Theory of knowledge

Question 2:
“There are only two ways in which humankind can produce knowledge: through passive
observation or through active experiment.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

School- Berlin Brandenburg International School

Exam session - May 2015
Word count - 1600
Philosopher Denis Diderot once said “There are three principal means of acquiring knowledge…

observation of nature, reflection, and experimentation. Observation collects facts; reflection

combines them; experimentation verifies the result of that combination”1. The statement present

in the title of my choice asserts that the acquisition of knowledge is probable only through passive

observation and active experimentation, however the question remains, to which extent this is the

case? The term active experimentation is the notion of taking an active role in an attempt to justify

skepticism and draw conclusions using empirical evidences. Antithetically, the term passive

observation is the notion of solely using observation to infer a conclusion, therefore an intangible

process that involves no active role2. Active experimentation and passive observation are both

ways of producing knowledge; however they are not the sole means in the catalogue of ways

through which human beings acquire knowledge. While active experimentation and passive

observation are particularly pertinent in the area of knowledge like science, areas of knowledge

such as mathematics and religion do not fully entail these two ways to acquire knowledge. It is

also potent in ways of knowing namely reason and faith. Hence, through the contrasting areas of

knowledge such as science, mathematics and religion the rigidity of this assertion can be argued.

Natural and human sciences are areas of knowledge in which active experimentation and passive

observation are essential to produce scientific knowledge. In chemistry for example I investigated

the effect of pH indicators of different ranges on a neutralization reaction between NaOH (a strong

base) and HCL (a strong acid) against time consumption, from which it was confirmed that an

indicator called phenolphthalein of the range from 8.0 to 10.0 was the most appropriate for a

1
Diderot Denis, “Denis Diderot - On the Interpretation of Nature,” 1753, www.qotd.org,
http://www.qotd.org/search/search.html?aid=1531&page=4.
2
theoryofknowledge.net, 2014. 'May 2015 TOK Prescribed Essay Titles'. http://www.theoryofknowledge.net/tok-
essay/may-2015-tok-essay-titles/.
titration reaction between strong acids and a bases. As Denis Diderot stated that observation

collects the facts and experiment verifies the result, my investigation was supported by observation

of color change and the empirical data from which I formed a graph, that later allowed me arrive

to the above conclusion. In essence, if a science investigation is experimented as inquiry of

scientific skepticism, both observation and experimentation are vital so as to accredit the inquiry.

Furthermore, Science requires deductive and inductive reasoning as a way of knowing. Deductive

reasoning allows one to test an observation and infer a theory. A hypothesis and an experimental

design are formulated based on an observational fact3. An example is J.J Thompson’s experiment

of Cathode Rays, where a prior existent knowledge of electron behavior was tested through

hypothesis and experiment. The suspicion of indivisibility of latent charge from emitted rays, led

Thompson to design an experiment to augment his skepticism. The experiment saw a cathode ray

attached to pair of cylinders containing slits in them which was connected to an electrometer that

would measure the electric charge. In order to comprehend whether charges could be separated

from the rays, he bent the rays by inducing a magnetic field and learnt that the negative charge and

the cathode rays were indivisible4. Thus, in terms of sciences practical deductive reasoning

requires active experiment to fortify the credibility and acquire knowledge.

Oppositely, inductive reasoning utilizes simply observational pragmatism to discover a theory and

illuminate a scientific pattern5. This comes in huge terms with evolutionary theories. An example

could be the observational discovery of theories by Charles Darwin. One of his observations

3
Van de Lagemaa, Richard. May 26, 2011. Theory of Knowledge for The IB Diploma Full Color Edition. England:
Cambridge University Press.
4
Aip.org, 2014. 'Three Experiments and One Big Idea'. https://www.aip.org/history/electron/jj1897.htm.
5
Crossman, Ashley. 2014. 'What's the Difference between Deductive and Inductive Reasoning?’ About.
http://sociology.about.com/od/Research/a/Deductive-Reasoning-Versus-Inductive-Reasoning.htm.
showed the variance of Darwin Finches across an island called Galapagos, which led to the theory

of geographical isolation, elucidating that variation between specie changed with the distance due

to adaptations of geographical niche.6 This form of inductive reasoning to discover and prove a

theory was merely based on observation and theoretical reflection, unlike the practical deductive

reasoning experiment by Thompson. Moreover, another example of acquirement of knowledge

through observation is the invention of vaccination. During the 20th century a lethal virus named

