with respect to vibration frequency.
Smaller diameter conductors will vibrate at higher frequencies and reach their fatigue life in a shorter
time, however, smaller aerial conductors are easier to damp effectively. For all aerial conductors
particular care should be taken to ensure that the damper efficiency range is effective over the range
of frequencies likely to occur.
(b) The span length, because of the requirement to increase vibration protection with increased span
length.
(c) The aerial conductor design, including self-damping characteristics, compactness, bundled cables,
number of aluminium layers, steel/aluminium ratio, etc.
(d) The extent to which supports, insulators and fittings can withstand vibration transmitted to them by
the aerial conductor.
7 Consideration should be given to the exposure created by structure height, particularly with regard to steel
overhead earthwire on steel tower transmission lines where tensions significantly lower than those listed
in Table Z1 are normally used.
8 Any terminations, suspensions or joints should be designed so as not to cause damage to aerial conductors
or to be damaged by aerial conductors when the aerial conductor is subject to vibration. Vibration dampers
are designed to reduce the amplitude of vibration whereas armour rods and other protective fittings are
primarily designed to protect against the damage to aerial conductors resulting from mechanical vibration.
9 An accurate measurement of aerial conductor temperature during stringing is essential to ensure the initial
aerial conductor tensions are achieved.
10 An accurate prediction of aerial conductor creep is necessary to ensure that design final aerial conductor
tensions are achieved.
11 Tensions for optical aerial conductors are based on an aerial conductor composed of aluminium clad or
galvanized steel plus aluminium or aluminium alloy wires. The optical fibres are carried in a metallic tube
located in the centre or an inner layer of the aerial conductor. Optical aerial conductor should always be
installed with helical type armour grips and be fully damped. The manufacturer of the optical aerial
conductor should be consulted regarding the recommended maximum tension.
12 Where aerial conductors are strung in Terrain Categories 1 and 2, it is recommended that vibration
dampers be applied. If dampers are not applied, care should be taken to ensure that supporting structures
and insulators are not subject to vibration damage, especially when use is made of the tension increase for
Type C suspension clamps.
13 Use of spacers on bundled aerial conductors may contribute some damping but it is good practice to also
fit vibration dampers to bundled aerial conductors.
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APPENDIX AA
AERIAL CONDUCTOR SHORT TIME AND SHORT-CIRCUIT RATING
(Informative)
AA1 FAULT RATINGS

AA1.1 General
The main factors to consider when determining the fault rating of a line are—
(a) the annealing of the aerial conductor resulting from overheating due to the magnitude
and duration of the fault current;
(b) the sagging of the aerial conductor into another aerial conductor below it; and
(c) movement of aerial conductors due to electromagnetic forces leading to aerial
conductor clashing, arcing, aerial conductor damage, secondary faults, etc.
AA1.2 Annealing
The short circuit or transient thermal state condition for a homogenous aerial conductor,
assuming—
(a) uniform current distribution within the aerial conductor and the wires;
(b) the resistance temperature characteristic of the aerial conductor is linear;
(c) the specific heat of the aerial conductor is constant and the heating is adiabatic; that is
due to the transient nature of the current flow the heat gains and losses at the surface
of the aerial conductor are ignored; and
(d) the fault duration is small such that no heat will be dissipated from the aerial
conductor
then the following equation is a reasonable approximation of the aerial conductor
temperature rise—
⎡ Ar RJ 2r ⎤
1 ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎢⎣⎢ DC ⎦⎥
⎥
T2 = 20 − + ⎢T1 − 20 + ⎥e . . .AA1
Ar ⎣ Ar ⎦
where
T2 = final temperature in °C
T1 = initial temperature in °C
Ar = temperature coefficient of resistance in °C–1
R = resistivity in ohm mm at 20°C
D = density in g/mm3
J = current density in A/mm2
t = duration in seconds (includes reclosure times)
⎧ ⎡⎛ T + T ⎞ ⎤
C = specific heat = C20 ⎨1 + Ac ⎢⎜ 1 2 ⎟ − 20 ⎥
⎩ ⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦
C20 = specific heat at 20°C in Jg −1 °C−1
Ac = temperature coefficient of specific heat
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Rearranging Equation AA1—

