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WHAT IS PRESTRESSING

The application of a force to the structure, other than the applied load, which assists the performance of the structure.

The application of pre-stressing in concrete structures is not the only instance. There were some earlier attempts made.

Two of the instances are provided below

FORCE-FITTING OF METAL BANDS ON WOODEN BARRELS

The metal bands around the barrel induce a state of initial hoop compression to counteract the hoop tension caused by filling of
liquid in the barrels.

Fig: wooden barrels wounded with steel bands

PRE-TENSIONING OF SPOKES IN A BICYCLE WHEEL

The pre-tension is applied in the spoke to such an extent that there will always be a residual tension in the spoke.

Fig: spokes of a bicycle wheel in pretension

The concept of prestressed concrete is also not new. In 1886, a patent was granted for tightening steel tie rods in concrete blocks. This is
analogous to modern day segmental constructions.

Early attempts were not very successful due to low strength of steel at that time. Since we cannot prestress at high stress level, the prestress
losses due to creep and shrinkage of concrete quickly reduce the effectiveness of prestressing.

BRIEF HISTORY

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Before the development of prestressed concrete, two significant developments of reinforced concrete are the invention of
Portland cement and introduction of steel in concrete. These are also mentioned as the part of the history. The key developments are
mentioned next to the corresponding year.

S.NO YEAR INVENTOR COUNTRY EVENT

1 1824 Aspdin, J England Obtained a patent for the manufacture of Portland cement
2 1857 Monier, J France Introduced steel wires in concrete to make flower pots, pipes, arches and slabs.
The following events were significant in the development of prestressed concrete.
3 1886 Jackson, P. H USA Introduced the concept of tightening steel tie rods in artificial stone and concrete arches
4 1888 Doehring, C. Germany Manufactured concrete slabs and small beams with embedded tensioned steel.
E. W
5 1908 Stainer, C. R USA Recognised losses due to shrinkage and creep, and suggested retightening the rods to
recover lost prestress.
6 1923 Emperger, F Austria Developed a method of winding and pre- tensioning high tensile steel wires around
concrete pipes
7 1924 Hewett, W. USA Used high strength unbonded steel rods. The rods were tensioned and anchored after
H. hardening of the concrete
8 1925 Dill, R. H USA Used high strength unbonded steel rods. The rods were tensioned and anchored after
hardening of the concrete
9 1926 Eugene France Used high tensile steel wires, with ultimate strength as high as 1725 MPa and yield
Freyssinet stress over 1240 MPa. In 1939, he developed conical wedges for end anchorages for
post-tensioning and developed double-acting jacks. He is often referred to as the Father
of Prestressed concrete.
10 1938 Hoyer, E., Germany Developed ‘long line’ pre-tensioning method
11 1940 Magnel, G Belgium Developed an anchoring system for post-tensioning, using flat wedges

During the Second World War, applications of prestressed and precast concrete increased rapidly. The names of a few persons
involved in developing prestressed concrete are mentioned. Guyon, Y., (France) built numerous prestressed concrete bridges in western and
central Europe. Abeles, P. W., (England) introduced the concept of partial prestressing. Leonhardt, F., (Germany), Mikhailor, V., (Russia)
and Lin, T. Y., (USA) are famous in the field of prestressed concrete.

The International Federation for Prestressing (FIP), a professional organisation in Europe was established in 1952. The
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) was established in USA in 1954.

Prestressed concrete was started to be used in building frames, parking structures, stadiums, railway sleepers, transmission line
poles and other types of structures and elements.

In India, the applications of prestressed concrete diversified over the years. The first prestressed concrete bridge was built in
1948 under the Assam Rail Link Project. Among bridges, the Pamban Road Bridge at Rameshwaram, Tamilnadu, remains a classic example
of the use of prestressed concrete girders.

DEVELOPMENT OF BUILDING MATERIALS

The development of prestressed concrete can be studied in the perspective of traditional building materials. In the ancient period,
stones and bricks were extensively used. These materials are strong in compression, but weak in tension. For tension, bamboos and coir
ropes were used in bridges. Subsequently iron and steel bars were used to resist tension. These members tend to buckle under compression.
Wood and structural steel members were effective both in tension and compression.

In reinforced concrete, concrete and steel are combined such that concrete resists compression and steel resists tension. This is a
passive combination of the two materials. In prestressed concrete high strength concrete and high strength steel are combined such that the
full section is effective in resisting tension and compression. This is an active combination of the two materials. The following sketch shows
the use of the different materials with the progress of time.

