Chap. 5 (2010).
qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 2:23 PM Page 87
CHAPTER 5
Mixing Water for Concrete
Water is a key ingredient in concrete, that when mixed
with portland cement, forms a paste that binds the aggre-
gates together. Water causes the hardening of concrete
through hydration. Hydration is a chemical reaction
between cement and water to form cementitious hydra-
tion products. Further details of hydration are discussed
in Chapter 3.
Water needs to be of suitable quality for use in concrete
as to not adversely impact the potential properties of
concrete. Almost any water that is drinkable and has no
pronounced taste or odor, also known as potable water,
can be used as mixing water in concrete (Figure 5-1).
However, efforts towards conservation of this important
natural resource should be recognized. Many waters that
are not fit for drinking are suitable for use in concrete.
Figure 5-1. Water is a key ingredient in concrete.
Acceptance criteria for water to be used in concrete are
given in ASTM C1602 / C1602M, Standard Specification for
Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic Cement
Concrete.
87
ASTM C1602 includes provisions for:
1. Potable water – that which is fit for human consump-
tion;
2. Non-potable water – other sources that are not
potable, that might have objectionable taste or smell
but not related to water generated at concrete plants.
This can represent water from wells, streams, or lakes;
3. Water from concrete production operations – process
(wash) water or storm water collected at concrete
plants; and
4. Combined water – a combination of one or more of
the above defined sources recognizing that water
sources might be blended when producing concrete.
All requirements in the standard apply to the com-
bined water as batched into concrete and not to indi-
vidual sources when water sources are combined.
Table 5-1. Performance Requirements for Questionable Water
Sources (ASTM C1602)
Test
Limits method
Compressive strength,
minimum percentage of ASTM
control at 7 days 90 C31, C39
Time of set, deviation from from 1:00 earlier ASTM
control, hr:min. to 1:30 later C403
*Comparisons must be based on fixed proportions of a concrete mix
design representative of questionable water supply and a control
mix using 100% potable water.
Potable water can be used in concrete without any testing
or qualification. Water of questionable suitability, including
non-potable water or water from concrete production
operations, can be used in concrete if it is qualified for
use by requirements stated in ASTM C1602/C1602M.
The primary requirements of ASTM C1602/C1602M are
summarized in Table 5-1. They evaluate the impact of the
questionable water on strength and setting time of concrete.
Chap. 5 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 2:23 PM Page 88
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001
Concrete produced with the questionable water is
compared to control batches produced with potable or
distilled water. The 7-day strength of concrete cylinders
(ASTM C39, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength
of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens, or AASHTO T 22) or
mortar cubes (CSAA23.2-8A) must achieve at least 90%
of the strength of the control batch. The setting time, as
measured by ASTM C403, Standard Test Method for Time
of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance
(AASHTO T 197), of the test batch should not be acceler-
ated by more than 60 minutes or retarded by more than
90 minutes as compared to the control batch.
The most critical water combination proposed for use in
concrete by a supplier should be tested and qualified.
Water combinations at levels less than that qualified can
be used without testing. For example, if the concrete
supplier tests water that contains 100,000 ppm (10% by
mass) of solids and the concrete meets the requirements
for strength and setting time, less restrictive conditions
where the combined water contains less than that quantity
of solids are permitted for use.
Table 5-2. Optional Chemical Limits for Combined Mixing Water
(ASTM C1602)
Maximum
Chemical or concentration, Test
type of construction ppm* method
Chloride, as Cl
Prestressed concrete or
concrete in bridge decks 500**
Other reinforced concrete in
moist environments or
containing aluminum
embedments or dissimilar
metals or with stay-in-place
galvanized metal forms 1000** ASTM C114
Sulfate, as SO4 3000 ASTM C114
Alkalies, as (Na2O + 0.658 K2O) 600 ASTM C114
Total solids by mass 50,000 ASTM C1603
*ppm is the abbreviation for parts per million.
** The requirements for concrete in ACI 318 shall govern when the
manufacturer can demonstrate that these limits for mixing water
can be exceeded. For conditions allowing the use of calcium chlo-
ride (CaCl2) accelerator as an admixture, the chloride limitation is
permitted to be waived by the purchaser.
ASTM C1602 includes optional limits, as stated in Table 5-2
for limits on the chemistry and total solids content by mass
in the combined mixing water. Optional limits have to be
invoked in project specifications or in purchase orders. The
concrete supplier is required to maintain documentation
on these characteristics. The chemical composition of water
is measured in accordance with methods described in
ASTM C114, Standard Test Methods for Chemical Analysis
of Hydraulic Cement and the solids content is measured in
accordance with ASTM C1603, Standard Test Method for
Measurement of Solids in Water. The density of water is
measured during production of concrete to estimate the
solids content using a pre-established correlation for the
specific production facility as described in ASTM C1603.
88
ASTM C1602 also establishes minimum testing frequen-
cies to qualify mixing water in conformance with the
requirements of Table 5-1 and Table 5-2. More frequent
testing is required when water has a higher concentration
of solids (higher density).
AASHTO M 157, Specification for Ready Mixed Concrete, is
referenced by some transportation agencies and includes
minor differences on the requirements for water as com-
pared to ASTM C1602. In AASHTO M 157, the chemical
limits are not optional; the chloride limits stated for
concrete are similar to those in ACI 318, and it refers to
different test methods. (Though the same procedures
would be used to analyze the chemistry of water.)
Sources of Mixing Water
When considering water quality in concrete production,
it is important to account for all sources of water in the
mixture. By far, the greatest volume of mixing water in
concrete is from batchwater which may be from either a
municipal water supply, a municipal reclaimed water
supply, site-sourced water, or water from concrete pro-
duction operations. Other sources of batch water include:
Free moisture on aggregates. Free moisture on aggre-
gates (moisture adsorbed on the surface) constitutes a
substantial portion of the total mixing water. It is impor-
tant that the free water on the aggregate is free from
harmful materials.
Ice. During hot-weather concreting, ice might be used as
part of the mixing water (see Chapter 16). The ice should
be completely melted by the time mixing is completed.
Jobsite addition by truck operator. Water might also be
added by the truck operator at the jobsite. ASTM C94, Stan-
dard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete (AASHTO M
157), allows the addition of water on site if the slump of the
concrete is less than specified, provided the maximum al-
lowable water-cement ratio is not exceeded (see Chapter 13).
Admixtures. Water contained in admixtures must be
considered part of the mixing water if the admixture’s
water content is sufficient to affect the water-cementitious
materials ratio by 0.01 or more.
Municipal Water Supply
Municipal water supply systems get their water from a
variety of locations including; aquifers, lakes and rivers,
and the sea through desalination. The water is then, in
most cases; purified, disinfected through chlorination,
and sometimes fluoridated, prior to use as drinking water.
An atomic absorption spectrophotometer can be used to
detect concentration of elements in the laboratory analysis
of water (Figure 5-2). Six typical analyses of city water
supplies and seawater are shown in Table 5-3. These
waters approximate the composition of domestic water
supplies for most of the cities over 20,000 population in
the United States and Canada. Water from any of these
sources is suitable for use in concrete.
Chap. 5 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 2:24 PM Page 89