⎡ ⎛ T + T2 ⎞⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
DC20 ⎢1 + Ac ⎜ 1 − 20 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢ T2 − 20 + ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎢ Ar
⎥
J2t = 1n . . .AA2
Ar R ⎢ T − 20 + 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 Ar ⎥⎦
TABLE AA1
AERIAL CONDUCTOR CONSTANTS
AAAC/ AAAC/ HD
Constants Units AAC SC/GZ SC/AC
1120 6201A copper
A r (at 20°C) * °C−1 0.00403 0.00390 0.00360 0.00381 0.00440 0.00360
R (at 20°C) * Ωmm 28.3 × 10 −6 29.3 × 10 −6 32.8 × 10 −6 17.77 × 10 −6 190 × 10 −6 85 × 10 −6
D* g/mm 3 2.70 × 10 −3 2.70 × 10 −3 2.70 × 10 −3 8.89 × 10 −3 7.8 × 10 −3 6.59 × 10 −3
C 20 ** Jg −1 °C −1 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.4 0.5 0.5
A c ** °C −1 4.5 × 10 −4 4.5 × 10 −4 4.5 × 10 −4 2.9 × 10 −4 1.0 × 10 −4 1.0 × 10 −4
* Value taken from the appropriate Australian Standard, i.e. AS 1531, AS 1746, AS 1222.1, AS 1222.2.
** Values are median values of data sourced from several references including—
— V T Morgan, ‘Rating of Bare Overhead Conductors for Intermittent and Cyclic Currents’, Proc
IEE, 1361-1376, 116(8), 1969.
— V T Morgan, ‘Rating of Conductors for Short-Duration Currents’, Proc IEE, 555-570, 118(3/4),
1971.
— Draft IEEE Standard, ‘Calculating the Current-Temperature relationship of Bare Overhead
Conductors’, 1993.
From Equation AA2 the fault rating can be determined based on maximum allowable
temperature. Constants for specific aerial conductor types are contained in the relevant
Australian Standards and as shown in Table AA1.
Aluminium loses approximately 10% of its tensile strength at a temperature of 210°C with a
significant proportion of the annealing taking place during the cooling period following a
fault. This annealing is cumulative over the life of the aerial conductor. It anneals rapidly at
temperatures exceeding 340°C and commences melting at approximately 645°C. The
mechanical properties of the steel core of ACSR are affected very little at these
temperatures. Zinc melts at approximately 420°C. Copper loses 10% of its tensile strength
at a temperature of 220°C.
To provide for a loss of aerial conductor tensile strength of less than 5% due to fault
conditions over its life, the temperatures indicated in Table AA2 should not be exceeded.
The rate of cooling is dependent on the thermal mass of the aerial conductor, therefore
lower maximum temperatures are applicable to aerial conductors of large cross-section.
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TABLE AA2
GUIDELINES FOR 5% LOSS OF TENSILE STRENGTH FOR TOTAL FAULT
CLEARING TIME (INCLUDING RECLOSES)
Aerial conductor type Approximate size Maximum temperature
(mm²)
HDCu 60 200°C
AAC, AAAC/1120, ACSR/GZ, 100 160°C
ACSR/AZ,
ACSR/AC 300 to 500 150°C
AAAC/6201A 100 220°C
SC/GZ, SC/AC 400°C
OPGW ***
***Dependent on construction.
Reference: ROEHMANN, L.F. and HAZAN, E., Short time annealing characteristics of electrical
conductors, AIEE Trans 82/3 p1061, Dec 1963.
AA1.3 Sag under fault

Overhead lines have been known to sag into subsidiary lines or undercrossings under fault.
If this is to be avoided it may be advisable for the line to be designed to have a positive
clearance to the lower aerial conductor. It is recommended that the appropriate non-
flashover distance from AS 2067 for the system voltage be used for this clearance.
AA1.4 Movement of aerial conductors under fault
The movement of aerial conductors due to the electromagnetic forces generated by large
short time current is a complex matter for which a simple satisfactory solution is not
available. The Transmission Line Reference Book—115-138 kV Compact Line Design
(EPRI EL-100-V3, Research Project 260, 1978) Section A3, Simulation and Tests of Motion
Due to Fault Currents—gives equations which may be used to determine aerial conductor
swing and the mechanical forces due to fault currents.
By taking these criteria and the degree of reliability required into account, a suitable
compromise on structure design, aerial conductor configuration and economics can be
achieved.
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APPENDIX BB
AERIAL CONDUCTOR ANNEALING AND OPERATING TEMPERATURES
(Informative)
BB1 GENERAL
Aluminium alloys are designated by the numbering system in Table BB1. The first digit
specifies the principle alloying elements, and the remaining digits refer to the specific
composition of the alloy. The alloys are subdivided into two subgroups—heat treatable and
non heat treatable alloys. Heat treatable alloys are age hardened (precipitation hardened),
whereas non-heat treatable alloys are hardened by solid solution strengthening (not used for
aerial conductors because of the reduction in electrical conductivity), strain hardening, or
dispersion strengthening.
TABLE BB1
DESIGNATION SYSTEM FOR WROUGHT ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
1xxx Commercially pure Al (>99%) Non heat treatable
2xxx Al-Cu Heat treatable
3xxx Al-Mn Non heat treatable
4xxx Al-Si and Al-Mg-Si Heat treatable if Mg is present
5xxx Al-Mg Non heat treatable
6xxx Al-Mg-Si Heat treatable
7xxx Al-Mg-Zn Heat treatable
The degree of strengthening is given by the temper designation in Table BB2
TABLE BB2
TEMPER DESIGNATIONS FOR ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
F As fabricated (hot rolled, forged, cast, etc)
O Annealed (most ductile condition)
H1x Cold worked only (x refers to the amount of cold working or strengthening)
H2x cold worked and partly annealed
H3x cold worked and stabilised at a low temperature to prevent age hardening
W Solution treated
Tx Age hardened (x refers to the amount of strain hardening)
Resistance to room temperature creep and annealing varies with composition or fabrication
variations. EC alloy 1350 has about 0.20% (by weight) Fe and 0.08% Si. Addition of iron
decreases resistances to creep and annealing. Addition of Mg to a high iron alloy increased
the resistances to creep and annealing. Production of rod by the continuous cast process
also causes higher resistances to creep and annealing than the conventional hot-rolled
process.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