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Fig: Development of building materials

FORMS OF PRESTRESSING STEEL

WIRES
Prestressing wire is a single unit made of steel.

STRANDS
Two, three or seven wires are wound to form a prestressing strand.

CABLE
A group of tendons form a prestressing cable.

Bars
A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much larger than that of a wire.
STAGES OF LOADING
The analysis of prestressed members can be different for the different stages of loading.
The stages of loading are as follows.

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INITIAL LOADING: It can be subdivided into two stages.

a) During tensioning of steel
b) At transfer of prestress to concrete.
INTERMEDIATE LOADING: This includes the loads during transportation of the
Prestressed members.
FINAL LOADING:It can be subdivided into two stages.
a) At service, during operation.
b) At ultimate, during extreme events

ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSING
• The prestressing of concrete has several advantages as compared to traditional reinforced concrete (RC) without prestressing.
• The following text broadly mentions the advantages of a prestressed concrete member with an equivalent RC member. For each
effect, the benefits are listed.
1. Section Remains Uncracked Under Service Loads
• Reduction of steel corrosion.
– Increase in durability.
• Full section is utilised
– Higher moment of inertia (higher stiffness)
– Less deformations (improved serviceability).
– Increase in shear capacity.
2. High span-to-depth ratios

Larger spans possible with prestressing (bridges, buildings with large column-free spaces)
Typical values of span-to-depth ratios in slabs are given below

Non-prestressed slab 28:1

Prestressed slab 45:1

For the same span, less depth compared to RC member.

• Reduction in self weight
• More aesthetic appeal due to slender sections
• More economical sections
3. Suitable for precast construction
The advantages of precast construction are as follows.
• Rapid construction
• Better quality control
• Reduced maintenance
• Suitable for repetitive construction
• Multiple use of formwork
⇒ Reduction of formwork
• Availability of standard shapes

The following figure shows the common types of precast sections

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LIMITATIONS OF PRESTRESSING
• Although prestressing has advantages, some aspects need to be carefully addressed.
– Prestressing needs skilled technology. Hence, it is not as common as reinforced concrete.
– The use of high strength materials is costly.
– There is additional cost in auxiliary equipment's.
– There is need for quality control and inspection.

Applications of prestressed concrete:

 Bridges
 Slabs in buildings
 Water Tank
 Concrete Pile
 Thin Shell Structures
 Offshore Platform
 Nuclear Power Plant
 Repair and Rehabilitations

WHY DO WE USE HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

 For post tensioned structures, anchorage regions have concentrated and very high stresses.
 For pre-tensioned structures, you benefit with a better bond strength to avoid slippage.
In addition, it helps to have a higher initial compressive stresses as a reserve for future tension (due to flexure from load)

WHY DO WE USE HIGH TENSILE STEEL

Modulus of elasticity =100 kN/mm2 (same for reinforcement and prestress cables)
Prestressing force needed = 200 kN
Area of cable / reinforcement = 1 mm2

We have 2 cases....

Case 1) Take 20 bars, give a strain of 0.1 ...

Force = Stress x Area
= E x Strain x Area
= 100 kN/mm2 x 0.1 x 1 mm2
= 10 kN
Total force = 200 kN (for 20 bars)

Case 2) Take 1 bar, give a strain of 2 ...

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Force = E x Strain x Area

= 100 kN/mm2 x 2 x 1 mm2
= 200 kN

Everything is fine till now ........ BUT, let's assume that concrete shrinks (autogenous + drying shrinkage) and creeps under
prestress for a strain of 0.1....

Now, what is the remaining strain in the rebars? ZERO. Remaining prestress? ZERO.
What is the remaining strain in the cable? (2 - 0.1 = 1.9).... Remaining prestressing force? 100 kN/mm2 x 1.9 x 1 mm2 = 190 KN

this is why we need to use high tensile cables for prestressing. If you use a lot of ordinary bars, you can replicate the prestressing
force. But due to any strain like shrinkage / creep, all your bars will lose their pre-tension substantially. To avoid that, we need
high tensile cables.
 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
 PROPERTIES OF STEEL

CLASSIFICATIONS AND TYPES OF PRESTRESSING

PRE-TENSIONING In which the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed, tendons are temporarily anchored and tensioned and
the prestress is transferred to the concrete after it is hardened.

POST-TENSIONING In which the tendon is tensioned after concrete has hardened. Tendons are placed in sheathing at suitable places in the
member before casting and later after hardening of concrete.

PRE-TENSIONING SYSTEMS AND DEVICES

INTRODUCTION

PRE-TENSIONING In which the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed, tendons are temporarily anchored and tensioned and
the prestress is transferred to the concrete after it is hardened.