“variola” swept through Europe taking several lives, but a physician named Edward Jenner

observed that milkmaids were frequently diagnosed with a non-harmful sickness called cowpox,

and were immune to variola virus. This observation later allowed him to discover the vaccination

against smallpox7. Consequently, the genesis of his discovery was observation, and our healthy

livelihood today can be highly accredited to Edward Jenner.

The assertion now is that, is passive observation completely passive? In surplus, it can only be

reasoned that passive observation is wholly passive only if an individual’s body mechanisms are

inert and do not actively subsidize the process. This sets limelight to the process of thinking which

is in my judgment is not passive. While we are thinking, our brain functions in transporting our

thoughts. To elaborate, let’s look at neuroscience. The activities in our body mechanism comprise

the activities of the nervous system, where cells termed ‘neurons’ transmit information and

messages throughout the body via the electrochemical systems. The sensory neurons encompass a

transport chain from the sensory receptor to the brain, while motor neurons encompass a transport

chain from our brain to muscles in our body. So, in essence when we are observing we are

6
Fossilmuseum.net, 2014. 'Darwin's Finches, Decent With Modification and Natural Selection'.
http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Evolution/DarwinsFinches.htm.
7
Historyofvaccines.org, 2014. 'The Scientific Method in Vaccine History — History of Vaccines'.
http://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/articles/scientific-method-vaccine-history.
transmitting our observations, and neurons take an active role in transmitting the information,

called as the “action potential” in biology8. Hence, way of acquiring knowledge through

observation is not passive, but an active act, which lets me to question the very existence of the

term “passive observation”.

Not all forms of knowledge derives from active experimentation and passive observation.

Mathematics is an area of knowledge that stages an antithetical view of response to the claim in

my title. Mathematics is deductive epistemology, which is a process that allows solving

mathematical questions from a theory or principle that is already known. For instance we know

that 4+4 is equal to 8 which is not consequent of both observation and experimentation. It is a

deductively known property of relating discrete concepts of mathematical principles and theories,

such as the concept of summation to derive at a sum of numbers. Therefore mathematical

knowledge isn’t the same as empirical or observational knowledge. However on the other hand,

let’s look at the concept of Bayes theorem. Bayes theorem was initially constructed by Thomas

Bayes, who showed that our extents of belief in laws and theories are often defined by

mathematical probabilities. To elaborate, Bayes theorem is an understanding of the probability of

the accuracy of a theory which is influenced by empirical or observational evidences, it looks at

the probability of possible causes of an observed outcome9. Besides, in philosophy of science

which often involves the relationship between evidence and a theory, Bayes theorem is used to

describe the relationship between evidence and a theory that bolsters the credibility and lucidity.

Thus, in the area of mathematical knowledge, I cannot argue the non-requirement of

8
Allot, Andrew. 2007. Biology for the IB Diploma. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
9
Bruce, Aune. 2008. An Empiricist Theory of Knowledge. EBook. 1st ed. Boston: University of Massachusetts.
http://www.umass.edu/philosophy/PDF/Aune/ETK.pdf.
experimentation or observation since an imperative theory like Bayes theorem utilizes empirical

and observational evidences in the process of knowing the statistical probability of causes.

An area of knowledge that is rigidly contrasting to the opted claim is religion. Religious knowledge

is the knowledge of an individual’s belief or faith, which can be either subjective or objective.

Extreme religionists reason the existence of soul by claiming that it is through means of meditation

and prayers. Although I would strongly disagree with the existence of the term “passive”, assuming

the term passive observation is viable, the reasoning can be seen as a form of passive observation.