BB2 WIRE FABRICATION

Aluminium strands are drawn from 9.5 mm rod, which can be produced either by the
continuous cast (known as Properzi) process or by the hot-rolled process. Continuous cast
rod is the result of the tandem manufacturing steps of casting, rolling and solution heat-
treating, if applicable. This allows the continuous production of coils limited in size only by
the capability of the materials handling equipment. By contrast, hot-rolled rod is produced
from cast billets that are rolled and solution heat-treated, if applicable. Large coils of hot-
rolled rod are made by welding together smaller coils.
Aerial conductors derive their strength from the metallurgical properties of the alloy and
from strain hardening (cold working) during the wire drawing process. In the case of heat
treatable aluminium alloys such as 6201, the strengthening of the wire that occurs during
the aging treatment is added to that achieved during the drawing process. For example, the
process of tempering produces approximately 41% of the overall strength for HDC; 56% of
the overall strength for 1350-H19 and 60% of the overall strength for 6201-T81.
Smaller diameter wire experiences more strain hardening and achieves about 3% higher
tensile strength. The greater the gain in tensile strength from cold working, the greater the
loss of strength from annealing for a given temperature and time duration.
BB3 ANNEALING FROM ELEVATED TEMPERATURE OPERATION

Morgan (see reference 6 to this Appendix) proposed the formulae below for determining the
loss of tensile strength of strands due to annealing. Morgan related the loss of strength of
the wires to the percentage reduction in cross sectional area during wire drawing, since this
determines the degree of strain hardening.
⎛ ⎛ B′
⎜ A′ + 1n ( t ) +
T*
C′
T*
+ D ′1n ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎞
⎛ R ⎞⎞
⎝ 80 ⎠ ⎠
W = Wa ⎜ 1 − e ⎟
− e ⎝
. . .BB1
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎛ D ⎞2 ⎞
R = 100 ⎜1 − ⎜ w ⎟ ⎟ . . .BB2
⎜ ⎝ Do ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where
W = loss of tensile strength in the partially annealed state (% of
ultimate tensile strength in the tempered state)
Wa = loss of tensile strength in the fully annealed state (% of
ultimate tensile strength in the tempered state)
A′, B′, C′ and D′ = experimentally derived constants for the alloy
T* = wire absolute temperature (K)
t = time duration at temperature T* (hours)
R = reduction in cross-sectional area during wire drawing (%)
Do = diameter of prior to drawing (mm) – usually 9.5 mm for
aluminium
Dw = diameter of the drawn wire i.e. strand diameter (mm) –
usually 2.5 to 4.75 mm for aluminium
Table BB3 is an excerpt from Table 2 of [reference 6 to this Appendix] using average
values of –C’/A’.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

TABLE BB3
ANNEALING EQUATION CONSTANTS
Alloy Wa A′ B′ C′ D′
(%) (K) (K)
1350-H19 56 7.8 150 −4700 7.5
6201A-T81 60 16.2 270 −9000 4
HDC (110A-H) 41 14 175 −6700 3
In general, Aluminium loses approximately 10% of its tensile strength at a temperature of

210°C with a significant proportion of the annealing taking place during the cooling period
following a fault. This annealing is cumulative over the life of the aerial conductor. It
anneals rapidly at temperatures exceeding 340°C and commences melting at approximately
645°C. For ACSR, the mechanical properties of the steel core are affected very little at
these temperatures. Zinc melts at approximately 420°C. Copper loses 10% of its tensile
strength at a temperature of 220°C.
BB4 ANNEALING FROM FAULT CURRENTS

Excessive heating of aerial conductors and in particular overhead earthwire during a short
circuit can cause a reduction in tensile strength and permanent elongation. The permanent
reduction in electrical clearance can reduce the reliability of the line. Failure of the aerial
conductor and or earthwire either during the fault or subsequently during adverse weather
can cause an outage as well as damage to the support structures. In the case of steel stands,
any loss of protective zinc coating can lead to corrosion
In particular, the earthwire size is determined by the assuming a maximum acceptable
temperature that causes minimum permanent damage. The effect of cumulative heating of
the earthwire when the line is reclosed under short circuit conditions should be considered.
Permanent damage includes—
(a) loss of protective coating i.e. zinc, grease;
(b) reduction in tensile strength (annealing);
(c) permanent elongation; and
(d) permanent attenuation losses for OPGW.
For AAC and AAAC earthwires, accelerated creep will accompany the reduction in tensile
strength. For ACSR earthwires there will be a transfer of load from the aluminium to the
steel, resulting in larger sags than perhaps anticipated.
Consideration should be given the instantaneous sag of the earthwire at elevated
temperatures to ensure that the sag does not result in a consequential fault during an auto
reclose operation.
BB5 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE TEMPERATURES