Stages of Pre-tensioning

The prestress is transferred to the concrete from the tendons, due to the bond between them. During the transfer of prestress, the member
undergoes elastic shortening. If the tendons are located eccentrically, the member is likely to bend and deflect (camber).

The various stages of the pre-tensioning operation are summarised as follows

1) Anchoring of tendons against the end abutments

2) Placing of jacks

3) Applying tension to the tendons

4) Casting of concrete

5) Cutting of the tendons

The stages are shown schematically in the following figures.

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Fig: Stages of prestressing

Advantages of Pre-tensioning

The relative advantages of pre-tensioning as compared to post-tensioning are as follows

 Pre-tensioning is suitable for precast members produced in bulk.

 In pre-tensioning large anchorage device is not present

Disadvantages of Pre-tensioning

The relative disadvantages are as follows

 A prestressing bed is required for the pre-tensioning operation

 There is a waiting period in the prestressing bed, before the concrete attains sufficient strength.
 There should be good bond between concrete and steel over the transmission length

Devices

The essential devices for pre-tensioning are as follows

 Prestressing bed
 End abutments
 Shuttering / mould
 Jack
 Anchoring device
 Harping device (optional)

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Fig: jack

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POST-TENSIONING SYSTEMS AND DEVICES

POST-TENSIONING In which the tendon is tensioned after concrete has hardened. Tendons are placed in sheathing at suitable places in the
member before casting and later after hardening of concrete.

Stages of Post-tensioning

In post-tensioning systems, the ducts for the tendons (or strands) are placed along with the reinforcement before the casting of concrete. The
tendons are placed in the ducts after the casting of concrete. The duct prevents contact between concrete and the tendons during the
tensioning operation.

Unlike pre-tensioning, the tendons are pulled with the reaction acting against the hardened concrete

The various stages of the post-tensioning operation are summarised as follows.

1) Casting of concrete.

2) Placement of the tendons.

3) Placement of the anchorage block and jack.

4) Applying tension to the tendons.

5) Seating of the wedges.

6) Cutting of the tendons.

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Advantages of Post-tensioning

The relative advantages of post-tensioning as compared to pre-tensioning are as follows.

• Post-tensioning is suitable for heavy cast-in-place members.

• The waiting period in the casting bed is less.

• The transfer of prestress is independent of transmission length

Disadvantage of Post-tensioning

The relative disadvantage of post-tensioning as compared to pre-tensioning is the requirement of anchorage device and grouting equipment.

Devices

The essential devices for post-tensioning are as follows.

1) Casting bed

2) Mould/Shuttering

3) Ducts

4) Anchoring devices

5) Jacks

6) Couplers (optional)

7) Grouting equipment (optional).

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Fig: anchoring

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Fig: jack

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Fig: Grouting equipment

PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

The concrete in prestressed applications has to be of good quality. It requires the following attributes.

1) High strength with low water-to-cement ratio

2) Durability with low permeability, minimum cement content and proper mixing, compaction and curing.

3) Minimum shrinkage and creep by limiting the cement content.

The following topics are discussed.

1) Strength of concrete

2) Stiffness of concrete

3) Durability of concrete

4) High performance concrete

5) Allowable stresses in concrete.

Strength of Concrete

The following sections describe the properties with reference to IS: 1343 - 2012. The strength of concrete is required to calculate the
strength of the members. For prestressed concrete applications, high strength concrete is required for the following reasons.

1) To sustain the high stresses at anchorage regions.

2) To have higher resistance in compression, tension, shear and bond.

3) To have higher stiffness for reduced deflection.

4) To have reduced shrinkage cracks.

Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of concrete is given in terms of the characteristic compressive strength of 150 mm size cubes tested at 28 days
(fck). The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to
fall. This concept assumes a normal distribution of the strengths of the samples of concrete.

The minimum grades of concrete for prestressed applications are as follows.

• 30 MPa for post-tensioned members

• 40 MPa for pre-tensioned members.

The maximum grade of concrete is 60 MPa.

Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of concrete can be expressed as follows.

1) Flexural tensile strength: It is measured by testing beams under 2 point loading (also called 4 point loading including the reactions).

2) Splitting tensile strength: It is measured by testing cylinders under diametral compression.

3) Direct tensile strength: It is measured by testing rectangular specimens under direct tension.

In absence of test results, the Code recommends to use an estimate of the flexural tensile strength from the compressive strength by the
following equation.

