History of the Philippines (1946–65)

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Republic of the Philippines

Republika ng Pilipinas
República de Filipinas

1946–1965

Flag

Coat of arms

Anthem: Lupang Hinirang

Chosen Land

Location of the Philippines in Southeast Asia.

Capital Manila (to 1948)

 Quezon City (after 1948)

Common languages Filipino

Spanish
English

Government Unitary presidentialconstitutional republic

President

• 1946–1948 Manuel Roxas

• 1948–1953 Elpidio Quirino

• 1953–1957 Ramon Magsaysay

• 1957–1961 Carlos P. Garcia

• 1961–1965 Diosdado Macapagal

Vice President

• 1946–1948 Elpidio Quirino

• 1949–1953 Fernando Lopez

• 1953–1957 Carlos P. Garcia

• 1957–1961 Diosdado Macapagal

• 1961–1965 Emmanuel Pelaez

Legislature Congress

• Treaty of Manila July 4 1946

• Inauguration of July 4, 1946

Manuel Roxas

• Inauguration of April 17, 1948

Elpidio Quirino
• Inauguration of December 30, 1953
Ramon
Magsaysay

• 1957 Cebu Douglas March 17, 1957

C-47 crash

• Inauguration of March 18, 1957

Carlos P. Garcia

• Inauguration of December 30, 1961

Diosdado
Macapagal

• Inauguration of December 30 1965

Ferdinand Marcos

Area

343,448 km2 (132,606 sq mi)

Currency Philippine peso

ISO 3166 code PH

Preceded by Succeeded by

Commonwealth of Fourth
the Philippines Philippine
Second Philippine Republic
Republic

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This article covers the history of the Philippines from the recognition of independence in 1946 to the
end of the presidency of Diosdado Macapagal, which covered much of the Third Republic of the
Philippines which ended on January 17, 1973 with the ratification of the 1973 Constitution of the
Republic of the Philippines.

Contents

 1Recognition of independence
o 1.1Independence Day shifted
 2The Roxas Administration (1946–48)
 3The Quirino Administration (1948–53)
 4The Magsaysay Administration (1953–57)
 5The Garcia Administration (1957–61)
 6The Macapagal Administration (1961–65)
 7References
 8External links

Recognition of independence[edit]
Not to be confused with Philippine Declaration of Independence or Independence Day (Philippines).

Proclamation of independence

The Flag of the United States of America is lowered while the Flag of the Philippines is raised during the
Independence Day ceremonies on July 4, 1946

See also: Treaty of Manila (1946) and Republic Day (Philippines)

On July 5, 1946, representatives of the United States of America and of the Republic of the
Philippines signed a Treaty of General Relations between the two governments. The treaty provided
for the recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines as of July 4, 1946, and the
relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.[1]
The U.S. retained dozens of military bases, including a few major ones. In addition, independence
was qualified by legislation passed by the U.S. Congress. For example, the Bell Trade Act provided
a mechanism whereby U.S. import quotas might be established on Philippine articles which "are
coming, or are likely to come, into substantial competition with like articles the product of the United
States". It further required U.S. citizens and corporations be granted equal access to Philippine
minerals, forests, and other natural resources.[2] In hearings before the Senate Committee on
Finance, Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs William L. Clayton described the law as
"clearly inconsistent with the basic foreign economic policy of this country" and "clearly inconsistent
with our promise to grant the Philippines genuine independence."[3]
The Philippine government had little choice but to accept these terms for independence.[citation
needed]
The U.S. Congress was threatening to withhold post-World War II rebuilding funds unless the
Bell Act was ratified. The Philippine Congress obliged on July 2, 1946.[citation needed]
After independence, the US continued to direct the country through Central Intelligence Agency
operatives like Edward Lansdale. As Raymond Bonner and other historians note, Lansdale
controlled the career of President Ramon Magsaysay, going so far as to physically beat him when
the Philippine leader attempted to reject a speech the CIA had written for him. American agents also
drugged sitting President Elpidio Quirino and contemplated assassinating Senator Claro
Recto. [4].[5] Prominent Filipino historian Roland G. Simbulan has called the CIA "US
imperialism's clandestine apparatus in the Philippines." [6]
Independence Day shifted[edit]
Main article: Independence Day (Philippines)
The Philippines currently celebrates its Independence Day on June 12, the anniversary of Emilio
Aguinaldo's declaration of independence from Spain in 1898. The declaration was not recognised by
the United States which, after defeating the Spanish in the Battle of Manila Bay in May that year,
acquired the Philippine Islands via the Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish–American War.
From 1946 to 1961, the Philippines observed Independence Day on July 4. On May 12, 1962,
President Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28 proclaiming June 12, 1962 as a
special public holiday throughout the Philippines.[7][8] In 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 changed the
date of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12 and renamed the July 4 holiday as Philippine
Republic Day.[9]