Typical aerial conductor types, csa and maximum allowable temperature [See reference 8 to
this Appendix] are given in Table BB4 for loss of strength of 10%. Notwithstanding this it
is stressed that this is a guide only and annealing cumulative damage should be determined
by summing the loss of tensile strength as a percentage of original strength for the range
operating temperatures and operating durations.
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TABLE BB4
TYPICAL AERIAL CONDUCTOR MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE SHORT TERM
TEMPERATURES
Aerial conductor type csa Maximum temperature
(mm²)
HDCu 60 200°C
AAC, AAAC/1120, ACSR/GZ, 100 160°C
ACSR/AZ, ACSR/AC 300 to 500 150°C
AAAC/6201A 100 220°C
SC/GZ, SC/AC 400°C
OPGW Dependent on construction
BB6 MAXIMUM DESIGN OPERATING TEMPERATURES

The design maximum operating temperature is a function of the acceptable level of
permanent loss of tensile strength (annealing) of the conductor.
Isothermal annealing curves are illustrated in Figures BB1, BB2 and BB3 for AAC 1350,
AAAC/1120 and AAAC/6201 respectively. These curves demonstrate the permanent loss of
tensile strength when an aerial conductor operates at an elevated temperature. The loss of
tensile strength results in increased sag. It is appropriate to establish the maximum design
temperature at which an aerial conductor can operate while maintaining acceptable levels of
degradation of tensile properties.
Research that is more recent indicates that the annealing characteristics of an aerial
conductor depend not only on temperature and time of exposure but also on the diameter of
the wires in the aerial conductor. Typically, the loss of strength curves shown in
Figures BB1, BB2 and BB3 will comprise a range of values for a given period with the
smallest wire size suffering the greatest loss in strength and the largest size the least. The
magnitude of this wire size dependence is considered, at this stage, to be of a lower order
than the effect of temperature.
The following comments are applicable for aluminium aerial conductors. Copper has
similar annealing properties, which are not as well documented as those for aluminium, but
it has less loss of strength for the same temperature.
The recommended maximum temperature limit for normal operation of AAC, AAAC, and
ACSR is 100°C. This permits an approximate loss of strength of 3% of the original tensile
strength after 1000 hours operation at this temperature. Figures BB1, BB2 and BB3 show
that the heating period is not a major factor until this temperature is exceeded.
For ratings for emergency conditions, (e.g. when one circuit has to carry more than normal
current for a short time), both the maximum temperature and the duration of the emergency
load should be taken into account in determining the annealing of the aluminium wires. The
annealing effect is cumulative. For example, if an aerial conductor is heated to 150°C under
emergency conditions for 24 hours a year for 30 years it is much the same as heating the n
aerial conductor continuously at that temperature for 720 hours. For this example, the loss
of ultimate strength in AAC would be approximately 15%. For 30/7, ACSR the ultimate
tensile strength would be reduced approximately 7%. The effect is less significant for
ACSR where an increase in temperature results in a load transfer from the aluminium to the
steel. The steel provides most of the strength of the aerial conductor and is essentially
unaffected by the temperature.
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If ratings for emergency conditions are to be applied then the combined effects of elevated
temperature and sustained high aerial conductor tension on the sag of the line should be
taken into account. Practically, the tension in a line reduces with increasing temperature so
the effect is less severe.
For main grid transmission lines, where it is possible to control the loads in the lines to a
great extent, the emergency condition rating concept may be applied. For radial
transmission lines and sub-transmission lines, the maximum temperature limit of 100°C
should be applied.
For distribution lines where a lower standard of load control and monitoring usually applies
it is recommended that an additional margin be applied. Maximum Design Temperatures of
75°C to 100°C are commonly used.
FIGURE BB1 PERCENTAGE OF ORIGINAL TENSILE STRENGTH

FOR ALLOY 1350 vs AGEING TIME
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00



REFERENCES
1. KIESSLING, F. et al, Overhead Power Lines – Planning and Design , Springer, pp
250– 251
2. IEEE Std 1283-2004, IEEE Guide for Determining the Effects of High-Temperature
Operation on Conductors, Connectors, and Accessories
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