Chapter 5 ◆ Mixing Water for Concrete

Table 5-3. Typical Analyses of City Water Supplies and Seawater

Analysis No. (Parts per million)

Chemicals 1 2 3 4 5 6 Seawater*

Silicate (SiO2) 2.4 0.0 6.5 9.4 22.0 3.0 —

Iron (Fe) 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 —
Calcium (Ca) 5.8 15.3 29.5 96.0 3.0 1.3 50 to 480
Magnesium (Mg) 1.4 5.5 7.6 27.0 2.4 0.3 260 to 1410
Sodium (Na) 1.7 16.1 2.3 183.0 215.0 1.4 2190 to 12,200
Potassium (K) 0.7 0.0 1.6 18.0 9.8 0.2 70 to 550
Bicarbonate (HCO3) 14.0 35.8 122.0 334.0 549.0 4.1 —
Sulfate (SO4) 9.7 59.9 5.3 121.0 11.0 2.6 580 to 2810
Chloride (Cl) 2.0 3.0 1.4 280.0 22.0 1.0 3960 to 20,000
Nitrate (NO3) 0.5 0.0 1.6 0.2 0.5 0.0 —
Total dissolved solids 31.0 250.0 125.0 983.0 564.0 19.0 35,000

* Chemical composition of seawater varies considerably depending on its source.