The Roxas Administration (1946–48)[edit]

Manuel Roxas, president from 1946–48

When the Congress of the Philippines was convened in 1945, the legislators elected in 1941
chose Manuel Roxas as Senate President. In the Philippine national elections of 1946, Roxas ran for
president as the nominee of the liberal wing of the Nacionalista Party. He had the staunch support of
General MacArthur. His opponent was Sergio Osmeña, who refused to campaign, saying that the
Filipino people knew his reputation. In the April 23, 1946 election, Roxas won 54 percent of the vote,
and the Liberal Party won a majority in the legislature. When the Philippines gained independence
from the United States on July 4, 1946, Roxas became the first president of the new republic.
Although Roxas was successful in getting rehabilitation funds from the United States after
independence, he was forced to concede military bases (23 of which were leased for 99 years),
trade restrictions for the Philippine citizens, and special privileges for U.S. property owners and
investors. His administration was marred by graft and corruption; moreover, the abuses of the
provincial military police contributed to the rise of the left-wing Hukbalahap (Huk) movement in the
countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush the Huks led to widespread peasant
disaffection.[citation needed]
During Roxas' term of office administration of the Turtle Islands and Mangsee Islands was
transferred by the United Kingdom to the Republic of the Philippines. By an international treaty
concluded in 1930 between the United States (in respect of its then overseas territory, the Philippine
Archipelago) and the United Kingdom (in respect of its then protectorate, the State of North Borneo)
the two powers agreed the international boundaries between those respective territories.[10] In that
treaty the United Kingdom also accepted that the Turtle Islands as well as the Mangsee Islands were
part of the Philippines Archipelago and therefore under US sovereignty. However, by a supplemental
international treaty concluded at the same time, the two powers agreed that those islands, although
part of the Philippines Archipelago, would remain under the administration of the State of North
Borneo's British North Borneo Company.[11] The supplemental treaty provided that the British North
Borneo Company would continue to administer those islands unless and until the United States
government gave notice to the United Kingdom calling for administration of the islands to be
transferred to the U.S. The U.S. never gave such a notice. On the 4th of July, 1946, the Republic of
the Philippines was born. It became the successor to the U.S. under the treaties of 1930. On the
15th of July, 1946, the United Kingdom annexed the State of North Borneo and, in the view of the
United Kingdom, became the sovereign power with respect to what had been the State of North
Borneo.[12] On 19 September 1946, the Republic of the Philippines notified the United Kingdom that it
wished to take over the administration of the Turtle Islands and the Mangesse Islands. Pursuant to a
supplemental international agreement, the transfer of administration became effective on 16 October
1947.[13][14]
Roxas did not stay long in office because of a heart attack as he was speaking at Clark Air Base on
April 15, 1948. He was succeeded by his vice president Elpidio Quirino.[15]

The Quirino Administration (1948–53)[edit]

Elpidio Quirino, president from 1948–53

Quirino assumed the presidency on April 17, 1948, taking his oath of office two days after the death
of Manuel Roxas. In 1949 the wartime president, Jose P. Laurel of the Nacionalista Party, ran
against Quirino in what has been described as a particularly corrupt and venal exercise in
democracy. Although historians in general accept that Laurel was elected, he refused to challenge
Quirino's declared victory with force.[16]
Since Quirino was a widower, his surviving daughter Vicky would serve as the official hostess and
perform the functions traditionally ascribed to the First Lady.
Quirino's administration faced a serious threat in the form of the communist Hukbalahap movement.
Though the Huks originally had been an anti-Japanese guerrilla army in Luzon, communists steadily
gained control over the leadership, and when Quirino's negotiation with Huk commander Luis
Taruc broke down in 1948, Taruc openly declared himself a Communist and called for the overthrow
of the government.
His six years as president were marked by notable postwar reconstruction, general economic gains,
and increased economic aid from the United States. Basic social problems, however, particularly in
the rural areas, remained unsolved, and his administration was tainted by widespread graft and
corruption.
In 1950, the administration of president Quirino was beginning the Korean War and over 7,450
Filipino soldiers were sent to Korea under the designation of the Philippine Expeditionary Forces to
Korea or PEFTOK.
Although ill, Quirino ran for re-election in 1953, but he was overwhelmingly defeated by Ramon
Magsaysay.