3. BARBER, K.W.; CALLAGHAN, K.J., Improved overhead line conductors using

aluminium alloy 1120, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Volume 10, Issue 1,
Date: Jan 1995, pp 403 - 409
4. WESTERLUND, R.W., Effects of composition and fabrication practice on resistance
to annealing and creep of aluminium conductor alloys, Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions B, Volume 5, Number 3/March, 1974, pp 667-672, Springer Boston
5. CIGRE WG22.12, Loss in Strength of Overhead Electrical Conductors Caused by
Elevated Temperature Operation, ELECTRA No. 162, October 1995, pp 115–118
6. Vincent Morgan, Effect of Elevated Temperature Operation on the Tensile Strength of
Overhead Conductors, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No. 1, January
1996, pp 345-352
7. FRANC JAKL and ANDREJ JAKL, Effect of Elevated Temperatures on Mechanical
Properties of Overhead Conductors under Steady State and Short-Circuit Conditions,
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 15, No. 1, January 2000, pp 242 – 246
8. ROEHMANN, L.F. and HAZAN, E., Short time annealing characteristics of
electrical conductors, AIEE Trans 82/3 p1061, Dec 1963.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

APPENDIX CC
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF INSULATOR - LIMIT STATES
(Normative)
CC1 INSULATOR LIMIT STATES

There are 3 states for the mechanical design of insulators, these being—
(a) everyday load;
(b) serviceable wind load; and
(c) failure containment load.
CC2 MECHANICAL DESIGN— SIMPLIFIED APPROACH

Table CC1 shows the load and wind conditions for a range of insulator types.
These define the minimum requirements for an overhead line of relative reliability of 1 or
less.
TABLE CC1
INSULATOR LOADING CONDITIONS
State Tension insulator Suspension and vee Post and pin insulator
condition string insulator condition
condition
Everyday Everyday tension (EDT), Vertical weight span, Vertical weight span,
0 Pa wind 0 Pa wind 0 Pa wind
Serviceable Serviceable wind or Resultant load at Resultant load with
500 Pa wind serviceable wind or serviceable wind or
500 Pa transverse load 500 Pa transverse +
longitudinal unbalance
load
Failure containment Aerial conductor Resultant load for Resultant load with
calculated breaking load ultimate aerial conductor ultimate transverse wind
(CBL) wind transverse load + longitudinal unbalance
load
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APPENDIX DD
EASEMENT WIDTH
(Informative)
DD1 EASEMENT WIDTHS

Table DD1 provides typical easement widths for a range of voltages.
For distribution voltages, approval for an overhead line on private property is generally
negotiated with the property owner and may not require a formal easement agreement.
It is generally not required to obtain easements for overhead powerlines located on road
reserves because of building set back conditions contained in local authority planning
schemes. However if an easement is required Table DD1 gives the nominal widths.
TABLE DD1
TYPICAL EASEMENT WIDTHS FOR A RANGE OF VOLTAGES (FOR TYPICAL
SPANS)
Easement building restriction

widths generally used
Nominal voltage Typical width of easement
(measured from the centre line
of the overhead line)
Up to 33 kV 5 to 10 m 10 to 20 m
66 kV 10 to 15 m 20 to 30m
110/132 kV 15 to 20 m 30 to 40 m
220 kV 15 to 25 m 30 to 50 m
275 kV conventional 25 to 30 m 50 to 60 m
275 kV guyed 30 m 70 m
330 kV 30 m 60 m
400 kV 30 m 65 m
500 KV 35 m 70 m
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APPENDIX EE
SNOW AND ICE LOADS
(Normative)
EE1 GENERAL
The accumulation of snow and ice on aerial conductors and supports varies greatly with
altitude, latitude and local conditions such as terrain. In general, lines located in areas
higher than 800 m above sea level in Australia and in some areas of New Zealand may be
subject to occasional snow/ice loadings. However, there is insufficient consistently re-
occurring data for most regions on which to base return periods for snow and ice loads.
Hence, details provided are considered to provide a reasonable guide to designers.
Only combined wind and ice loads on aerial conductors are considered in this standard.
Wind loads on ice covered supports and insulators may be treated similarly when
appropriate drag factors are used.
The effect of wind on an ice-covered aerial conductor is determined by three variables:
(a) The wind speed during the period of time that the aerial conductor is ice covered; and
(b) The mass of the ice layer;
(c) The shape of the ice layer, i.e. the diameter and the relevant drag factor.
Reference should also be made to the provisions contained in AS/NZS 1170.3 and CIGRE
Technical Brochure 291, Guidelines for meteorological icing models, statistical methods
and topographical effects, April 2006.
In particular, the following specific provisions should be made:
EE1.2 Australia
In areas with ice and snow loadings, the minimum design loads should be based on a radial
ice thickness of 12 mm with a density of 900 kg/m3 (SG = 0.9) and coincident with a wind
pressure of 100 Pa at an aerial conductor temperature of –5°C. These loads may be taken as
corresponding to a return period of 50 years though the appropriateness is uncertain.
Provision should also be made for the unbalanced longitudinal loads produced by ice
forming on certain spans but not others, due to local topographic effects. In this regard, line
sections with large adjacent span ratios should also be investigated.
In regions within Tasmania, icing can occur at low altitudes but with reduced thickness of
accretion. In this area the requirements provided in Table EE1 shall be included in design
loadings.
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TABLE EE1
TASMANIA REGION ICE LOADING CONDITIONS
Ambient Wind pressure

