De-Broglie wavelength

Dual Nature of EM radiation

• To explain all experiments with EM radiation (light),

one must assume that light can be described both as
wave (Interference, Diffraction) and
• particles (Photoelectric Effect, Compton Effect)
 Review of Bohr and deBroglie
• Background:
– Balmer found equation for Hydrogen spectrum but didn’t
know what it meant.
– Rutherford found that atoms had a nucleus, but didn’t
know why electrons didn’t spiral in.
• Bohr postulates quantized energy levels for no good
reason, and predicts Balmer’s equation.
• deBroglie postulates that electrons are waves, and
predicts Bohr’s quantized energy levels.

Note: no experimental difference between Bohr model and

deBroglie model, but deBroglie is better.
 De-Broglie
• In analogy to dual nature of light the Louis de-
Broglie in 1923-1924 extended it to matter
waves

Was awarded the Nobel Prize in

1929 for his prediction of the wave
nature of electrons
 De Broglie’s Hypothesis
• Louis de Broglie postulated that the dual
nature of the light must be “expanded” to
ALL matter
– In other words, all material particles possess
wave-like properties, characterized by the
wavelength, λB, related to the momentum p of
the particle in the same way as for light

h Planck’s Constant
de Broglie B 
wavelength of the p Momentum of the
particle
particle
 Wave Properties of Particles
• Louis de Broglie postulated that because photons have both
wave and particle characteristics, so too all forms of matter
have both properties
• For photons: E  h
E h h
p  
c c 
h
Or,  
p
De Broglie hypothesized that particles of well defined
momentum also have a wavelength, as given above, called as
de Broglie wavelength
 Frequency of a Particle
• In an analogy with photons, de Broglie postulated
that a particle would also have a frequency
associated with it
E h
f  E  hf  2f  
h 2
• These equations present the dual nature of matter
– Particle nature, p and E
– Wave nature, λ and ƒ ( and k)
 h

Other Expressions p
p  mv
h
 In term of velocity
mv

mv 2 mv 2 m m2v 2 p2
K .E.  E     
2 2 m 2m 2m

p  2mE

h
 In term of K.E.
2mE
 h

p
Other Expressions h

mv
When a charged particle accelerated through potential V
h

K .E.  E  eV 2mE

h
 In term of eV
2meV

When a neutron is in thermal equilibrium at T,

They posses Maxwell distribution of velocity
3
K .E.  E   T
2
h
 In term of T
3m T
 For electron accelerated through
Potential V
When a charged particle accelerated through potential V
Case I: Non relativistic case For electron
K .E.  eV
m  m0  9.11031 Kg

K .E. 
mv 2

p2 e  1.6 1016 C
2 2m h  6.62 1034 J  s
From above
p2
eV  h
2m 
p  2meV 2meV

h 12.28 0
  A
2meV V
 For electron accelerated through
Potential V
Case II: Relativistic case
E 2  p 2c 2  m02c 4
Potential is vey high
e2V 2  m02c4  2eVm0c 2  p 2c 2  m02c4
K .E.  eV
2 e2V 2  2eVm0c 2  p 2c 2
mv
K .E. 
2  eV 
But 2m0eV 1  2
 p 2

 2m0c 
E 2  p 2c 2  m02c 4
where
E  K .E  m0c 2  eV 
p  2m0eV 1  2
 2m0c 
E  eV  m0c 2
  eV 
p  2m0eV 1  2
 2 m0 c 
h

p
h

 eV 
2m0eV 1  2
 2 m0 c 
For electron

12.28 0
 A
 eV 
V 1  2
 2 m0 c 
• De Broglie’s Hypothesis
predicted that one should see
diffraction and interference of
matter waves
• For example we should observe
–Electron diffraction
–Atom or molecule diffraction
Experimental evidence of Matter Wave
• Davisson and Germer’s electron diffraction
experiment
• G.P. Thomson’s Experiment
• 2-slit Interference pattern with electron
• Straight-edge diffraction pattern with electron
• Bragg Reflection of Helium and Neutron
Beams
Davisson and Germer’s electron
diffraction experiment
In the Davisson Germer experiment, Davisson and
Germer shot a beam of electrons at a lattice of Nickel
atoms and found that the electrons were only
detected at certain angles.