However, there are no accurate justifications, as a result of the contingent intangibility of proofs.

An atheist would affirm the non-existence of god for they believe that theism lacks empirical or

accurate observation of evidences, meanwhile a theist would strongly disagree with this claim,

although lacking the proof. For example, let’s take a look at my religion, Hinduism, where a picture

of Hindu god is assumed to be what they look like, so has the creator of the picture seen god? In

Hinduism the form of lord Ganesh for instance has a story behind it, thus a belief. Lack of proof

is because beliefs and faiths cannot be vindicated or examined in a microscope. This was expressed

by Christopher Hitchens when he said “that which can be asserted without evidence, can be

dismissed without evidence”10

Besides, it cannot also be agreed that there are only two ways to acquire knowledge, this takes into

account of innate knowledge that is inborn with an infant. For example, a baby knows that it can

feed from its mother’s breasts, did this knowledge come from active experimentation or passive

10
Ted.com, 2012. '“That Which Can Be Asserted Without Evidence, Can Be Dismissed Without Evidence.” –
Christopher Hitchens. Do You Agree? | A Conversation on TED.Com'.
http://www.ted.com/conversations/15491/that_which_can_be_asserted_wi.html.
observation? No, it is innate. Antithetically, on the other hand, if a baby wants attention it knows

it can get attention by crying, and this can be classified as knowledge gained by experimentation.

Therefore it cannot be fully asserted that acquisition of basic knowledge is as a consequence of

active experimentation and passive observation.

Are there only two ways in which humankind acquire knowledge? It is only to certain extent to

which the knowledge of an individual is reliant on the acquisition of knowledge through solely

active experimentation and passive observation. Having strongly affirmed earlier in the essay, I

disagree with the existence of “passive” observation, since observation is not passive. The field of

science is pragmatically dependent upon empirical and observational facts, conversely in the area

of mathematics both show a partial but an imperative role to acquire knowledge. Finally, the

intangibility of religious faiths and beliefs detracts passive observation and active experimentation

as means to acquire knowledge. Ultimately, the accuracy of the assertion in the title of my choice

to a certain extent surpasses the fabrication of the claim.

Word count: 1600

 Works cited

Websites

Aip.org, 2014. 'Three Experiments and One Big Idea'.

https://www.aip.org/history/electron/jj1897.htm.

Crossman, Ashley. 2014. 'What's the Difference between Deductive and Inductive
Reasoning?’ About. http://sociology.about.com/od/Research/a/Deductive-Reasoning-Versus-
Inductive-Reasoning.htm

Diderot Denis, “Denis Diderot - On the Interpretation of Nature,” 1753, www.qotd.org,

http://www.qotd.org/search/search.html?aid=1531&page=4.

Fossilmuseum.net, 2014. 'Darwin's Finches, Decent With Modification and Natural

Selection'. http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Evolution/DarwinsFinches.htm.

Historyofvaccines.org, 2014. 'The Scientific Method in Vaccine History — History of

Vaccines'. http://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/articles/scientific-method-vaccine-history.

Ted.com, 2012. '“That Which Can Be Asserted Without Evidence, Can Be Dismissed
Without Evidence.” – Christopher Hitchens. Do You Agree? | A Conversation on TED.Com'.
http://www.ted.com/conversations/15491/that_which_can_be_asserted_wi.html.

Theoryofknowledge.net, 2014. 'May 2015 TOK Prescribed Essay Titles'.

http://www.theoryofknowledge.net/tok-essay/may-2015-tok-essay-titles/.

Books

Allot, Andrew. 2007. Biology for the IB Diploma. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Van de Lagemaa, Richard. May 26, 2011. Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma Full
Color Edition. England: Cambridge University Press.

PDF

Bruce, Aune. 2008. An Empiricist Theory of Knowledge. EBook. 1st ed. Boston:
University of Massachusetts. http://www.umass.edu/philosophy/PDF/Aune/ETK.pdf.