Elevation Ice condition— (Pa)
Wire type temperature
(m) 900 kg/m3
(°C) Spans >150 m Spans <150 m
Earthwire 0–499 Non-ice Coexisting Inclement (design) weather
temperature conditions prevail
Aerial conductor 0–599
Eathwire 500–799 Ice–6 mm −10°C 190 380
Aerial conductor 600–799
Both 800–999 Ice–9 mm −10°C 190 380
Both >1000 Ice–12 mm −10°C 190 380
NOTES:
1 Icing should be assumed to occur in all areas of Tasmania and is dependent on altitude and locations
where ice loading has been known to occur.
2 Snow offset cross arms should be used on all vertical configuration circuits to minimise clashing of aerial
conductors. Earthwires are not to be positioned above aerial phase conductors in horizontal/flat
construction configuration
3 Ice build up is assumed to occur only on aerial conductors. Lattice structures with congested bracing
arrangements that may trap snow accumulations shall have increased windage areas provided in designs.
4 Where in-cloud icing may occur on elevated location expert guidance should be sought from local
meteorology sources.
5 Where the line is subject to moist air rising from the coast (West Coast and around the South East Coasts
of Tasmania), the susceptibility to ice accretion is higher. In those areas, the elevation shall be 100 metres
lower at which ice conditions apply.
These effects may then be used to evaluate wire tensions and the calculation of wire loads
on structures.
EE1.3 New Zealand
Ice (or wet snow) is to be considered on wires only. For ice cases, which include wind, the
reduced return period wind should be applied to un-iced pole or tower, taking into account
the structure’s overall drag coefficient. On towers heavily congested by members, all gaps
of less than 75 mm should be considered as being filled with ice.
For exposed sites on ridges, non-uniform ice build may result and the ice build up shall be
taken as the full ice accretion thickness on one side of the structure and 40% of ice build up
on the other side.
All large deviation (greater than 30°) and section poles shall be designed for the full ice
accretion thickness on one side of the structure and no ice build up on the other side.
The drag coefficient to be used for wind co-incident with ice conditions shall be taken as
1.1 times the relevant drag coefficient (Cd) for wind conditions only, but in no case be less
than 1.2.
EE1.3.1 Temperature effects
Unless specific data is available, the following design temperatures shall be used.
(a) Snow—0ºC
(b) Ice—
(i) Coastal areas: temperature = –0.0085 × altitude −3ºC
(ii) Inland areas >5 km from coast: temperature = −0.0085 × altitude −5ºC
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

The temperature shall be based on the highest altitude of the line. If there is significant
variation in altitude along the line, then the line shall be broken into several temperature
zones.
EE1.3.2 Aerial conductor tensions (FT)
The aerial conductor tensions shall be based on a span equal to the ruling span.
Consideration shall be made for the overall effect of differences in tension of adjacent
spans on the structure.
Where significant span differences arise, the structure shall be checked for full loading on
one side of the structure and 40% of loading on the other side.
Allowance shall be made for some flexibility of post and pin insulators when calculating
tensions.
EE1.3.3 Snow and ice zones
The snow and ice zones are based on AS/NZS 1170.3 (snow zones). These are based on the
1988 Council Boundaries. (See Figure FF1).
Specific historical knowledge and records of other lines in the same locality may be utilized
in generating ice and snow loading requirements.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

FIGURE EE1 NEW ZEALAND SNOW AND ICE ZONES
EE1.3.4 Radial snow and ice build up on conductors

Table EE2 below specifies radial snow/ice thicknesses corresponding to a 50-year event.
Relatively low density Wet Snow occurs at low elevations below 600 m. At higher
elevations, ice is expected to form. Two snow/Ice cases shall be checked
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