The Magsaysay Administration (1953–57)[edit]

 Ramon Magsaysay, president from 1953–57

In the Election of 1953, Magsaysay was elected president over the incumbent Elpidio Quirino, with
the scarcely concealed help of American officials and funds.[16] He was sworn into office wearing
the Barong Tagalog, a first by a Philippine president.
As president, he was a close friend and supporter of the United States and a vocal spokesman
against communismduring the Cold War. He led the foundation of the Southeast Asia Treaty
Organization also known as the Manila Pact of 1954, that aimed to defeat communist-Marxist
movements in South East Asia, South Asia and the Southwestern Pacific. During his term, he
made Malacañan Palace literally a "house of the people", opening its gates to the public.
One example of his integrity followed a demonstration flight aboard a new plane belonging to
the Philippines Air Force (PAF). President Magsaysay asked what the operating costs per hour were
for that type of aircraft, then wrote a personal check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight.
On March 16, 1957 Magsaysay left Manila for Cebu City where he spoke at three educational
institutions. That same night, at about 1 a.m., he boarded the presidential plane "Mt. Pinatubo", a C-
47, heading back to Manila. In the early morning hours of March 17, his plane was reported missing.
It was late in the afternoon that day that newspapers reported that the airplane had crashed on Mt.
Manunggal in Cebu and that 25 of the 26 passengers and crew aboard were killed. Only
newspaperman Néstor Mata survived. Vice President Carlos P. García, who was on an official visit
to Australia at the time, assumed the presidency to serve out the last eight months of Magsaysay's
term.
An estimated 2 million people attended Magsaysay's burial on March 22, 1957.[17][18][19]

The Garcia Administration (1957–61)[edit]

Carlos P. Garcia, president from 1957–61

Garcia assumed the presidency after Ramón Magsaysay died in a plane crash on March 17, 1957,
and was elected later the same year, in the Election 1957, to a full term.
During his administration, he acted on the Bohlen–Serrano Agreement which shortened the lease of
the US Bases from 99 years to 25 years and made it renewable after every five years.
He was well known when he exercised the Filipino First Policy during his term in office. This policy
heavily favored Filipino businessmen over foreign investors. He was also responsible for changes in
retail trade which greatly affected the Chinese businessmen in the country. He also made a program
focused on thriftiness.
At the end of his second term, he ran for re–election in the Election 1961 in November 1961, but was
defeated by Diosdado Macapagal, who served as Vice-President under him, but belonged to the
opposing Liberal Party - in the Philippines the President and the Vice-President are elected
separately.

The Macapagal Administration (1961–65)[edit]

