Forge Welding

FORGE WELDING (FOW) is a solid-state process in which the workpieces are heated to the welding temperature and
then applied with blows sufficient to cause permanent deformation at the faying surfaces. It is most commonly applied to
the butt welding of steels. As contrasted with hot pressure (thermocompression) welding of ductile face-centered cubic
(fcc) metals, which is normally performed at temperatures of less than one-half the melting temperature (Tm), forge
welding is typically conducted at temperatures in the 0.8 to 0.9 Tm range. The forge welding temperature is generally
selected to be as high as possible with due consideration to avoiding such metallurgical problems as hot shortness,
embrittlement, sensitization, and excessive grain coarsening. This implies an understanding of the unique metallurgical
problems of the alloy to be welded.

Forge welding requires the application of pressure by means of either a hammer (hammer welding), rolls (roll welding),
or dies (die welding). Joint configurations differ depending on whether the joints are to be produced manually or using
automatic equipment. Typical joint designs used in manual forge welding operations are shown in Fig. 1. The joint
surfaces in Fig. 1 are slightly rounded or crowned to ensure that the centerline region of the components joined will be
welded first to force any contaminants (for example, slag, dirt, or oxide) present on the surfaces out of the joint. Typical
joint configurations used for automatic forge welding operations are shown in Fig. 2 (Ref 1).

FIG. 1 TYPICAL JOINT CONFIGURATIONS USED FOR MANUAL FORGE WELDING APPLICATIONS. SOURCE: REF
1

FIG. 2 RECOMMENDED JOINT CONFIGURATIONS USED IN AUTOMATIC FORGE WELDING APPLICATIONS.

SOURCE: REF 1

Hydraulic presses are typically employed to apply pressure. Presses are often highly automated, featuring microprocessor
control of pressure and temperature cycles. Heat is applied locally to the joint area by multiple-tip oxyacetylene torches,
resistance heating, or induction heating. Often the oxyacetylene torches are oscillated to ensure uniformity of heating. In a
closely related process, magnetically induced arc butt welding, the surfaces to be welded are heated by a rapidly rotating
arc plasma. Generally, the process is conducted in the open air, with oxygen partially occluded from the joint area by the
initial contact of the faying surfaces. When employing oxyacetylene torches, a slightly reducing flame affords some
atmospheric protection. Vacuum, inert, and reducing atmospheres have been used.

The normal welding sequence is to (1) apply sufficient pressure to firmly seat the faying surfaces against one another, (2)
heat the joint to welding temperature, and (3) rapidly apply additional pressure to upset the weld zone. Typical weld
durations are 1 to 2 min. A less common procedure is to initially apply high pressure and permit deformation to occur
during the heating cycle. Most forge welding employs sufficient pressure to upset the surface until the increase in the
surface area is 125% or more. However, such high deformation tend to cause flow lines to bend toward the surface during
upsetting. Consequently, alloys that contain significant stringers and inclusions may exhibit poor impact or fatigue
properties when welded with high amounts of upset. This effect may be minimized by reducing the upset, which normally
requires increasing welding temperature and/or time to ensure complete elimination of voids and surface oxide.

Forge welding is most commonly applied to carbon and low-alloy steels, with typical welding temperatures of about 1125
°C (2060 °F). Low-carbon steels can be used in the as-welded condition, but medium-carbon steels and low-alloy steels
normally are given full heat treatments following welding. In those cases where full heat treatment is impractical, but
hardening due to rapid cooling has occurred, induction heating may be used to temper the weld zone. Other metals welded
by forge welding include high-alloy steels, nickel-base alloys, cobalt-base alloys, aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, and
tungsten. Applications of this process include welding rods, bars, tubes, rails, aircraft landing gear, chains, and cans. The
forge welding process is competitive with flash welding (see the article "Flash Welding" in this Volume) and friction
welding (see the article "Friction Welding" in this Volume).

Flux must be added when forge welding certain meals to prevent the formation of oxide scale. The flux and the oxides
present combine to form a protective coating on the heated surfaces of the metal that prevents the formation of additional
oxide and lowers the melting point of the existing oxide.

Silica sand and borax are two fluxes commonly used on steels. Silica sand can be used as a flux in the forge welding of
low-carbon steel. The oxides of very low-carbon steels (ingot irons) and wrought irons do not require fluxes because their
oxides have low melting points. Borax, sprinkled on the workpiece while it is in the process of being heated, is commonly
used in the forge welding of high-carbon steels because of its low fusion point (Ref 1).

Weld durations for resistance welding are very short (seconds) compared to those for forge welding where gas torches are
employed. This is because heat is generated internally in resistance welding, but externally with gas torches. Terms that
are sometimes used synonymously with forge welding include pressure welding, upset welding, and solid-state resistance
welding.