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Clean Energy
DOI 10.1007/s40565-014-0072-0
Abstract The increasing penetration level of photovoltaic Keywords Voltage regulation, Reactive power
(PV) power generation in low voltage (LV) networks results optimization, Genetic algorithm
in voltage rise issues, particularly at the end of the feeders.
In order to mitigate this problem, several strategies, such as
grid reinforcement, transformer tap change, demand-side
1 Introduction
management, active power curtailment, and reactive power
optimization methods, show their contribution to voltage
The governmental goals of greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
support, yet still limited. This paper proposes a coordinated
sion reduction along with the cost reduction in technology, are
volt-var control architecture between the LV distribution
the main driving factors for the rapid penetration of renewable
transformer and solar inverters to optimize the PV power
energy source (RES) [1]. The factors supporting the diffusion
penetration level in a representative LV network in Born-
of RES in the system include the liberalization of energy
holm Island using a multi-objective genetic algorithm. The
markets, the increasing retirement of fossil-fuelled and
approach is to increase the reactive power contribution of
nuclear energies due to environmental awareness and the large
the inverters closest to the transformer during overvoltage
potential of renewable energy technologies, such as wind,
conditions. Two standard reactive power control concepts,
solar or hydropower working in a local scale.
cosu(P) and Q(U), are simulated and compared in terms of
As a reliable resource, the solar photovoltaic (PV)
network power losses and voltage level along the feeder. As
contributes to a successful integration of renewable energy
a practical implementation, a reconfigurable hardware is
generation by the new sustainable energy scheme. How-
used for developing a testing platform based on real-time
ever, the distributed grid-connected PV poses some similar
measurements to regulate the reactive power level. The
challenges: the mismatch between the production and the
proposed testing platform has been developed within
demand due to the stochastic generation of PV, the dis-
PVNET.dk project, which targets to study the approaches
continuity and bidirectional power flow which can affect
for large PV power integration into the network, without the
the loading of infrastructure and the operation of protection
need of reinforcement.
systems, the voltage rise issues at the point of connection
and neighbor buses amplified by the small X/R ratios at
low voltage (LV) feeders and the potential overloading of
network equipments [2].
CrossCheck date: 14 July 2014 For this reason emerging smart grid solutions, such as
load management [3], energy storage [4] or virtual power
Received: 21 January 2014 / Accepted: 4 September 2014
plants [5], are gradually adopted in medium and low
The Author(s) 2014
M. JUAMPEREZ, G. YANG, Center for Electric Power and voltage grids to mitigate the operational problems of solar
Energy, Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical power plants based on the state-of-the-art of the informa-
University of Denmark, Elektrovej Building 325, 2800 Kgs. tion communication technologies (ICTs), under the net-
Lyngby, Denmark
work operator surveillance [6].
(&) e-mail: gyy@elektro.dtu.dk
S. B. KJÆR, Danfoss Solar Inverters A/S, Ulsnæs 1, The voltage rise is one of the major issues experienced
6300 Gråsten, Denmark in LV grids with high share of PVs [7]. The voltage rise
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Miguel JUAMPEREZ et al.
due to active power injection and small X/R ratios in LV and reactive powers from stand-alone centralized plants.
feeders restrict the amount of power to be installed in a Generators, shunt capacitors, STATCOMs, and SVCs
hosting network. As a result, customers located at the end collaborate to maintain the voltage within limits under
of the line will suffer from undesired overvoltage, as shown every load condition. Theoretically, the voltage control can
in Fig. 1, which may result inverters stopping operation, as be performed in a similar way in distribution networks
defined by some grid codes, e.g., VDE AR-N 4105 [8]. based on a management system controller with costly
Hence, the system operators acquire more services from the communication equipment. The increasing distributed and
solar inverters connected to the grid in order to increase the local power injection in medium voltage (MV) and LV
penetration level and facilitate the operation. grids alters the network operation and intensify the con-
The main strategies to increase the PV integration in LV cerns regarding the bidirectional power flow effect in
networks mentioned in [9, 10] are: voltage control.