Diosdado Macapagal, president from 1961–65

In the 1961 presidential election, Macapagal ran against Garcia and defeated the incumbent
president by a 55% to 45% margin. Seeking to stimulate economic development, Macapagal took
the advice of supporters and allowed the Philippine peso to float on the free currency exchange
market. His reform efforts were blocked by the Nacionalistas, who dominated the House of
Representatives and the Senate at that time. Nonetheless, his presidency achieved growth and
prosperity for the nation.
Among the most significant achievements of Macapagal as president were the abolition of tenancy
and accompanying land reform program in the Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963. He also
changed the date of celebration of Philippine independence from July 4 to June 12, the latter date
having been the day when in 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence from Spain). Later,
Macapagal told author Stanley Karnow that the reason for the change was that American Embassy
celebrations were visited more than the Filipino reception on the July 4 American independence
day.[20]
Macapagal was defeated for re-election in 1965 by Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, a former
Liberal Party ally who defected to the Nacionalista party to challenge the incumbent President.
.
Local government
Before the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, most people lived in small
independent villages called barangays, each ruled by a local paramount ruler called
a datu. The Spanish later founded many small towns, which they called poblaciones,
and from those centres roads or trails were built in four to six directions, like the
spokes of a wheel. Along the roadsides arose numerous new villages,
designated barrios under the Spanish, that were further subdivided into smaller
neighbourhood units called sitios.
Elements of both Spanish and indigenous local settlement structures have persisted
into the early 21st century. The country is divided administratively into several dozen
provinces, which are grouped into a number of larger regions. The National Capital
Region (Metro Manila) has special status, as does the Autonomous Region in
Muslim Mindanaoin the far south. Each province is headed by an elected governor.
The provinces collectively embrace more than 100 cities and some 1,500
municipalities. The poblaciones are now the central business and administrative
districts of larger municipalities. Although contemporary rural and urban settlement
revolves around the poblaciones, the population is typically concentrated in the
surrounding barangays, reinstated during the Marcos regime as the basic units of
government (replacing the barrios). The barangays, which number in the tens of
thousands, consist of communities of fewer than 1,000 residents that fall within the
boundaries of a larger municipality or city. Cities, municipalities, and barangays all
have elected officials.
Justice
The constitution of 1987, which reestablished the independence of the judiciary after
the Marcos regime, provides for a Supreme Court with a chief justice and 14
associate justices. Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president from a list
submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council and serve until they reach the age of 70.
Lower courts include the Court of Appeals; regional, metropolitan, and municipal trial
courts; and special courts, including the Court of Tax Appeals, Shariʿa (Sharīʿah)
district and circuit courts of Islamic law, and the Sandiganbayan, a court for trying
cases of corruption. Because justices and judges enjoy fixed tenure and moderate
compensation, the judiciary has generally been less criticized than other branches of
the government. However, the system remains challenged by lack of
fiscal autonomy and an extremely low budget that long has amounted to just a tiny
fraction of total government spending.
In order to reduce the load of the lower courts, local committees of citizens called
Pacification Committees (Lupon Tagapamayapa) have been organized to effect
extrajudicial settlement of minor cases between barangay residents. In
each lupon (committee) there is a Conciliation Body (Pangkat Tagapagkasundo), the
main function of which is to bring opposing parties together and
effect amicablesettlement of differences. The committee cannot impose punishment,
but otherwise its decisions are binding.
Political process
Partisan political activity was vigorous until 1972, when martial lawrestrictions under
Marcos all but eliminated partisan politics. Where the principal rivals had been the
Nacionalista and Liberal parties, Marcos’s New Society Movement (Kilusan Bagong
Lipunan; KBL), an organization created from elements of the Nacionalista Party and
other supporters, emerged as predominant. Organized political opposition was revived
for legislative elections held in 1978, and, since the downfall of Marcos, partisan
politics has returned to its pre-1972 level, with a large number of political parties
emerging.
The Filipino political scene is marked by parties constantly forming, re-forming,
merging, and splintering into factions. Among the most prominent parties in the early
decades of the 21st century were the Liberal Party and the Lakas Kampi Christian
Muslim Democrats, the latter coming into being after the merger—completed in
2009—between the National Union of Christian Democrats (known as Lakas) and the
Alliance of Free Filipinos (known as Kampi). Other parties included the Nacionalista
Party, the Nationalist People’s Coalition, and the Force of the Filipino Masses
(Pwersa ng Masang Pilipino; PMP). Many smaller parties are splinters from the larger
organizations or are associated with particular regional interests. In addition, political
victories are often achieved through party coalition, such as the United National
Alliance, a coalition between the PMP and the Filipino Democratic Party–Laban that
elected boxer Manny Pacquiao to the lower house in 2013.
Certain armed political organizations also operate within the country. The two main
ones are the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), a Muslim separatist group that
officially accepted Mindanao’s status as an autonomous region in the late 20th century
but, in so doing, spawned splinter groups that remain committed to achieving a
separate Islamic state; and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), which split
from the MNLF in the late 1970s and more aggressively sought an independent
Islamic state for Muslim Filipinos (Moros). In 2012 Pres. Benigno S. Aquino III and
the MILF concluded a framework agreement to establish an autonomous Islamic
region on the southern island of Mindanao, but breakaway factions within the MILF
rejected the deal. Other groups included the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), a local
fundamentalist Muslim organization that gained notoriety though its kidnap-for-
ransom activities and alleged links with international terrorism, and the National
Democratic Front (NDF), a communist-led insurgency movement.

Moro Islamic Liberation FrontMembers of the separatist Moro Islamic Liberation Front celebrating the
announcement of a politically autonomous region on the southern Philippine island of Mindanao, October
2012.Karlos Manlupig/AP