TABLE EE2
ICE AND SNOW PARAMETERS FOR NEW ZEALAND
Radia snow or ice thickness (Rice) on aerial conductors
Co-incident
Wet snow
Ice thickness at wind return
Zone Altitude thickness at
7000 kg/m 3 period for ice
400 kg/m 3
(years)
N0 450–600 25 — 1
Upper North Island 600–900 30 5 1
900–1200 35 8 1
>1200 40 10 5
N1 150–450 25 — 1
Lower North Island 450–600 30 10 1
600–900 35 15 1
900–1200 40 20 5
>1200 45 25 5
N2, N3, N5 0—150 30 10 1
South Island 150–300 35 15 1
300–450 40 20 1
450–600 45 25 1
600–750 — 30 5
750–900 — 35 5
900–1200 — 40 5
>1200 — 45 5
N4 0—150 45 (30 15 (10) 1
Canterbury 150–300 50 (35) 20 (15) 1
300–450 55 (40) 25 (20) 1
450–600 60 (45) 30 1
600–750 65 (50) 35 5
750–900 — 40 5
900–1200 — 45 5
NOTES:
1 The figures in brackets are the existing standard thicknesses. Ice density has been assumed as 900 kg/m³.
[Based on current knowledge, this appears too high]. The snow values are based on AS/NZS 4676 and
equivalent Transpower radial thicknesses (these were converted to uniform density values).
2 For wind associated with ice, it is recommended that at low altitudes that a 1 year return period be used;
for higher altitudes a higher value has been adopted on the basis that wind is more likely to occur and
that ice formation may remain for many days.
3 AS/NZS 4676 requires 30 mm radial snow (0.4 SG) be considered at all below 600m altitudes for
Canterbury (N4).
4 AS/NZS 1170.3 suggests that 30 mm radial ice (0.9 SG) at 0ºC combined with a 10 year return period
wind be used for building structures in sub alpine regions. This may be appropriate for rigid structures
only; it is very conservative for overhead lines (which are very flexible).
5 ISO 12494 suggests that combined actions be considered involving maximum wind (50 year RP) and
reduced icing (factor = 0.7) also maximum icing (50 year RP) and reduced wind cases (50 year RP); wet
snow is usually taken in still air conditions. This is similar to IEC 60826 requirements.
6 For wind associated with ice, the overall effect is similar to current overhead line standards. Although
the ice density has been reduced from 915 to 700 kg/m³ and the wind speed reduced, the iced diameter
has been increased slightly to compensate. Most lines companies do not want to see a reduction in
transverse loading on the poles hence results should be comparable.
7 The proposed wet snow values are based on limited data on 2006 June storm in Orion’s area (this was up
to a 50 year event in some locations). Reported snow build up was 20 mm to 50 mm radial thickness at
an equivalent of 400 kg/m³ snow density. This indicates that current standards are probably too low at
particularly at lower altitudes.
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

EE1.3.5 Co-incident wind and ice conditions

No wind shall be applied to wet snow.
Wind loads shall be calculated as per AS/NZS 1170.2.
Only winds from the SW, S or SE directions shall be considered coincident with ice.
EE1.3.6 Ice densities
For all radial ice thicknesses, a base density of 700 kg/m³ shall be used. This is consistent
with a medium rime ice, which is believed to be the predominant icing mechanism in New
Zealand.
For aerial conductors less than 11mm, the radial ice thickness shall be increased by 10%.
EE1.3.7 Snow densities
For all radial snow thicknesses, a density of 400 kg/m³ shall be used.
EE1.3.8 Differential ice loading
In addition to the uniform extreme ice/snow loading case, every structure within ice/snow
zones shall also be checked for torsional and longitudinal loading resulting from
Differential Icing as described in the Table EE3. No coincident wind shall apply with
differential icing. (See Figure EE2).
FIGURE EE2 DIFFERENTIAL ICE LOADING
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

TABLE EE3
DIFFERENTIAL ICE AND SNOW LOADING CONDITIONS
Differential ice and snow loading conditions
Longitudinal condition Torsional condition
Support type Left span Right span Left span Right span
Single circuit xyabc XYABC XYABC XYABC
abc ABC ABC ABC
Double circuit xabcdef XABCDEF XABCDEF XABCDEF
abcdef ABCDEF ABCDEF ABCDEF
A,B,C,D,E,F represent aerial phase conductors and x,y are earthwires.
A,B,C,D,E,F,X,Y represent spans loaded with 70% of maximum ice/snow weight.
The letters a,b,c,d,e,f,x,y represent spans loaded with 30% maximum ice/snow weight.
EE1.3.9 Snow loading on pole structures

Poles in areas subject to snow shall have a minimum down-line strength of at least—
(a) 50% of their transverse strength. This allows some equalisation of out-of-balance
loads before significant damage occurs; and
(b) 50% of the initial stringing tension of the aerial conductors being supported on the
pole under everyday conditions (still air). This ensures that multiple circuit poles
have sufficient robustness.
Consideration should be given to the effects of redistribution of forces between stays and
rigid poles under snow loads.
NOTE: In soft soils, up to 200 mm of movement may occur before the soil passive anchor
capacity is reached].
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

APPENDIX FF
DETERMINATION OF STRUCTURE GEOMETRY
(Informative)
Figure FF1 shows how the working distances and wind speeds are used to establish a
132 kV structure geometry for a round pole. The wind pressures assumed for the electrical
clearance states are —
(a) low wind of 100 Pa for maintenance approach and live line working
(b) moderate wind of 300 Pa for switching and lightning impulse flashover (lightning
impulse assumed coincident with moderate wind)
(c) high wind of 500 Pa for power frequency flashover
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00


2

2 -

3 .*

(/
% 4#
6
). -
-

(/

%4# 2

2*
5 *
.