The substantial resistive value of distribution lines for-
• Network feeders upgrade despite the effects in the
ces the transformers to make their contribution in voltage
protection system and high cost [11].
regulation. At primary substations, on-load tap-changer
• Reactive power absorption to decrease the voltage at
(OLTC) transformer maneuvers the voltage downstream
the point of connection [12].
according to the sensor and relay commands. Unfortu-
• Active power curtailment with a common beneficial
nately, the reverse current flow restricts its reliability. New
level for producers and consumers [13].
generations of electronic switches in conjunction with
• Adjust the output voltage of the distribution trans-
vacuum chamber solutions [18], are under research with
former by maneuvering the tap changer [14].
the premise of significant enhancement of consumer’s
• Load management to match production and consump-
voltage profile. Reducing the voltage bandwidth at the
tion one day in economic manner [15].
distribution transformer, would allow higher PV penetra-
• Utilization of storage to approach self-supply [16].
tion level with the risk of reaching under voltages in the
feeders connected to the transformer. Furthermore, this
The study of voltage control in distribution systems also action would increase the tap change operation frequency
concerns inverter manufactures as one of the critical issues and hence, drive some customers to experience power
in PV integration, and solar inverters are required to par- supply difficulties. As a consequence, a second voltage
ticipate actively in grid security under the command of the control strategy is necessary.
system operator. Accurate system models are necessary to The high versatility of solar inverters in reactive power
reach an optimal design of the inverter controller for that management makes them desirable to mitigate the over-
purpose. This paper describes a testing platform developed voltage phenomena. Ref. [19] provided four local reactive
to optimize the voltage and the power losses in a sub-urban power control concepts: fixed power factor, constant
LV network with different levels of PV penetration. reactive power, local reactive power control dependent on
Coordinated control strategies contribute positively to the voltage Q(U), and power factor control dependent on
voltage regulation as described in the following sections. the power injection cosu(P). The last two techniques are of
interest for this study as they claim to mitigate overvoltage
situations considering the inverter working conditions
2 Problem unlike the fixed parameter ones. The downsides to the
approach include the overrating of inverters and the pos-
Traditionally, the voltage in transmission and distribu- sible increment of losses as a result of reactive current
tion networks has been regulated through dispatch of active circulation.
In brief, the most common requirements for coordinated
volt-var power control are as follows:
• Keep bus voltages within limits;
• Minimize the active power losses and the number of tap
change operations;
• Manage the reactive power source;
• Regulate the transformer and the feeders loading;
• Control the power factor.
Fig. 1 Bidirectional power flow and voltage fluctuations in LV This paper proposes a coordinated solution for matching
networks with PV integration [17] the reactive power capabilities of solar inverters and the
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6 Results
6.1 Voltage
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Voltage regulation in LV grids
f1 (kW) 8.503 7.692 8 6.794 6.5635 6.5905 30.229 29.281 28.381 12.953 11.146 11.531
f2 (pu) 0.466 0.1526 0.1654 0.169 0.0702 0.0711 1.381 1.492 0.499 0.787 0.25107 0.2591
Optimal PV 9.6 9.55 2.9 2.88 18.55 18.8 14.39 15.02
penetration (%)
cosu1 0.9519 0.9509 0.961 0.9483
cosu2 -0.934 -0.941 -0.941 -0.944
U1 0.957 0.961 0.979 0.979
U2 1.018 1.021 1.020 1.022
U3 1.047 1.045 1.045 1.048
Q3 -0.28 -0.275 -0.28 -0.32
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Miguel JUAMPEREZ et al.
Fig. 13 Transformer loading levels under different consumptions and Fig. 14 Communication platform for real-time reactive power
PV penetration conditions parameter regulation with TLX Danfoss inverter [27]
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[2] Demirok E, Sera D, Rodriguez P et al (2011) Enhanced local [20] Markiewicz H, Klajn A (2004) Power quality application guide.
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7–10 Nov 2011, pp 2481–2485 connected wind turbines
[3] Robinson D, Kotony G (2008) A self-managing brokerage [22] Rev 21. FGW e V (2010) Technical guidelines for power gen-
model for quality assurance in service-oriented systems. In: erating units—part 3: determination of electrical characteristics
Proceedings of the 11th IEEE High Assurance Systems Engi- of power generating units connected to MV, HV and EHV grids.
