Calculation of the Depletion History and Future
Performance of a Gas-Cap-Drive Reservoir
JUNIOR MEMBER AIME
JUNIOR MEMBER AIME
ABSTRACT
The production history of a gas-
cap-drive reservoir was reproduced
by calculations, and predictions were
made for operations under primary
depletion, pressure maintenance by
gas injection, and pressure mainte-
nance by water injection. Although
the general equations used in this
analysis have been available to the
industry for a number of years, the
procedure has not had extensive use
because of the unusually large time
requirements for developing numer-
ical results. The use of digital com-
puting equipment for processing the
calculation work generally reduced
the time usually required for an
extensive analysis of this type. Cal-
culation techniques were developed
that were equally applicable for
solving the gas-cap-drive problem,
whether digital computing equipment
or desk calculators are used. These
techniques are outlined and the pro-
cedures are illustrated by the field
problem.
INTRODUCTION
The analysis of a gas-cap-drive res-
ervoir requires the simultaneous so-
lution of the volumetric balance' and
displacement' equations. Equatioas
for the analysis of combination drive
reservoirs were presented by Wooddy
and Moscrip in a previous paper:
These equations permit the evaluation
of possible operating processes in or-
der that the optimum method of pro-
Original manuscript received in Society of
Petroleum Engineers office on Aug. 8, 19@6.
Revised manuscript received April 2, 1957.
Paper pr2s.;:ntEd at Petroleum Branch Fall
Meeting in Los Angeles, Oct. 14-17. 19.6.
'References given at end of paper.
PETROLEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME
J. E. KIRBY, JR.
H. E. STAMM, III HUMBLE OIL & REFINING CO.
MEMBER AIME HOUSTON, TEX.
l. B. SCHN ITZ
ducing the reservoir may be deter-
mined. Although these equations rep-
resent the basic technique known for
the detailed analysis of gas-cap-dri vc
reservoirs, the calculation process~s
are quite complex and time consum-
ing; hence, the procedure has not had
extensive use.
Recently, these equations were sat-
isfactorily applied with the aid of a
digital computer to investigate the
completion history of a gas-cap-drive
reservoir under the following oper-
ating methods: primary depletion, de-
pletion under full pressure main-
tenance by gas injection, and deple-
tion under full pn~ssure maintenance
by water injection. The use of digital
computing equipment substantially
reduced the time necessary for mak-
ing the computations and permitted
a more concise investigation of the
reservoir's depletion history thaa was
possible when the desk calculator
was used. This more rigorous inves-
tigation also permitted a detailed
analysis of the calculation procedures
necessary in the solution of the gas-
cap-drive problem. This paper out-
lines the procedure of analyzing a
gas-cap-drive reservoir and illustrates
the process with an actual field prob-
lem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
RESERVOIR ANALYZED
Production in the field under con-
sideration is obtained from a Frio
formation of Oligocene age at a
depth of approximately 5,740 ft sub-
sea. The accumulation, which is
bounded on the flan.ks by strand
liFles, is semirectangular in. shape
with gentle narrowing toward the
base of the structure as shown by
SPE-671-G
the sand limits and completion map
in Fig. 1. TRe reservoir development
indicates an oil column of 319 ft
that is .defin.ed by gas-oil and oil-
water contacts. Basic data relative to
the characteristics of the formation
and the formation fluids are shown
in Table 1. The formation exhibits
considerable shaliness and thinning
near the oil-water contact indicating
that little or no benefit will be re-
ceived from natural water influx.
This is substantiated by the fact tRat
wells completed m~ar the original oil-
water contact have not producoo
water. A sizeable gas cap is present;
however, considerable faulting is in
evidence, and it is believed that only
a limited portion of the gas cap will
aid in oil displacement and pressure
maintenance.
Although the reservoir was in an
initial stage of depletion, it was be-
lieved that as soon as the equilibrium
gas saturation in the oil zone was ex-
ceeded and a number of upstructure
wells were invaded by the expanding
gas cap, the resulting high gas-oil
ratio production would rapidly dissi-
pate the natural drive and lead to
limited oil recoveries and inefficient
reservoir operation.. This analysis
evaluated the effectiveness of the
primary displacement mecll.anis,m and
r~~., ...
r~·00.
\ @ CURRENT COMPLETION
\
FIC. I-MAP OF FIELD.
218
 TABLE I-RESERVOIR DATA
Original and Saturlltion Pressure, psig
Averoge Pressure on Nov. 1, 1955, psig
Reservoir Temperature, of
Original Dissolved Gas·Oil Ratio, cu ft/bbl
Original Flash Shrinkage Factor, bbl/bbl. ..... .
Volume of Oil Zone, acre·ft .. _ ~
Volume of Effective Gas Cap, acre-ft .. _.
Formation Dip, ft/mile _ .__ _
Average Permeability, md
Average Porosity, per cent ..
Average Connate Water Content of Oil Zone, per cent
Average Connate Water Content of Gas Zone, per cent
Original Oil in Place, stock-tank bbl .. __
Original Gas Cap Gas in Place, MeL ________ .. __________ _
Cumulative Oil Production to Nov. 1, 1955, stock-tank bbl
determined the benefits of full pres-
sure maintenance operations by gas
and water injection. To provide a
basis for an economic comparison (If
the various plans considered and to
permit appli~ation of the results III
future planning of field operations,
the analysis for each plan of opera-
tion was made in sufficient detail to
portray the performance of the res-
ervoir throughout future operations.
PREPARATION OF BASIC
RESERVOIR DATA
The preparation of basic reservoir
data used in making an analysis with
a digital computer corresponds to
that required in making an analysis
with desk calculators. A list of the
data used in the study is shown in
the Appendix. All graphical informa-
tion that is a function of pressure,
water saturation, or gas saturation
was reproduced in the form of poly-
nominals determined by a method
presented by Rachford and Schultz'.
This procedure permitted rapid intro-
duction of data to the machine com-