The Philippines has universal suffrage for citizens who are at least 18 years old and
have lived in the country for at least one year. Suffrage was granted to women in
1937. Since that time women have become prominent leaders at all levels of
government, including the presidency.
Security
The Department of National Defense is divided into three services: the army, the
navy, and the air force. The army is the largest division. Service in the military is
voluntary and is open to both men and women. The commander in chief of the armed
forces (the president of the Philippines) is a civilian.
The armed forces are responsible for external defense. However, they also work with
the Philippine National Police (PNP) to contain the antigovernment military actions of
the NDF, the MILF, the MNLF, and other domestic militant organizations. Both the
military and the police participate in international peacekeeping efforts of the United
Nations; Philippine forces have been deployed in such a capacity to Afghanistan, East
Timor (Timor-Leste), Sudan, and other sites of conflict. The armed forces additionally
engage in nonmilitary activities, such as providing disaster relief, constructing roads
and bridges, and participating in literacy campaigns.
Under a series of agreements reached in 1947, shortly after Philippine independence,
the United States continued to maintain several bases in the Philippines and to provide
the Philippines with military equipment and training. Revision of the agreements in
1978 recognized Philippine sovereignty over the bases. All installations subsequently
raised the Philippine flag and were placed under Filipino command.
When the revised treaties expired in 1991, the U.S. military presence on the bases
ended. However, the two countries remained military allies, carrying out joint military
exercises and engaging in mutual military assistance. Following the September
11 terrorist attacks against the United States in 2001, the Philippines joined the U.S.-
led global coalition against terrorism. In so doing, the Philippines aimed to upgrade
the effectiveness of its armed forces in combating terrorist activity, not only in the
international arena but also within its own borders. In 2014 the two countries signed a
new 10-year agreement that gave the U.S. military access to several of the bases.
The PNP falls under the supervision of the Department of the Interior and Local
Government and is organized into regional and provincial commands. There are also
numerous private armies organized by landowners and local politicians. Unsuccessful
attempts have been made by various administrations to disband these civilian forces.
Health and welfare
Health and welfare are the responsibilities of the Department of Health (DOH) and the
Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD). The DOH maintains
general, specialized, and research hospitals in urban centres throughout the country.
There are also government-operated regional health centres and rural units, as well as
private hospitals. Incorporated into the DSWD are several government agencies that
address the needs of children, youths, women, families, and people with disabilities. A
number of nongovernmental organizations and private social welfare agencies also
cooperate with the department.

The rate of mortality in the early 21st century was considerably lower than it had been
a few decades earlier in the latter part of the 20th century, particularly among infants,
children under the age of five years, and mothers. There was also a generally steady
increase in average life expectancy. The improvement in health is credited to better
prenatal care and the services of more trained midwives, doctors, and nurses;
improved housing, sanitation, and social security benefits; the provision of health
services to government employees; the increasing number of medical and nursing
school graduates; and the requirement that a medical graduate render rural service.
Nonetheless, the demand for health care continues to outstrip available resources; a
large number of trained medical professionals emigrate, particularly to the United
States, and many of the poorest people still rely on the services of practitioners of
traditional medicine and unlicensed midwives.
Housing
There is a serious housing shortage everywhere, although it is
especially acute in Manila. In many places, people live in their own dwellings, but the
houses are often substandard and lack elementary facilities for health and sanitation.
To help meet this problem, the government has relocated thousands of “informal
settlers” (i.e., squatters) in Manila to resettlement areas in nearby provinces. Assorted
housing plans also have been instituted by various administrations since the Marcos
era. Such projects generally consisted of model communities that provided residents
with hygienic dwellings, a number of amenities, and facilities for raising livestock and
for pursuing cottage industries and other means of making a living. Other important
programs have included converting vacant government lands into housing sites for
low-income individuals, as well as providing mortgage programs that allow needy
families to acquire tracts of land for housing construction and improvement through
membership in a specific development community.
Education
The Department of Education ensures that all school-age children and youths receive
a basic high-quality education that will allow them to function as productive, socially
responsible citizens. Elementary education in the Philippines is compulsory; it starts at
age five and lasts for seven years (one year of kindergarten and six years of primary
education). Secondary education begins at age 12 and lasts for an additional six years;
undergraduate college instruction typically is four years. Vocational schools offer
specialized training for one to three years, some in collaboration with the Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority, an organization formed through the
merger of several government agencies in the mid-1990s. The Bureau
of AlternativeLearning System offers opportunities to attain a basic education outside
of the formal school system.
There are dozens of state-run universities and colleges, a large portion of them in
Metro Manila, as well as a number of private institutions. The University of Santo
Tomas, the oldest university in the Philippines, was founded in 1611. Other prominent
tertiary institutions include the University of the Philippines (1908), which has
numerous campuses and is the only national university in the country; the Polytechnic
University of the Philippines (1904), another public institution, with its main campus
in Manila and numerous affiliated campuses on Luzon; and the Philippine Women’s
University (1932), a private institution (coeducational since the late 20th century) that
has campuses in Manila, Quezon City, and Davao. Many technical institutions and
community colleges serve the provinces.
Pilipino (Filipino) is the medium of instruction in all elementary-school subjects
except science, mathematics, and the English language, which are taught in English.
The medium of instruction at the secondary and tertiary levels typically is English. A
chronic shortage of supplies and facilities was partially remedied by a textbook
program begun in the mid-1970s and by the large-scale manufacture of prefabricated
classrooms.