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pp 424–433 [23] Clark K, Miller NM, Walling R (2010) Modeling of GE solar
[4] Choi SS, Tseng KJ, Vilathgamuwa DM et al (2008) Energy photovoltaic plants for grid studies. General Electric Interna-
storage systems in distributed generation schemes. In: Pro- tional Inc., Schenectady, NY
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Meeting: conversion and delivery of electrical energy in the 21st distribution systems with large-scale integration of distributed
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[5] You S (2010) Developing virtual power plant for optimized power system dynamics and control-VI (IREP’10), Cortina
distributed energy resources operation and integration. Ph D d’Ampezzo, 22–27 Aug 2004, pp 583–589
Thesis, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby [25] Miguel Jumperaz Goni (2013) Test platform development for
[6] Directorate-General for the Information Society and Media, large scale solar integration. Technical University of Denmark,
European Commission (2009) ICT for a low carbon economy: Lyngby, Denmark
Smart electricity distribution networks. Dictus Publishing, St [26] Danish electricity supply (2008) Statistical survey. Danish
Louis Energy Association, Frederiksberg
[7] Constantin A, Lazar RD, Kjær SB (2012) Voltage control in low [27] TLX inverterserien (2013) Danfoss Solar Inverters A/S, Gråsten
voltage networks by photovoltaic inverters—PVNET.dk. Dan- [28] G4400 BLACKBOX fixed power quality analyzer. Elspec,
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[8] VDE-AR-N 4105 (2011) Generators connected to the low-
voltage—distribution network—technical requirements for the
connection to and parallel operation with low-voltage distribu- Miguel JUAMPEREZ was born in Pamplona, Spain, in 1986. He
tion networks received the B.E. degree in electrical engineering from the Public
[9] Connecting the sun (2012) Solar photovoltaics on the road to University of Navarre (UPNA), Pamplona, Spain, in 2010, and the
large-scale grid integration. European Photovoltaic Industry M.Tech. degree in electrical engineering from the Lappeenranta
Association, Brussels, Belgium University of Technology (LUT), Lappeenranta, Finland, in 2013. In
[10] Stetz T, Marten F, Braun M (2013) Improved low voltage grid— 2012, he joined the Centre of Electric Power and Energy (CEE),
integration of photovoltaic systems in Germany. IEEE Trans Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of
Sustain Energ 4(2):534–542 Denmark (DTU), as a Master Student, and in 2013 became a
[11] Jadeja K (2012) Major technical issues with increased PV Researcher assistant. During that time, his research interests included
penetration on the existing electrical grid. MS thesis, Murdoch power electronics, power systems, power integration, PV power,
University, Perth reactive power compensation, voltage regulation and power quality.
[12] Carvalho PMS, Correia PF, Ferreira LAF (2008) Distributed
reactive power generation control for voltage rise mitigation in Guangya YANG received the BE and ME in 2002, 2005, respec-
distribution networks. IEEE Trans Power Syst 23(2):766–772 tively from Shandong University, and PhD in 2008 from the
[13] Tonkoski R, Lopes LAC, EL-Fouly THM (2011) Coordinated University of Queensland, all in the field of electric energy system.
active power curtailment of grid connected PV inverters for He came to Denmark in 2009 as Postdoc and afterwards Scientist with
overvoltage prevention. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy Technical University of Denmark. He is currently Associate Professor
2(2):139–147 with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Technical University
[14] Masters C (2002) Voltage rise: The big issue when connecting of Denmark. His research interests are in electric energy system
embedded generation to long 11 kV overhead lines. Power Eng J operation and control, wide area monitoring and protection, energy
16(1):5–12 storage, system identification and application of optimisation tech-
[15] Paracha ZJ, Doulai P (1998) Load management: Techniques and niques in the electric energy systems.
methods in electric power system. In: Proceedings of the inter-
national conference on energy management and power delivery Søren BÆKHØJ KJÆR received the MSc and PhD degrees in
(EMPD’98), vol 1, Singapore, 3–5 Mar 1998, pp 213–217 electrical engineering from Institute of Energy Technology, Aalborg
[16] Marra F, Yang GY, Fawzy YT et al (2013) Improvement of University, DENMARK, in 2000 and 2005, respectively. He is
local voltage in feeders with photovoltaic using electric vehicles. currently with Danfoss Solar Inverters, DENMARK, where he holds a
IEEE Trans Power Syst 28(3):3515–3516 position as Lead System Architect. He was with the Section of Power
[17] Esslinger P, Witzmann R (2012) Evaluation of reactive power Electronics and Drives, Aalborg University, from 2000 to 2004, as
control concepts for PV inverters in low-voltage grids. In: Pro- Research and Laboratory Assistant. He also taught courses on
ceedings of the CIRED workshop on integration of renewables photovoltaic systems for terrestrial and space applications (power
into the distribution grid, Lisbon, Portugal, 29–30 May, 2012, 4 system for the AAU student satellite: AAU CubeSat). His main
p interests are switching inverters for photovoltaic applications,
[18] Chen M, Allen T (2013) A novel integrated vacuum tapping including power quality, grid voltage control, fault ride through,
interrupter. In: Proceedings of the 22nd international conference MPPT, SmartGrid and design optimization. He has also been involved
and exhibition on electricity distribution (CIRED’13), Stock- in standardization work within safety of inverters, ancillary services
holm, 10–13 Jun 2013, 4 p for inverters and methods for evaluating inverters total efficiency.
[19] BDEW e V (2008) Technical guidelines: Generating plants
connected to the medium-voltage network. BDEW e V, Berlin
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