putation and eliminated the necessity
of making repeated visual interpola-
tions from graphical or tabular ma-
terial. An example of the accuracy
to which the data can be reproduced
in polynominal form is shown for the
relation of BtIB" vs pressure in
Table 2.
CALCULATION OF PAST
RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE
The purpose of calculating the
past performance of a reservoir is
to establish a basis for making re-
liable predictions of its future per-
formance. These calculations are di-
vided into two parts: (1) matching
the calculated pressure-production
history as determined from the ma-
terial balance equation with the r~­
corded pressure and production
values, and (2) matching the gas
displacement history as calculated by
the displacement equations with the
actual displacement progress that has
been observed.
With reference to the reservoir
219
2,700
2,410
lBl
659
0.736
20,987
10,883
226
165
23
28
25
19,496,000
13,969,000
1,460,000
analyzed, volumetric balance calcu-
lations were needed to determine
which portions of the gas cap were
in communication with the oil zone
and to substantiate the belief that
the reservoir had no natural water
drive. In the volumetric balance cal-
culation, it was considered that only
the gas-cap segment nearest the oil
zone was in communication. Thus
the original volumes of gas-cap gas
and reservoir oil considered in the
volumetric balance amounted to 14,-
278,000 and 26,489,000 bbl, respec-
tively. The material balance compu-
tation resulted in the calculation of a
negligible amount of gross water in-
flux throughout the reservoir's pro-
ductive history with the amount of
influx being sufficiently small to per-
mit the calculation of no water in-
flux if minor adjustments to the ob-
served pressures were made. These
results were sufficiently conclusive to
prove the previous assumption that
the reservoir did not have a water
drive and to indicate that only one
segment of the gas cap was in com-
munication with the oil zone. Before
proceeding to the displacement phase
of the calculation, slight revisions to
the observed reservoir pressures were
made such that the water influx cal-
culated for each pressure survey per-
iod was zero. The results of these
small pressure adjustments are shown
in Fig. 2.
Displacement calculations were
made for the past periods of produc-
tion to determine the efficiency of
the gas displacement process and the
reliability of laboratory measure-
ments for use in making future reser-
---------~~ -----. ---_._:::-..
000 ,.... ._
<owUc."'IO""""",,,,""" 'OOOlns'o.
FIG. 2-CALCliLATED A:'iD OBSERVF.D
PRESSURES.
TABLE 2-COMPARISON OF CALCULATED AND
GRAPHICAL VALUES OF 8t/8t1
Pressure 8t/8t1
Psig Graphical Calculated
l,8OO ~ 1.2077·
1,890 1.176 1.1759
1.1473
1,980 1.146
2,070 1.122 1.1216
1.0984
2,160 1.099
1.078 1.0776
2,250
2,340 1.059 1.0589
1.042 1.0421
2,430
2,520 1.026 1.0268
1.013 1.0128
2,610
voir predictions. The history of the
reservoir was divided into two per-
iods having approximately the same
amount of production in each period.
The saturation distribution in the res-
ervoir at the end of each period was
calculated by substituting applicable
laboratory data and observed pres-
sure-production data in the displace-
ment equations in the order in which
they are presented in the Appendix.
Normally, if a number of upstruc-
ture wells have been invaded by the
expanding gas cap, the shape of the
calculated saturation-distance curve
and the positions of movement of
the gas-oil contact may be checked
by comparing the observed gas-oil
ratios at the end of each period of
production with the calculated gas-oil
ratios. The calculated ratios are de-
termined from values of gas satura-
tion taken from the saturation-dis-
tance curve corresponding to the re-
spective completion intervals. If the
actual gas-oil ratios of the invaded
wells were less than the calculated
ratios or if more wells were actually
invaded than the calculated satura-
tion-distance curve indicated, a lower
displacement efficiency actually oc-
curred than that which was com-
puted. These differences may be re-
solved by introducing an appropriate
value of conformance into Eq. 7.
Because only 1 of the 25 wells in
the example reservoir had been in-
vaded by the expanding gas cap, the
reservoir conformance could not be
satisfactorily evaluated by comparing
the calculated and observed gas-oil
ratios in this single completion. As
the efficiency of oil displacement by
gas is affected by the amount of gravi-
tational segregation between the two
fluids that takes place during the dis-
placement process, evaluation of the
pressure gradient being experienced
at present rates of withdrawal pre-
sents a satisfactory determination of
the degree to which the calculated
and observed displacement process
conforms. Solution of an adaptation
of Darcy's law indicated the reser-
voir was producing with an average
permeability of 55 md as compared
to 165 md determined from labora-
VOL. 210, 1957
tory measurements. This indicated
that the effective gravitational force
would be one-third the amount di:-
tated by the cores analyzed.
PREDICTION OF FUTURE
RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE
The proration policies to be con-
sidered and the restrictions to be im-
posed on production and injection
rates during each phase of the reser-
voir's depletion should be determined
prior to initiating calculations of fu-
ture reservoir performance. Gener-
ally, a gas-cap-drive reservoir will be
subjected to at least two of the fol-
lowing three phases of depletion: (1)
production as an oil reservoir by
primary depletion, (2) production as
an oil reservoir by pressure main-
tenance, and (3) depletion as a gas
reservoir when oil production opera-
tions become uneconomical.
The restrictions that should be
considered for each of these phases
are as follows:
1. Primary depletion as an oil
reservoir.
a. Well capabilities and
maximum reservoir or
per well rates.
b. Penalty restrictions inci-
dent to high gas-oil ratio
production.
c. Allowable transfer pro-
visions.
d. Economic limit of oil pro-
duction operations.
2. Production as an oil reser-
voir by pressure maintenance.
a. Well capabilities and