Recycled Water (Water from Concrete Production)

Figure 5-2. An atomic absorption spectrophotometer can be used to
detect concentration of elements in the laboratory analysis of water.
Municipal Reclaimed Water
Reclaimed water is wastewater treated to remove solids
and certain impurities. It is typically used for nonpotable
applications uses such as irrigation, dust control, fire sup-
pression, concrete production, and construction. Reclaimed
water use supports sustainable efforts to extend our water
supplies rather than discharging the treated wastewater to
surface waters such as rivers and oceans (Abrams 1924).
Site-Sourced Water
Many large concrete paving projects and remote
construction sites use site source water either from
shallow wells, ponds or rivers. These natural sources of
water are typically not a concern. When they contain
significant amounts of suspended particles such as silt
and contain organic impurities and algae, additional
testing is warranted.
Recycled water from concrete production is primarily
a mixture of: water, partially or completely hydrated
cementitious materials, and aggregate fines resulting from
processing returned concrete. Recycled water and can in-
clude truck wash water, and storm water at the concrete
plant. The ready-mixed concrete industry is faced with the
challenge of managing about 3% to 5% of its estimated
annual production of 300 million cubic meters (400 million
cubic yards) as returned concrete. In addition, about 80,000
truck mixers are washed out using about 750 to 1,500 liters
(200 to 400 gallons) each of water daily (Lobo 2003). Most
of this water is recirculated to keep equipment clean. How-
ever, at some point, management of process water and
storm water is required for permit compliance. Given the
strict regulations on discharge of water from concrete
plants, the industry must look at recycling some of the
process and storm water generated at ready mixed con-
crete plants. Environmental regulations in Europe and
Japan have forced the ready mixed industry towards zero-
discharge production facilities. The U.S. industry should
trend in the same direction.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and state environmental agencies prohibit discharging
untreated process water from concrete operations into the
nation’s waterways. This is water recovered from pro-
cesses of concrete production that includes: wash water
from mixers or that was a part of a concrete mixture,
water collected in a basin as a result of storm water runoff
at a concrete production facility, or water that contains
quantities of concrete ingredients. In most situations, the
recycled water is passed through settling ponds where the
solids settle out, leaving clarified water (Figure 5-3). In
some cases, the recycled water from a reclaimer unit is
continually agitated to maintain the solids in suspension
for reuse as a portion of the batch water in concrete. Solid
content in recycled water typically varies from 2.5% to
10%. Solid contents exceeding 9 kg/m3 (15 lb/yd3)
(represented by the 50,000 ppm limit in Table 5-2) may

89
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Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001

Water storage
To
batch
tank

Ready mix truck with

returned concrete

Reclaimed
aggregates

Conveyor
belt

Pump Recycled
water
Figure 5-3. Reclaiming system allows immediate reuse of wash water in batching.

adversely impact the properties of concrete through:
increased water demand, accelerated setting time, lower
compressive strength, and higher permeability due to
increased water demand and associated higher w/cm.
(Lobo and Mullings 2003). The use of hydration control
admixtures has been shown to offset the effects of higher
solids contents (Table 5-4). ASTM C1602 and AASHTO
M 157 permit the use of water from concrete production
operations as mixing water in concrete, provided it meets
the limits in Table 5-2.
Seawater
Seawater containing up to 35,000 ppm of dissolved salts
is generally suitable as mixing water for concrete not con-
taining reinforcing steel. About 78% of the salt is sodium
chloride, and 15% is chloride and sulfate of magnesium.
Although concrete made with seawater may have higher
early strength than normal concrete, strengths at later ages
(after 28 days) may be lower in comparison to normal
concrete. This strength reduction can be compensated for
by reducing the water-cement ratio.
Seawater is not suitable for use in production of concrete
with steel reinforcement and likewise, it should not be
used in prestressed concrete due to the risk of corrosion of
the reinforcement. If seawater is used in plain concrete (no
reinforcing steel) for marine applications moderate sulfate
resistant cements, Types II or MS, should be used along
with a low water-cement ratio.
Sodium or potassium in salts present in seawater used for
mixing water can increase the alkali concentration in the
concrete and increase the potential for deleterious expan-
sions due to alkali-aggregate reactivity. Thus, seawater
should not be used as mix water for concrete with poten-
tially reactive aggregates.
Seawater used for mixing water also tends to cause efflo-
rescence and dampness on concrete surfaces exposed to
air and water (Steinour 1960). Marine-dredged aggregates
are discussed in Chapter 6.
Effects of Impurities in Mixing Water on
Concrete Properties
Excessive impurities in mixing water not only may affect
setting time and concrete strength, but also may cause
efflorescence, staining, corrosion of reinforcement, volume
instability, and reduced durability. Therefore, certain
optional limits on chlorides, sulfates, alkalis, and solids in
the mixing water may be set or appropriate tests can be
performed to determine the effect the impurity has on
various properties (Table 5-2). Some impurities may have