Explain the reason for this result and why it was

important?
 Davisson-Germer Experiment
• If particles have a wave nature, then under
appropriate conditions, they should exhibit
diffraction
• Davisson and Germer measured the
wavelength of electrons (experimentally
• This provided experimental confirmation of
the matter waves proposed by de Broglie
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• Electrons were directed
onto nickel crystals
• Accelerating voltage is
used to control electron
energy: E = |e|V
• The scattering angle
and intensity (electron
current) are detected
– φ is the scattering angle
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• If electrons are “just” particles, we expect a smooth
monotonous dependence of scattered intensity on
angle and voltage because only elastic collisions are
involved
• Diffraction pattern similar to X-rays would be
observed if electrons behave as waves
Davisson and Germer Experiment
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• Observations:
– Intensity was stronger
for certain angles for
specific accelerating
voltages (i.e. for specific
electron energies)
– Electrons were reflected
in almost the same way
that X-rays of
comparable wavelength
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• Observations:
– Current vs accelerating
voltage has a maximum,
i.e. the highest number
of electrons is scattered
in a specific direction
– This can’t be explained
by particle-like nature of
electrons  electrons
scattered on crystals
behave as waves

For accelerating potential of 54 V, φ ~ 50°

 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• For Diffraction on Nickel
The nickel crystal acts as plane diffraction grating with d = 0.91 A
According to experiment we have diffracted Xray Beam at  = 50.
This arises from diffraction of X ray by Braggs atomic planes.
The corresponding angle of incidence is 65

  2d sin 
o
d 111  0.91A;   50    65

o
  1.65 A
 Davisson and Germer Experiment
• Assuming the wave nature of electrons we
can use de Broglie’s approach to calculate
wavelengths of a matter wave
corresponding to electrons in this
experiment
• V = 54 V  E = 54 eV

h 12.28
B   A
2meV V
B  1.67 A

This is in excellent agreement with wavelengths

diffracted from Nickel!
 Wave nature is not observed in daily
life
• Macroscopic object
• Eg. Be-broglie wavelength of bullet of 1g
moving with velocity of 103 m/s is given by
h 6.62 1034
  3
 6.62  10 34
meter
mv 10 10 3

This wavelength is too small to show any effect

What about tiny particles like electrons ??

 = h/p = 6.63x10-34 J.s

(9.11x10-31kg) x ( ???? )

Well, an electron accelerated through 100V

has v = 4.35x106 m/s)

-->  = 1.67 x 10-10 m = 0.167 nm

31
G.P. Thomson’s Experiment
 G.P. Thomson’s Experiment (1927)

L
Beam of x-rays or
electrons of same . 2
r


Bragg Plane
Thin film of gold

1st order bragg’s equation


  2d sin  d
2 Photographic
As  is small and Plate
r 
2  So d L
L r
 
d L
r
When a charged particle accelerated through potential V
The relativistic equation for wavelength is
h

 eV 
2m0eV 1  2
 2m0 c 

1

L h  eV  2
d 1  2
r 2m0eV  2 m0 c 
 G.P. Thomson’s results

Xrays Electrons
The crystal lattice spacing d is same in both cases within 1% error
When diffraction pattern passes through E.F. X rays patterns not
shifted.While electron patterns shifted.
So matter waves
35
Group and Phase velocity

Next Class
 Phase Speed

• Phase velocity is the speed with which wave

crest advances:

 2   coefficien t of time, t
A cos(kx  t ) : v phase      
T k 2 k coefficien t of coordinate, x
 Addition of Two Waves
Two sine waves traveling in the same direction:
Constructive and Destructive Interference
 
y( x, t )  A sin(kx  t )  A sin(kx  t   )  2 A cos( ) sin(kx  t  )
2 2
Two sine waves traveling in opposite directions create a standing wave

y( x, t )  A sin(kx  t )  A sin(kx  t )  2 A sin kx cos t

Two sine waves with different frequencies: Beats

y ( x, t )  A sin( k1 x  1t )  A sin( k 2 x  2t )

(k1  k 2) (1  2) (k1  k 2) (1  2)
 2 A cos[ x t ] sin[ x t]
2 2 2 2
(k1  k 2 ) (1  2 )
 2 A cos[(k / 2) x  ( / 2)t ] sin[ x t]
2 2
 Beat Notes and Group Velocity, vg
(k1  k 2) (1  2)
y ( x, t )  2 A cos[(k / 2) x  ( / 2)t ] sin[ x t]
2 2
This represents a beat note with the amplitude of the beat moving at speed