maximum reservoir ,)r
per well rates.
b. High gas-oil ratio penalty
and net ratio provisions.
c. Allowable transfer provis-
ions.
d. Maximum injection rates
(dependent upon the size
of compressor or water
injection facilities, avail-
ability of injection fluids,
and the injectivities of the
input wells).
e. Economic limit of injec-
tion and oil production
operations.
3. Depletion as a gas reservoir
when oil production operations be-
come uneconomical.
a. Well capabilities and
number of wells to he
employed.
b. Estimated market de-
mand for gas.
c. Restrictions on oil and
gas production rates.
PETROLEIJM TRANSACTIONS. AI ME
PREDICTIONS OF PRIMARY
DEPLETION
Predictions of operations under
primary depletion for the example
reservoir considered a projection of
the limitations on production cur-
rently being experienced. Under pres-
ent operations, the maximum per
well allowable is 60 BID subject to
approximately 17 producing days
per month and the penalty gas-oil
ratio is 2,000 cu ftlbbl. Transfer
rules provide that allowables for high
gas-oil ratio wells may be transferred
to wells on the same lease having
lower ratios under the restriction
that wells receiving the transfer can-
not produce more than twice their
normal allowable. Although there
was a division in royalty ownership
for the leases embraced by the res-
ervoir, it was assumed that royalty
pooling would be accomplished and
maximum use of the allowable tram-
fer rule could be made irrespective
of lease lines to minimize high gas-
oil ratio production. Gas depletion
operations were assumed to be initia-
ted when the reservoir oil production
rate had declined to 85 BID. It was
considered that a sufficient gas mar-
ket would be available to deplete the
gas reserve within approximately 10
to 12 years.
The initial step in predicting reser-
voir performance for a given period
of production was to fix the pressure
of the oil and gas zones at the end
of the period for which the calcula-
tions are to be made. Pressure steps
of 200 psi were used down to a
pressure of 1,500 psi, where gas de-
pletion operations were considered to
be initiated. During gas depletion op-
erations, pressure decrements of 300
psi were used. The saturation changes
that occur in the previously invaded
portions of the reservoir during the
next period of production are caused
by shrinkage of the oil remaining be-
hind the gas-oil contact and the dis-
placing action of the invading gas.
These two processes occur simul-
taneously in the reservoir during the
entire period; however, to simplify
the calculation, the oil saturation ex-
isting in the gas invaded portion of
the reservoir was reduced by the
amount of shrinkage before the dis-
placement calculations were made.
This saturation reduction was ac-
complished by multiplying the oil
saturation at several points along the
saturation-distance curve by the ra-
tio of the differential shrinkage fac-
tors for the pressures at the end and
beginning of the period.
The saturation-distance profile and
the position of the gas-oil contact
at the end of the production period
was assumed. From the position of
the various wells on the estimated
saturation-distance curve, the number
and amount of allowable transfers
and the number of wells that should
continue to be produced were de-
termined. Considering the oil and
gas saturations in the various wells
during the step, a production sched-
ule was prepared depicting the aver-
age rate of oil and gas withdrawals.
Quantities evaluated at this point
were as follows:
1. Average oil production rate
from the total reservoir.
2. Average oil production rate
from the un invaded portion of the
reservoir.
3. Average oil production rate
from each segment previously in-
vaded.
4. Average gas-cap-gas production
rate for each segment previously in-
vaded.
5. Average gas-cap-gas production
rate for the segment to be invaded
during the period.
6. Average gas-cap-gas production
rate for wells completed in the gas
cap, if any.
The time required to complete the
future period of production being
considered was estimated. The pres-
sure-production schedules for the per-
iod were then applied in Eq. 2 to
compute the gas saturation in the
uninvaded portion of the reservoir at
the end of the period. This equation
was solved by a trial-and-error pro-
cedure. A satisfactory solution to the
equation was indicated when the ra-
tio of the gas to oil permeabilities
assumed for the computation equalled
the ratio of these permeabilities at
the gas saturation calculated. From
the proportions
kg D.NI'W
- and
k,' D.Np '
D.G pc ' the vo1umes 0 f stoek -tank
D. N p
oil, dissolved gas, free gas, and gas-
cap-gas production for the period
were calculated from the volumetric
balance equation. These volumes
were divided by their respective pro-
duction rates to obtain the calculated
time for completion of the produc-
tion period. If the calculated time
did not agree with the assumed time,
then a new estimate was made and
the previously described calculations
were repeated until the difference
was rectified.
220
 After the average gas saturation in
the uninvaded oil zone had been de-
termined and the volumetric balance
equation was computed, Displace-
ment Eqs. 3 through 7 were solved
for each of the segments previously
invaded. The distances of advance uf
the gas saturations were determined
from Eq. 5. These distances were
added to the saturation profile for
the previous period that had been
adjusted for oil shrinkage to deter-
mine a calculated saturation-distance
profile at the end of the period.
After the profile for a segment was
determined, the average saturation
remaining in that segment was com-
puted graphically for use in calculat-
ing the gas displacement diagram in
the succeeding segment.
The saturation profile was calcu-
lated and plotted a sufficient distance
to include all of the segment being
invaded. The average gas saturation
under the displacement diagram for
this segment was determined graphic-
ally for various assumed positions of
the gas-oil contact. These average
saturations were plotted vs their re-
spective gas frontal positions for sub-
sequent use in determining the posi-
tion of the gas-oil contact at the end
of the period. Eq. 8 was then calcu-