90
Chap. 5 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 2:23 PM Page 91
Table 5-4. Effect of Recycled Water on Concrete Properties*
Recycled water with Water demand
 
Solid contents within ASTM C94 limits
(≤8.9 kg/m3 [≤15 lb/yd3 ])
High solid contents
(>8.9 kg/m3 [>15 lb/yd3 ])
 
High solid contents and treated with
hydration stabilizing admixture
Source: After Lobo and Mullings (2003).
* Compared to reference concrete produced with tap water.


** Strength and permeability effects were related to increased mixing water content.
Key: decreased
Key
Key: increased
no trend
little effect on strength and setting time, yet adversely
affect durability and other properties.
Water containing less than 2000 parts per million (ppm)
of total dissolved solids is generally satisfactory for use
in concrete. Water containing more than 2000 ppm of dis-
solved solids should be tested for its effect on strength
and time of set (Table 5-1). Additional information on the
effects of mix water impurities can be found in Steinour
(1960) and Abrams (1924). Over 100 different compounds
and ions are discussed.
Following is a synopsis of the effects of certain impurities
in mixing water on the quality of normal concrete:
Alkali Carbonate and Bicarbonate
Carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium and potassium
have varying effects on the setting times of different
cements. Sodium carbonate can cause very rapid setting,
bicarbonates can either accelerate or retard the set
depending on the chemistry of the cement used in the
concrete. In large concentrations, these salts can materially
reduce concrete strength. When the sum of the dissolved
salts exceeds 1000 ppm, tests for their effect on setting
time and 28-day strength should be made. The possibility
of aggravated alkali-aggregate reactions should also
be considered.
Chloride
Concern over a high chloride content in mixing water is
chiefly due to the possible adverse effect of chloride ions
on the corrosion of reinforcing steel or prestressing
strands. Chloride ions attack the protective oxide film
formed on the steel by the highly alkaline (pH greater
than 13.0) chemical environment present in concrete. The
acid-soluble chloride ion level at which steel reinforce-
ment corrosion begins in concrete is about 0.2% to 0.4% by
mass of cement (0.15% to 0.3% water soluble). Of the total
Chapter 5 ◆ Mixing Water for Concrete
Compressive Freeze-thaw
Setting time strength Permeability resistance
  