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Stiffness of Concrete

The stiffness of concrete is required to estimate the deflection of members. The stiffness is given by the modulus of elasticity. For a non-
linear stress (fc) versus strain (εc) behaviour of concrete the modulus can be initial, tangential or secant modulus.

The modulus of elasticity for short term loading (neglecting the effect of creep) is given by the following equation.

Durability of Concrete

The durability of concrete is of vital importance regarding the life cycle cost of a structure. The life cycle cost includes not only the initial
cost of the materials and labour, but also the cost of maintenance and repair.

The durability of concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration.
The common durability problems in concrete are as follows.

1) Sulphate and other chemical attacks of concrete.

2) Alkali-aggregate reaction.

3) Freezing and thawing damage in cold regions.

4) Corrosion of steel bars or tendons.

High Performance Concrete

With the advancement of concrete technology, high performance concrete is getting popular in prestressed applications. The attributes of
high performance concrete are as follows.

1) High strength

2) Minimum shrinkage and creep

3) High durability

4) Easy to cast

5) Cost effective.

Traditionally high performance concrete implied high strength concrete with higher cement content and low water-to-cement ratio. But
higher cement content leads to autogenous and plastic shrinkage cracking and thermal cracking. At present durability is also given
importance along with strength.

Some special types of high performance concrete are as follows.

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1) High strength concrete

2) High workability concrete

3) Self-compacting concrete

4) Reactive powder concrete

5) High volume fly ash concrete

6) Fibre reinforced concrete

In a post-tensioned member, the concrete next to the anchorage blocks (referred to as end block) is subjected to high stress concentration.
The type of concrete at the end blocks may be different from that at the rest of the member. Fibre reinforced concrete is used to check the
cracking due to the bursting forces.

The properties that are discussed are as follows.

1) Stress-strain curves for concrete

2) Creep of concrete

3) Shrinkage of concrete

Stress-strain Curves for Concrete

Curve under uniaxial compression

The stress versus strain behaviour of concrete under uniaxial compression is initially linear (stress is proportional to strain) and elastic
(strain is recovered at unloading). With the generation of micro-cracks, the behaviour becomes nonlinear and inelastic. After the specimen
reaches the peak stress, the resisting stress decreases with increase in strain.

Creep of Concrete

Creep of concrete is defined as the increase in deformation with time under constant load. Due to the creep of concrete, the prestress in the
tendon is reduced with time. Hence, the study of creep is important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress.

The creep occurs due to two causes.

1. Rearrangement of hydrated cement paste (especially the layered products)

2. Expulsion of water from voids under load

The creep strain depends on several factors. It increases with the increase in the following variables.

1) Cement content (cement paste to aggregate ratio)

2) Water-to-cement ratio

3) Air entrainment

4) Ambient temperature.

The creep strain decreases with the increase in the following variables.

1) Age of concrete at the time of loading.

2) Relative humidity

3) Volume to surface area ratio.

The creep strain also depends on the type of aggregate.

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Shrinkage of Concrete

Shrinkage of concrete is defined as the contraction due to loss of moisture. The study of shrinkage is also important in prestressed concrete
to calculate the loss in prestress.

The shrinkage occurs due to two causes.

1. Loss of water from voids

2. Reduction of volume during carbonation

Properties of Grout

Grout is a mixture of water, cement and optional materials like sand, water-reducing admixtures, expansion agent and pozzolans. The water-
to-cement ratio is around 0.5. Fine sand is used to avoid segregation.

The desirable properties of grout are as follows.

1) Fluidity

2) Minimum bleeding and segregation

3) Low shrinkage

4) Adequate strength after hardening

5) No detrimental compounds

6) Durable

PROPERTIES OF HIGH STRENGTH STEEL

Forms of Prestressing Steel

The development of prestressed concrete was influenced by the invention of high strength steel. It is an alloy of iron, carbon, manganese and
optional materials. The following material describes the types and properties of prestressing steel.

Wires

A prestressing wire is a single unit made of steel. The nominal diameters of the wires are 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.0 and 8.0 mm. The different
types of wires are as follows.

1) Plain wire: No indentations on the surface.

2) Indented wire: There are circular or elliptical indentations on the surface.

Strands

A few wires are spun together in a helical form to form a prestressing strand. The different types of strands are as follows.

1) Two-wire strand: Two wires are spun together to form the strand.

2) Three-wire strand: Three wires are spun together to form the strand.

3) Seven-wire strand: In this type of strand, six wires are spun around a central wire. The central wire is larger than the other wires.

Tendons

A group of strands or wires are placed together to form a prestressing tendon. The tendons are used in post-tensioned members. The
following figure shows the cross section of a typical tendon. The strands are placed in a duct which may be filled with grout after the post-
tensioning operation is completed.