lated to determine the volume of gas
entering the segment being invaded.
The resulting volume of gas was sub-
stituted in Eq. 9 to compute positions
of the gas-oil contact for various as-
sUIlled average gas saturations. These
positions of the gas-oil contact were
plotted vs their respective values of
average gas saturation on the pre-
viously prepared graph. The intersec-
tion of the two curves was the cor-
rect position of the gas-oil contact.
At the conclusion of this series of
trial computations, a check was made
to determine if any mathematical er-
rors existed. Eqs. 24 and 25 were
used to calculate the amounts of oil
and gas in place from the satura-
tion diagram at the beginning and
end of the period. Differences be-
tween the respective volumes at the
beginning and end of the period were
the amounts of oil and gas produced.
A satisfactory mathematical check
was indicated when the volumes of
oil and gas calculated from the dis-
placement diagram agreed within 2
per cent of the production for the
poriod as calculated by the volume-
tric balance equation.
If, at the conclusion of the com-
putations, the calculated saturation
proille did not correspond with the
profile and gas frontal position as-
sumed, a new estimate of the profile
221
was made and all of the previously
described calculations were repeated
until a match was obtained. When
a satisfactory match was obtained,
the preceding calculation procedure
was used to evaluate the remaining
periods of production to the time of
reservoir abandonment. A flow chart
outlining the procedure employed in
predicting future periods of produc-
tion by primary depletion is shown
in Fig. 3.
PREDICTIONS OF DEPLETION BY
FULL PRESSURE MAINTENANCE-
GAS INJECTION
Predictions of future reservoir per-
formance under gas injection incor-
porated the following assumptions:
1. Maximum per well allowable of
60 B/D subject to 17 producing days
per month.
2. Sufficient gas would bJe injected
to maintain the reservoir pressure at
its present level.
3. Production rates would be cur-
tailed in a sufficient amount to per-
mit constant pressure operations at
a maximum injection rate of 4,000
Mcf/D.
4. Royalty pooling would be ac-
complished and allowable transfers
would be used irrespective of lease
lines to minimize high gas-oil ratio
production.
5. Gas depletion operations would
begin when the reservoir oil produc-
tion had declined to 110 BID.
6. A sufficient gas market would
be available to complete the gas de-
pletion phase in 10 to 12 years.
The procedure for calculating fu-
ture reservoir performance by gas
injection involved only slight modi-
fications of the procedure outlined
for predictions of primary depletion,
but was considerably less involved
because the reservoir pressure was
maintained constant. The calculation
was further simplified by virtue of
the gas saturation in the uninvaded
oil zone being at equilibrium where
it was maintained by constant pres-
sure operations.
FIG. 3-FLOW CHART FOR CALCULATIONS
OF PRIMARY DEPLETIONS.
Upon fixing the pressure level at
which the reservoir was to be main-
tained, an estimate was made of the
position and shape of the gas satura-
tion-distance profile at the end of
the first period of future production.
From the anticipated movement of
the saturation front, an estimated
production schedule was prepared
for the period. From these estimated
average oil and gas-cap production
rates, Eqs. 10 and 11 were solved to
determine the average total daily gas
injection rate and the average daily
extraneous gas requirements for the
period being considered. If the aver-
age total daily gas injection rate ex-
ceeded the specified limitation or if
the average daily extraneous gas re-
quirements came within the desired
limits.
An estimate was made of the time
required to complete the period that
was thought to be compatible with the
estimated movement of the gas front.
The quantity of gas injection and oil
and gas production was determined
by multiplying the time estimate by
the respective rates determined from
the production schedule. The satura-
tion-distance profile was computed in
a similar manner to that described
for primary depletion operations by
solving the displacement equations in
the order 12, 13, 5, 6, 7, 14, and 15
as shown in the Appendix. At the
conclusion of a complete series of
computations for a period of produc-
tion, the mathematical check calcu-
lations were used to prove that no
errors existed. Finally, if the calcu-
lated saturation profile did not cor-
respond with the estimated profile, a
new estimate was made and the cal-
culations were repeated until a match
was obtained. An outline of the pro-
cedure for calculating a period of
production for full pressure main-
tenance under gas injection is pre-
sented in Fig. 4.
When reservoir predictions had
been made to the point where the
oil production became uneconomical,
it was assumed that the reservoir
would be produced as a gas reserve.
Predictions of reservoir performance
FIG. 4--FLOW CHART FOR CALCULATIONS
DF DEPLETION BY PRESSURE MAINTENANCE.
VOL. 210, 1957
for each period of production in the
gas depletion phase were made in
the same manner as the predictions
were made for primary depletion.
PREDICTIONS OF DEPLETION BY
FULL PRESSURE MAINTENANCE-
WATER INJECTION
In the predictions for pressure
maintenance by water injection, the
following assumptions were made:
1. The maximum reservoir allow-
able would be maintained as the
water front advanced with the limi-
tire time period from the date of
initial reservoir production to the fu-
ture date under consideration.
RESULTS OF THE RESERVOIR
STUDY
The reservoir was found to be pro-
ducing under the combined influence
of gas cap and solution gas-drive
mechanisms. The study indicated that
no natural water drive existed and
that only one segment of the gas cap
was in communication with the oil
to the time the gas depletion phase
was initiated is presented in Fig. 8.
These schedules provided an evalua-
tion of the periodic investments and
a determination of the annual in-
come, expense, and operating profit
for each plan of operation consid-
ered by applying appropriate eco-
nomic factors. Knowledge of these
'GASSAYURATION
AT DEPLETION