** 
* * **

no data no data
chloride-ion content in concrete, only about 50% to 85% is
water soluble; the remainder is chemically combined in
hydration reactions (Whiting 1997, Whiting, Taylor, and
Nagi 2002, and Taylor, Whiting, and Nagi 2000).
Chlorides can be introduced into concrete with the sepa-
rate mixture ingredients – admixtures, aggregates, cemen-
titious materials, and mixing water – or through exposure
to deicing salts, seawater, or salt-laden air in coastal envi-
ronments. Placing an acceptable limit on chloride content
for any one ingredient, such as mixing water, is problem-
atic considering the variety of sources of chloride ions in
concrete. An acceptable limit in the concrete depends pri-
marily upon the type of structure and the environment to
which it is exposed during its service life.
A high dissolved solids content of natural water is some-
times due to a high content of sodium chloride or sodium
sulfate. Both can be tolerated in rather large quantities.
Concentrations of 20,000 ppm of sodium chloride are
generally tolerable in concrete that will be dry in service
and has low potential for corrosive reactions. Water used
in prestressed concrete or in concrete designed with alu-
minum embedments should not contain deleterious
amounts of chloride ions. The contribution of chlorides
from ingredients other than water should also be consid-
ered. Calcium chloride admixtures should be avoided in
steel reinforced concrete.
The ACI 318 building code and CSA Standard A23.1 limit
water soluble chloride ion content in reinforced concrete
to the following percentages by mass of cement (CSA’s
limit is based on mass of cementitious materials):
Prestressed concrete (Classes C0, C1, C2) 0.06%
Reinforced concrete exposed to chloride
in service (Class C2) 0.15%
91
Chap. 5 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 2:23 PM Page 92
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001
Reinforced concrete that will be dry or
protected from moisture in service (Class C0) 1.00%
Other reinforced concrete construction (Class C1) 0.30%
ACI 318 and CSA Standard A23.1 do not limit the amount
of chlorides in plain (unreinforced) concrete. Additional
information on limits and tests can be found in ACI 222,
Corrosion of Metals in Concrete. The acid-soluble and
water-soluble chloride content of concrete can be deter-
mined using ASTM C1152, Standard Test Method for Acid-
Soluble Chloride in Mortar and Concrete, and ASTM C1218,
Standard Test Method for Water-Soluble Chloride in Mortar
and Concrete, respectively.
Sulfate
Concern over a high sulfate content in mix water is due to
possible expansive reactions and deterioration by sulfate
attack (see Chapter 11). Although mixing waters con-
taining 10,000 ppm of sodium sulfate have been used
satisfactorily, the limit in Table 5-2 should be considered
unless special precautions in the composition of the
concrete mixture are taken.
Other Common Salts
Carbonates of calcium and magnesium are not very
soluble in water and are seldom found in sufficient con-
centration to affect the strength of concrete. Bicarbonates
of calcium and magnesium are present in some municipal
waters. Concentrations up to 400 ppm of bicarbonate in
these forms are not considered harmful.
Magnesium sulfate and magnesium chloride can be
present in high concentrations without harmful effects on
strength. Satisfactory strengths have been obtained using
water with concentrations up to 40,000 ppm of magne-
sium chloride. Concentrations of magnesium sulfate
should be less than 25,000 ppm.
Iron Salts
Natural ground waters seldom contain more than 20 ppm
to 30 ppm of iron; however, acid mine waters may carry
rather large quantities. Iron salts in concentrations up to
40,000 ppm do not usually affect concrete strengths ad-
versely. The potential for staining should be evaluated.
Miscellaneous Inorganic Salts
Salts of manganese, tin, zinc, copper, and lead in mixing
water can cause a significant reduction in strength and
large variations in setting time. Of these, salts of zinc,
copper, and lead are the most active. Salts that are espe-
cially active as retarders include sodium iodate, sodium
phosphate, sodium arsenate, and sodium borate. All can
greatly retard both set and strength development when
present in concentrations of a few tenths percent by mass
of the cement. Generally, concentrations of these salts up
to 500 ppm can be tolerated in mixing water.
92
Another salt that may be detrimental to concrete is
sodium sulfide; even the presence of 100 ppm warrants
testing. Additional information on the effects of other salts
can be found in the references.
Acid Waters
Acceptance of acid mixing water should be based on the
concentration (in parts per million) of acids in the water.
Occasionally, acceptance is based on the measured pH, a
log scale measure of the hydrogen-ion concentration. The
pH value is an intensity index and is not the best measure
of potential acid or base reactivity. The pH of neutral
water is 7.0; values below 7.0 indicate acidity and those
above 7.0 alkalinity (a base).
Generally, mixing waters containing hydrochloric,
sulfuric, and other common inorganic acids in concentra-
tions as high as 10,000 ppm have no adverse effect on