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Cables

Cold Drawn Stress-Relieved Wires (IS: 1785 Part 1) Nominal

Diameter (mm)
2.50 3.00 4.00 5.00 7.00 8.00
2
Minimum Tensile Strength f (N/mm )
pk

A group of tendons form a prestressing cable. The cables are used in bridges.

Bars

A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much larger than that of a wire. Bars are available i n the following
sizes: 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 25, 28 and 32 mm.

Types of Prestressing Steel

The steel is treated to achieve the desired properties. The following are the treatment processes.

Cold working (cold drawing)

The cold working is done by rolling the bars through a series of dyes. It re-aligns the crystals and increases the strength.

Stress relieving

The stress relieving is done by heating the strand to about 350º C and cooling slowly. This reduces the plastic deformation o f the steel after
the onset of yielding.

Strain tempering for low relaxation

This process is done by heating the strand to about 350º C while it is under tension. This also improves the stress-strain behaviour of the
steel by reducing the plastic deformation after the onset of yielding. In addition, the relaxation is reduced. The relaxation is described later.

Properties of Prestressing Steel

The steel in prestressed applications has to be of good quality. It requires the following attributes.

1) High strength

2) Adequate ductility

3) Bendability, which is required at the harping points and near the anchorage

4) High bond, required for pre-tensioned members

5) Low relaxation to reduce losses

6) Minimum corrosion.

Strength of Prestressing Steel

The tensile strength of prestressing steel is given in terms of the characteristic tensile strength (fpk).

The characteristic strength is defined as the ultimate tensile strength of the coupon specimens below which not more than 5% of the test
results are expected to fall.

Table: Cold Drawn Stress-Relieved Wires

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2010 1865 1715 1570 1470 1375

The proof stress (defined later) should not be less than 85% of the specified tensile strength.

Stiffness of Prestressing Steel

The stiffness of prestressing steel is given by the initial modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity depends on the form of prestressing
steel (wires or strands or bars).

Relaxation of Steel

Relaxation of steel is defined as the decrease in stress with time under constant strain. Due to the relaxation of steel, the prestress in the
tendon is reduced with time. Hence, the study of relaxation is important in prestressed concrete to calculate the loss in prestress.

Fatigue

Under repeated dynamic loads the strength of a member may reduce with the numberof cycles of applied load. The reduction in strength is
referred to as fatigue.

In prestressed applications, the fatigue is negligible in members that do not crack underservice loads. If a member cracks, fatigue may be a
concern due to high stress in thesteel at the location of cracks.

Specimens are tested under 2 x 10 6 cycles of load to observe the fatigue. For steel, fatigue tests are conducted to develop the stress versus
number of cycles for failure (S-N) diagram. Under a limiting value of stress, the specimen can withstand infinite number of cycles. This
limit is known as the endurance limit.

Durability

Prestressing steel is susceptible to stress corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement in aggressive environments. Hence, prestressing steel needs
to be adequately protected.

For bonded tendons, the alkaline environment of the grout provides adequate protection. For unbonded tendons, corrosion protection is
provided by one or more of the following methods.

1) Epoxy coating

2) Mastic wrap (grease impregnated tape)

3) Galvanized bars

4) Encasing in tubes

Codal Provisions of Steel

Prestressing – section 12 (IS: 1343-2012)

Comparative Study: Pretension Vs Post-tensioned Member

Pretension member Post-tensioned member
1. In pretensioned prestress concrete, steel is tensioned prior to 1. Concreting is done first then wires are tensioned and anchored
that of concrete. It is released once the concrete is placed and at ends. The stress transfer is by end bearing not by bond.
hardened. The stresses are transferred all along the wire by means
of bond.
2. Suitable for short span and precast products like sleepers, 2. Suitable for long span bridges
electric poles on mass production
3. In pretensioning the cables are basically straight and horizontal. 3. The post tensioning cables can be aligned in any manner to suit
Placing them in curved or inclined position is difficult. However the B.M.D due to external load system. Therefore it is more
the wire’s can be kept with eccentrically. Since cables can not be economical particularly for long span bridges. The curved or
aligned similar to B.M.D. structural advantages are less compare inclined cables can have vertical component at ends. These
to that of post-tensioned. components will reduce the design shear force. Hence post-
tensioned beams are superior to pretensioned beams both from
flexural and shear resistances point.
4. Prestress losses are more compare to that of post-tensioned 4. Losses are less compare to pre-tensioned concrete
concrete

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