tation that wells producing the allow-
able could not produce at a rate ex-
ceeding twice the normal top per
well allowable of 60 BID (subject to
17 producing days per month).
zone. The volume of gas originally in
the effective gas cap was determined
to be 13,970 MMcf.
The saturation-distribution changes
that should occur in the reservoir if CONNATE WATER SATURATION

2. The reservoir pressure would it is produced under primary deple-

be maintained at its present level and tion, gas injection, or water injec- o~~.,~,,,~--~~----~----~b.--.d
c;·o-c 1l1$UNCtALONC;TH(8EOO<'IC;PlANU.FEET

water would be injected into the two
oil completions nearest the oil-water
contact.
3. After the upstructure row of
wells have been watered out, gas de-
pletion operations would be made
through wells to be completed later
tion operations are shown in Figs. 5, FIG. 5-DISPLACEMENT HISTORY, PRIMARY
6, and 7, respectively. The study in- DEPLETION.
dicated that the ultimate oil recovery
by primary depletion methods will
amount to 28 per cent of the oil
originally in place and that the re-
maining life of the reservoir will be
""'GASSA1\lRATION
40 years. Under gas injection opera- ATOEPu:nON

in the gas cap.

tions, an ultimate oil recovery of 40
4. A sufficient gas market would per cent may be expected and the
OIL SATURATION

be available to complete the gas de- reservoir should be depleted in 58

pletion phase in 10 to 12 years. years. The ultimate oil recovery for
The procedure for calculating fu- water injection operations was indi-
ture reservoir performance under a cated to be 54 per cent of the original o )5l~(;INAl
G-O-C
2000 4000
DIST4NCEALONGTHE8EOI)INGPLA>tES-FfET
{,OOO

water injection program was consid-
erably less complex than the proce-
dures used for primary depletion in
that: (1) the displacement fluid was
non-compressible, (2) the reservoir
pressure was maintained constant,
oil in place, and the operating life FIG. 6--DISPLACEMENT HISTORY, GAS
of the field under this plan of opera- INJECTION.
tion was determined to be 68 years.
Assimilation of the productilJil and
injection schedules that were calcu-
lated for each period of future pro-
~ eo
~
i
'"
20 ; G-O-C
/ ' -Et>lD WATER FLOOD

(3) the gas saturation in the unin- duction under each plan of operation ~ ~ /
~ POSITION Of -----
vaded oil zone was maintained at investigated provided a year-to-year
60:;; 40 INJECTION WELLS

equilibrium, and (4) there was no ~ ~

free gas production from the gas
cap. The calculation technique for
water injection operations was the
schedule of (1) the number of wells ~ ~ -~Ng-;ATER FLOOO
to be produced; (2) the amount of
oil, gas, and water production; (3)
the total amount of fluid injection; irl"l-------1--------:.......--------L---1
~
20 80