vg  ( / 2) /( k / 2)   / v
d
For superposition of continuous distribution of waves : vg 
dk
 Beats and Pulses
Two tuning forks are struck simultaneously. The vibrate at 512 and 768 Hz.
(a) What is the frequency of the separation between peaks in the beat envelope?
(b) What is the velocity of the beat envelope?
 Beats and Pulses
Two tuning forks are struck simultaneously. The vibrate at 512 and 768 Hz.
(a) What is the separation between peaks in the beat envelope?
(b) What is the velocity of the beat envelope?
(k1  k 2) (1  2)
(a) y ( x, t )  2 A cos[(k / 2) x  ( / 2)t ] sin[ x t]
2 2
The rapidly oscillating wave is multiplied by a more slowly varying envelope
with wave vector k / 2  (k 2  k1 ) / 2
v phase   / k  2f /( 2 /  )  f ,
v phase is the speed of sound , 344 m / s (770 mph)
k 2  2 / v phase  2f 2 / v phase  2 768 / 344  14.03 m 1
k1  1 / v phase  2f1 / v phase  2 512 / 344  9.35 m 1
kbeat  (k 2  k1 ) / 2  (14.0  9.35) / 2  2.33 m 1
Dis tan ce between beat notes : beat  2 / kbeat  2 / 2.33  2.70 m
(b) vbeat  ( / 2) /( k / 2)  2 (768  512) /(14.03  9.35)  344
Expected result sin ce speed of sound is independen t ofwaveleng th so vbeat  v phase
 “Construction” Particles From Waves
• Particles are localized in space
• Waves are extended in space.
• It is possible to build “localized” entities from a
superposition of number of waves with different
values of k-vector. For a continuum of waves, the
superposition is an integral over a continuum of
waves with different k-vectors.
– The wave then has a non-zero amplitude only within a
limited region of space
• Such wave is called “wave packet”
 Wave Packet
• Mathematically a wave packet can be written as
sum (integral) of many “ideal” sinusoidal waves
 Wave Picture of Particle
• Consider a wave packet made up of waves with a
distribution of wave vectors k, A(k), at time t. A
snapshot, of the wave in space along the x-
direction is obtained by summing over waves with
the full distribution of k-vectors. For a continuum
this is an integral.
• The spatial distribution at a time t given by:


 ( x, t )   A(k ) cos(kx  t )dk
0
 Wave Picture of Particle
1. A(k) is spiked at a given k0, and
zero elsewhere
• only one wave with k = k0 (λ = λ0)
contributes; thus one knows
momentum exactly, and the
wavefunction is a traveling wave –
particle is delocalized
2. A(k) is the same for all k
• No distinctions for momentums, so
particle’s position is well defined -
the wavefunction is a “spike”,
representing a “very localized”
particle
3. A(k) is shaped as a bell-curve
• Gives a wave packet – “partially”
localized particle
 Wave Picture of Particle
• The greater the range of wave numbers (and
therefore λ‘s) in the mix, the narrower the
width of the wave packet and the more
localized the particle
 Group Velocity for Particles and Waves
• The group velocity in term of particle parameters is

d dE   dE
vg   
dk dp   dp
• Consider a free non-relativistic particle. The total,
energy for this particle is, E = Ek = p2/2m

dE dEk d  p2  p
vg      
dp dp dp  2m  m
p mu particle
vg    u particle
m m
 Group Velocity
• The group speed of wave packet is identical to the
speed of the corresponding particle,
dE
uparticle  vg 
dp
• Is this true for photon, for which u = c?
• For photon total energy E = p·c

 pc   c
dE d
vg 
dp dp
 Group Velocity in Optical Fiber
A pulse of light is launched in an optical fiber. The amplitude A(k) of the pulses
is peaked in the telecommunications band at the wavelength in air,  = 1,500 nm.
The optical fiber is dispersive, with n = 1.50 + 102/, near  = 1,500 nm, where  is
expressed in nm. What is the group velocity?
 Group Velocity in Optical Fiber
A pulse of light is launched in an optical fiber. The amplitude A(k) of the pulses
is peaked in the telecommunications band at the wavelength in air,  = 1,500 nm.
The optical fiber is dispersive, with n = 1.50 + 102/, near  = 1,500 nm, where  is
expressed in nm. What is the group velocity?
 c c d
vp     k , vg 
k n n dk
c 1
d( k) d( )
d c c 1 dn c ck dn d
 n   ck n   ck ( 2 )  2
dk dk n dk n n dk n n d dk
2 d 2
But   , so  2
k dk k
d c ck dn d c c 2 dn 2 c c 2 dn 2 c c dn
  2   2 ( 2 )   2 ( )   2
dk n n d dk n n  d k n n  d 2 n n d
d c   10 2 c 10 2 10 2
 (1  ( 2 ))  (1  ), n  1.5   1.567
dk n n  n n 1.5 103