(/
*
+
-+
1+
-
)

+-

)* +
)
)*
*
.
/

0 * *

+, $
+,
%$$ ! "#%& # '%$ ! "#$"#
(% ( &%" !
FIGURE FF1 STRUCTURE GEOMETRY SHOWING ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES
Hand reach clearance for power frequency flashover from the centre of the climbing aid—
for a typical tower where the climbing corridor is 700 mm from the face the recommended
hand reach clearance is 1700 mm from the tower face, under a wind pressure of 100 Pa. For
a pole, the hand reach clearance is 1700 mm from the pole centre line.
The shielding angle was determined by lightning simulation studies to achieve the desired
lightning performance.
*** END OF DRAFT ***
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

PREPARATION OF JOINT AUSTRALIAN/NEW ZEALAND STANDARDS
Joint Australian/New Zealand Standards are prepared by a consensus process involving

representatives nominated by organizations in both countries drawn from all major interests
associated with the subject. Australian/New Zealand Standards may be derived from
existing industry Standards, from established international Standards and practices or may
be developed within a Standards Australia, Standards New Zealand or joint technical
committee.
During the development process, Australian/New Zealand Standards are made available in
draft form at all sales offices and through affiliated overseas bodies in order that all
interests concerned with the application of a proposed Standard are given the opportunity to
submit views on the requirements to be included.
The following interests are represented on the committee responsible for this draft
Australian/ New Zealand Standard:
CIGRE
Electrical Engineers Association of NZ Inc
Electrical Regulatory Authorities Council
Electricity Engineers Association (New Zealand)
Energy networks Association
Engineers Australia
National Electrical and Communications Association
Transpower New Zealand Limited
Vector Ltd
Additional interests participating in preparation of Standard:
DR 09051-PDR - 15/06/2009 13:22:00

Standards Australia
Standards Australia is an independent company, limited by guarantee, which prepares and publishes
most of the voluntary technical and commercial standards used in Australia. These standards are
developed through an open process of consultation and consensus, in which all interested parties are
invited to participate. Through a Memorandum of Understanding with the Commonwealth
government, Standards Australia is recognized as Australia’s peak national standards body.
Standards New Zealand

The first national Standards organization was created in New Zealand in 1932. The Standards
Council of New Zealand is the national authority responsible for the production of Standards.
Standards New Zealand is the trading arm of the Standards Council established under the Standards
Act 1988.
Australian/New Zealand Standards

Under a Memorandum of Understanding between Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand,
Australian/New Zealand Standards are prepared by committees of experts from industry,
governments, consumers and other sectors. The requirements or recommendations contained
in published Standards are a consensus of the views of representative interests and also take
account of comments received from other sources. They reflect the latest scientific and industry
experience. Australian/New Zealand Standards are kept under continuous review after publication
and are updated regularly to take account of changing technology.
International Involvement
Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand are responsible for ensuring that the Australian
and New Zealand viewpoints are considered in the formulation of international Standards and that
the latest international experience is incorporated in national and Joint Standards. This role is vital
in assisting local industry to compete in international markets. Both organizations are the national
members of ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) and IEC (the International
Electrotechnical Commission).
Visit our web sites
www.standards.org.au www.standards.co.nz
www.standards.com.au

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COMMITTEE EL-052

(Project ID: 8326)

Draft for Public Comment

BEGINNING DATE 29 June 2009

CLOSING DATE 31 August 2009

Overhead line design

SAI GLOBAL Customer Service Centre

STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND

Committee EL-052—Electrical Energy Networks, Construction and Operation

Subcommittee EL-052-05 — Design of Overhead Electrical Lines

Australian/New Zealand Standard

Overhead line design

Part 1: Detailed procedures

(To be AS/NZS XXXX:200X)

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SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

SECTION 2 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES

SECTION 3 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS

SECTION 4 AERIAL CONDUCTORS AND OVERHEAD EARTHWIRES (GROUND

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SECTION 6 BASIS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN

SECTION 7 ACTION ON LINES

SECTION 10 EARTHING SYSTEMS

SECTION 11 LINE EQUIPMENT—OVERHEAD LINE FITTINGS

SECTION 12 LIFE EXTENSION (REFURBISHMENT, UPGRADING, UPRATING) OF

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12.2 ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURES ......................................................................... 96

SECTION 13 PROVISIONS FOR CLIMBING AND WORKING AT HEIGHTS

SECTION 14 CO-USE OF OVERHEAD LINE SUPPORTS (SIGNAGE, BANNERS,

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STANDARDS AUSTRALIA/STANDARDS NEW ZEALAND

Australian/New Zealand Standard

Part 1: Detailed procedures

SECTI ON 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.2 REFERENCED AND RELATED DOCUMENTS

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1.3.12 Conductor temperature

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1.3.24 Earthing system

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1.3.37 Horizontal earth electrode

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1.3.50 Magnetic flux density

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1.3.64 Prospective touch voltage

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1.3.75 Serviceability limit state (electrical)

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1.3.91 Television interference voltage (TIV)

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SECTI ON 2 DES I GN P HILOS OPHIE S

2.2 LIMIT STATE DESIGN

state of system intact state damaged state failed state

strength limits serviceability limit damage limit

FIGURE 2.1 LIMIT STATE DESIGN

An explanation of limit state design is given in IEC 60826.

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2.2.1 Limit states on line components