CONNATE WATER SATURATtON

same as that outlined for gas injec-
tion operations in Fig. 4. Modifica-
tions of the volumetric balance and
displacement equations used for
making these predictions are shown
in the Appendix in the order they
and (4) the amount of extraneous
fluids required for injection. A graph
showing a schedule of these qualities FIG. 7-DISPLACEMENT HISTORY,
for the primary depletion operation \VATER INJECTION.
3000 lOOOr------,------------,-----.,-----,---'-T------r------,20000

PREDICTION~
I
were solved. In addition to the cal- HISTORY I ! !
culation made for the movement of
the water displacement front, a 2600 .oo>----:---+-=----------L-~ _~Ii
" I I
I 16000

computation was made to determine -, '\

the changes that the gas-oil contact - I

should undergo as a result of gravi- 2200 600 H_~~\: ',_~------'------~- 12000 30

tational segregation. This computa-

tion was made to determine the num-
ber of wells currently penetrating the 1800 400
- - ___ n _
,
'\~, ____
,
::~'_-?~: ~=
,
_ ___ _ 8000 20

gas invaded portion of the reservoir "" II ....... " ....... , ........

that might later be recompleted as 'x: ,

low gas-oil ratio producers. This cal- ~-,
/' , --,-----+-------1 4000 10

culation was made by solving the gas / "'---'

~"--,----
displacement Eq. 5 at future periods I

by assuming that current gas-cap ex- 1000 ~~'~'--' -~.

165-69 70-74 75 - 79 80 - 84

pansions had occurred over the en- FIG. 8-HISTORY AND PREDICTIONS FOR PRIMARY DEPLETION.

PETROLEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME 222

quantities permitted an economic
comparison of each of the plans on
an actual and present-day-value ba-
sis.
CONCLUSIONS
The equations' previously pre-
sented for the analysis of combina-
tion drive reservoirs were success-
fully applied to match past perform-
ance of a gas-cap-drive reservoir and
were used to predict the future de-
pletion of this reservoir under pri-
mary depletion, pressure maintenance
by gas injection, and pressure main-
tenance by water injection. Although
certain of the mathematical relation-
ships included in this calculation are
not rigorous, they appear to repre-
sent a satisfactory approximation of
the flow process occurring in the
reservoir. Techniques were developed
for making the numerous individual
calculations involved in this type of
analysis that are equally applicable
for solutions using the digital com-
puter as for computations made with
the desk calculators. Through the use
of the digital computer, the time re-
quired to make a complete analysis
of this type has been greatly reduced,
thus permitting this useful engineer-
ing calculation to be applied to a
larger number of reservoirs than was
formerly considered possible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to express their
appreciation to L. D. Wooddy, Jr.,
and Robert Moscrip, III, for their
numerous helpful suggestions in mak-
ing this reservoir analysis.
REFERENCES
1. Schilthuis, R. J.: "Active Oil and Res-
ervoir Energy," Trans. AIME (1936),
118, 33.
2. Buckley, S. E., and Leverett, M. c.:
"Mechanism of Fluid Displacement in
Sands," Trans. AIME (1942), 146,
149.
3. Wooddy, L. D., Jr., and Moscrip,
Robert, III: "Performance Calcula-
tions for Combination Drive Reser-
voirs," Trans. AIME (1956), 207,
128.
4. Rachford, R. R., Jr., and Schultz,
W. P.: "Some Useful Tables for Ap-
proximating Smooth Curves by Fifth-
and-Lower Degree Polynominals,"
Trans. AIME (1955),204, 289.

APPENDIX CORE ANALYSIS DATA PLOTTED GRAPHICALLY

VS GAS SATURATION
BASIC RESERVOIR DATA NEEDED TO ANALYZE kr'l = Relative permeability of the reservoir rock
THE PERFORMANCE OF A GAS-CAP-DRIVE to gas
RESERVOIR k,o = Relative permeability of the reservoir rock
to oil
GENERAL RESERVOIR DATA
k,olk,o = Ratio of the relative permeabilities of the
NBti = Reservoir pore space originally occupied by reservoir rock to oil and gas
oil
GBa; = Reservoir
pore space originally occupied by CORE ANALYSIS DATA PLOTTED GRAPHICALLY
gas-cap gas VS WATER SATURATION

Sin a = Sine of the angle of formation dip
k = Average absolute permeability of the reser-
voir
<P = Average porosity of the oil and gas zones
c,o = Average connate water content of the oil
and gas zones
Bo. = The volume of oil under original reservoir
conditions that yields 1 bbl of stock-tank
oil
Bu' =
The volume of gas-cap gas under original
reservoir conditions that yields 1 Mcf
of gas at standard conditions
R'i = Original dissolved gas-oil ratio
HYDROCARBON SAMPLE DATA PLOTTED
GRAPHICALLY VS PRESSURE
B ,IB Ii = Expanded volume of oil and its original
dissolved gas
Bo = Differential shrinkage factor
Bo = Gas expansibility
Vo = Viscosity of reservoir gas
fLo = Viscosity of reservoir oil
fLolfLo = Ratio of the viscosity of oil to the viscosity
of gas at the same reservoir temperature
and pressure
fLol fLw = Ratio of the viscosity of oil to the viscosity
of formation water at the same reservoir
temperature and pressure
L.PO-g = Difference in density between oil and gas
at the same reservoir temperature and
pressure
L.pw-o = Difference in density between water and oil
at the same reservoir temperature and
pressure
kro = Relative permeability of the reservoir rock
to oil
k rw = Relative permeability of the reservoir rock
to water
k,·olk rw = Ratio of the relative permeabilities of the
reservoir rock to oil and water
GENERAL RESERVOIR DATA TO BE
COMPILED IN TABULAR FORM
1. Average oil zone pressure for each survey date
2. Average gas zone pressure for each survey date
3. Incremental oil production for each pressure survey
period
4. Incremental total gas production for each pressure
survey period
5. Incremental gas-cap-gas production for each pres-
sure survey field
6. The respective horizontal component of distance
from the upper and lower perforations of each pro-
ducing well to the original gas-oil and oil-water
contacts
MISCELLANEOUS DATA
1. Area vs distance curve correlating the cross-sec-
tional area of the reservoir perpendicular to the bed-
ding planes to distance down the bedding planes
from the original gas-oil contact
2. Maps showing the gas-oil ratio status of the wells
at various times in the history of the reservoir
NOMENCLATURE*
C, = Conformance factor fraction
Symbols not included in the folIo wing nomenclature can be found
in "Letter Symbols for Petroleum Reservoir Engineering and Elec-
tric Logging," published in the Oct .. 1956 issue of JOURNAL OF PE-
TROLEUM TECHNOLOGY and Petroleum Transactions- Vol. 207.

VOL. :no, 1957

 C", = Average connate water satura- fraction of gas reduced to the average std cond
tion pore space pressure p during any per-
Iv = Fraction of gas in the flow- fraction iod which yields a unit vol-
ing stream in the reservoir ume of stock-tank oil
I w = Fraction of water in the flow- fraction BUi = Volume of gas at original res- bblatpiand
ing stream in the reservoir ervoir pressure and temper- T/Mcf at
GBgi = Reservoir pore space origin- bbl ature per Mcf of gas at std cond
ally occupied by gas standard conditions
G. = Total volume of gas in any cu ft at P Bu = Volume of gas at the average p
bbl at and
segment at end of period reservoir pressure and tem- T/Mcfof
Gpo = Cumulative gas-cap gas pro- Mcfat perature during any period gas at std
duced to end of period std cond per Mcf of gas at standard cond
conditions
G Je = Cumulative free gas produced Mcf at
from uninvaded oil zone to std cond 8 = Differential shrinkage factor,
0 bbl at P and
end of period volume of saturated oil at T/bbl at Pi
any reduced pressure and and T
Gi (ext) = Cumulative gas injected in Mcf at reservoir temperature per
excess of that produced std cond unit volume of saturated oil
from the beginning of pres- at reservoir pressure and
sure maintenance opera- temperature
tions to end of the period
h = Vertical height between da- ft Bo = Differential shrinkage factor, p
bbl at and
tum planes in the reservoir volume of saturated oil at T/bbl at Pi
the average reservoir pres- and T
M, = Slope of the In k,.jk,.g vs S9 sure and temperature dur-
curve ing any period per unit vol-
M, = Slope of the In k,·o vs Sg curve ume of saturated oil at res-
ervoir saturation pressure
M, = Slope of the In k,a/k,,, Vs Sw
and temperature
curve
M, = Slope of the In k,·o vs Sw Wi (ext) = Cumulative water injected in bbl
curve excess of that produced
from the beginning of pres-
Q,x = Total volume of fluid invad- cu ft at P sure maintenance operation
ing any segment during to end of the period
period
a = Angle of dip of bedding degrees
R'i = Original dissolved gas-oil ra- cu ft of gas planes
tio at std cond/
bblSTO () = Total elapsed time since initial days
production
B, = Volume of original reservoir bbl at P and
oil and its original dis- T/bbl at SUBSCRIPT
solved gas reduced to any std cond A, B, C, ... = Denote specific segments III the reser-
pressure P which yields a voir
unit volume of stock-tank
oil x-I = Denotes segment preceding one current-
ly being invaded by gas or water
Bli = Volume of oil under original bbl at Pi and
reservoir conditions which T/bbl at x = Denotes segment currently being in-
yields a volume of stock- std cond vaded by gas or water
tank oil 1, 2, 3, ... = Denote specific time periods, where
B, = Volume of original reservoir p
bbl at and n-l, n, represent the current period
oil and its original dissolved T/bbl at w = Denotes uninvaded oil zone

EQUATIONS FOR EVALUATING GAS-CAP-DRlVE PERFORMANCE BY PRIMARY DEPLETION

VOLUMETRIC BALANCE EQUATION

(1)

PETROLEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME

EQUATION FOR CALCULATING THE GAS AND OIL SATURATION IN THE REMAINING OIL ZONE AT
THE END OF ANY PERIOD

SyW("-')~ + [(~)0-1 + (~)n] [(BtlB~g-Bo)n - (BtIB~g-Bo)nJ+

SgW = [(BtlB" - Bo) _ (BtiBii - Bo) lBg
1 + Bo n Bo "-1

2Bo
0.044k"AW(6 P_ 14:6P) 68 (sin a)!!: + ~"Eo(6NpwBoBt;)~']
+( 5.615/Lo Bn kro{Lg . g............ (2)
BtlB" - Bo) _ (BtlB" - Bo) ] BO)
<p Aw Lw 1 -l- [( Bo n B9 (0-1)
5.615 ( . 2 Bo

EQUATIONS FOR THE CALCULATION OF THE DISPLACEMENT OF OIL BY GAS

QT. = QT(X-l) + G(n_l, x-I) (~

B 9(0_1) - 1 ) - 5.615 6G pdX-1) By - 5.615 6Np(x_" BoB"

+ cj>A(x-1) L(X-1) [(SO\X-1\) + (SOIX_l») ] [(BtIBtl - Bo) _ (BtIBIi - Bo) lB!l

Bo n-l Bo n Bo n Bg n-l 2
- .pA(X_1) L(X_1) [(S-;';o·,)t_,(Bo n - , - Bon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)

where:

G. = cf>A.L.Sg. (4) 6
L
(89) = QT.
cf>A
(dig)
dS g •
(5)

where:

(6)

and
c, = 0.044 C r k A 6psin n 60 (7)
QT.r {Lo

EQUATIONS FOR CALCULATING THE POSITION OF THE GAS-OIL CONTACT

Q,Jo = Q" - ['~' (cf>A,l'x[Sox,n-1) - Soxo]) _~' (6N px B"Bon) 5.615 -'~'(cpA'Lx[~~L ,[ [j'",o" .. il"" ])]

(S)

(9)

EQUATIONS FOR EVALUATING GAS-CAP DRIVE PERFORMANCE UNDER FULL PRESSURE

MAINTENANCE BY GAS INJECTION

VOLUMETRIC BALANCE EQUATIONS

6G, = ~Np Bo ~ 6N pw ko ~o Bo B" + 6 Gpe

(10)
68 MJ By 6(} ko ;:' Bo 6(}

6 G"ext! _ 6 Np Bo B" _ R, )
MJ - t;B
(
------n;- 1000 . . . . . . (11)

EQUATIONS FOR CALCULATION OF THE DISPLACEMENT OF OIL BY GAS

QTA. = 5.615 6G,B g • • • • • • • • • • • (12)

QTX = QT(X-O - 5.615 [6Gpc,X-1) Bo + 6Np,X_ L) BoB,l (13)
6L89 is solved by Eqs. 5, 6, and 7.

225 VOL. 210, 1957

EQUATIONS FOR CALCULATION OF THE POSITION OF THE GAS-OIL CONTACT

QT'/y = QTX - [~' ( <pAxLx [S''''''-1) - S,." ]) - x~ ( t-,N px BtiBo ) 5.615 ] (14)

- , 0.044'k:; Aw( - 144 t-,p) . Bo

QTJo - 5.615 t-,G pcx Bo , - - , - - - - t-,p - - - h - t-,(J (sm 0') =- I
L = fLo_~ (15)
x <pAx (Sox - Sgw,n_1l)
EQUATIONS FOR EVALUATING GAS-CAP DRIVE PERFORMANCE UNDER FULL PRESSURE
MAINTENANCE BY WATER INJECTION

VOLUMETRIC BALANCE EQUATIONS

t-, W, _ t-,NpB"B" + t-, N pw B, Bli ko ;, + (16)

~ - t-,(J t;e ~k~ ~
o .~(}

(17)

EQUATIONS FOR CALCULATION OF THE DISPLACEMENT OF OIL BY WATER

QTA = 5.615 t-,W, . (18)
QTX = QT(X-l) - 5.615 (t-,Wp'X-l) + t-,Np(x-n B"B ti ) . (19)
L - QTx(dl .,) (20)
t-, (Bw) - ¢A dS
w

where

dl w (21)
+ ~" ~]'
dS",
[1 fLo krff'
C, = 0.044 C r k A ~P sin 0' M} (22)
QTX fLo
EQUATION FOR CALCULATING THE POSITION OF THE WATER-OIL CONTACT

5.615 (Wi - W p ) - x~ [<pAxLxP• (Swx - Cwx)]

L,= ------~~~~~~~~----~ (23)
<pAxP. (S"x - C wx )

EQUATIONS USED TO CHECK MATHEMATICAL COMPUTATIONS

EQUATION FOR CALCULATING THE VOLUME OF STOCK TANK REMAINING

IN RESERVOIR FROM SATURATION DISTANCE PROFILE

N - Np = ~ <pAxLx(~) + <PAwL(~). (24)

5.615 BoB" 5.615 BoB"
EQUATION FOR CALCULATING THE VOLUME OF FREE AND SOLUTION GAS
REMAINING IN RESERVOIR FROM SATURATION DISTANCE PROFILE

Gas
.
III place (Mct) =T
GB g ,
+ -'<
~ ¢AxL,[Sox
5.615 Bo +
([1 - C"'] - Sox)
(BoB,,) (1,000)
R'] (25)

where

R, = R" B'
- (B - Bo )Bti
B (1,000) . (26)
" 9

***

PETROLEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME 226