strength. Acid waters with pH values less than 3.0 may
create handling problems and should be avoided if
possible. Organic acids, such as tannic acid, can have a
significant effect on strength at higher concentrations
(Figure 5-4).
Alkaline Waters
Waters with sodium hydroxide concentrations of 0.5% by
mass of cement do not greatly affect concrete strength
provided quick set is not induced. Higher concentrations,
however, may reduce concrete strength.
Potassium hydroxide in concentrations up to 1.2% by
mass of cement has little effect on the concrete strength
developed by some cements, but the same concentration
when used with other cements may substantially reduce
the 28-day strength.
The possibility for increased alkali-aggregate reactivity
should be considered.
Industrial Wastewater
Most waters carrying industrial wastes have less than 4000
ppm of total solids. When such water is used as mixing
water in concrete, the reduction in compressive strength is
generally not greater than 10%-15%. Wastewaters such as
those from tanneries, paint factories, coke plants, and
chemical and galvanizing plants may contain harmful
impurities. It is best to test any wastewater that contains
even a few hundred parts per million of unusual solids.
Silt or Suspended Particles
About 2000 ppm of suspended clay or fine rock particles
can be tolerated in mixing water. Higher amounts might
not affect strength but may influence other properties of
some concrete mixtures. Before use, muddy or cloudy
water should be passed through settling basins or other-
wise clarified to reduce the amount of silt and clay added
to the mixture by way of the mix water. When cement
Chap. 5 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11
fines are returned to the concrete in reused wash water,
50,000 ppm can be tolerated.
Organic Impurities
The effect of organic substances on the setting time of
portland cement or the ultimate strength of concrete is a
problem of considerable complexity. Such substances, like
surface loams, can be found in natural waters. Highly
colored waters, waters with a noticeable odor, or those
in which green or brown algae are visible should be re-
garded with suspicion and tested accordingly. Organic
impurities are often of a humus nature containing
tannates or tannic acid (Figure 5-4).
100
28 day tests
Concrete cylinders:
80
Strength, percent of control
60
40
20
0 the dosage of air-entraining admixture may need to be
0 1.0 2.0
Tannic acid, percent of mass of mixing water
Figure 5-4. Effect of tannic acid on the strength of concrete
(Abrams 1920).
Waters Carrying Sanitary Sewage
A typical sewage may contain about 400 ppm of organic
matter. After the sewage is diluted in a good disposal
system, the concentration is reduced to about 20 ppm or
less. This amount is too low to have any significant effect
on concrete strength.
Sugar
Small amounts of sucrose, as little as 0.03% to 0.15% by
mass of cement, usually retard the setting of cement. The
upper limit of this range varies with different cements.
The 7-day strength may be reduced while the 28-day
strength may be improved. Sugar in quantities of 0.25%
or more by mass of cement may cause rapid setting and
a substantial reduction in 28-day strength. Each type of
sugar can influence setting time and strength differently.
2:25 PM Page 93
Chapter 5 ◆ Mixing Water for Concrete
Less than 500 ppm of sugar in mix water generally has
no adverse effect on strength, but if the concentration
exceeds this amount, tests for setting time and strength
should be conducted.
Oils
Various kinds of oil are occasionally present in mixing
water. Mineral oil (petroleum) not mixed with animal or
vegetable oils may have less effect on strength develop-
ment than other oils. However, mineral oil in concentra-
tions greater than 2.5% by mass of cement may reduce
strength by more than 20%. Oils may interfere with the
action of air-entraining agents.
Algae
Water containing algae is unsuitable for concrete because
the algae can cause an excessive reduction in strength.
Algae in water leads to lower strengths either by influ-
encing cement hydration or by causing a large amount
75 mm x 150 mm
(3 in. x 6 in.) of air to be entrained in the concrete. Algae may also be
present on aggregates, in which case the bond between
the aggregate and cement paste is reduced. A maximum
algae content of 1000 ppm is recommended.
Interaction with Admixtures
When evaluating a water source for its effect on concrete
properties, it is important to also test the water with chem-
ical admixtures that will be used in the concrete mixture.
Certain compounds in water can influence the perform-
ance and efficiency of certain admixtures. For example,
3.0 4.0 5.0 increased when used with hard waters containing high
concentrations of certain compounds or minerals.
References
Abrams, Duff A., Effect of Tannic Acid on the Strength of
Concrete, Bulletin 7, Structural Materials Research Labora-
tory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, http://www.cement.org/
pdf_files/LS007.pdf, 1920, 34 pages (available through
PCA as LS007).
Abrams, Duff A., Tests of Impure Waters for Mixing
Concrete, Bulletin 12, Structural Materials Research Labo-
ratory, Lewis Institute, Chicago, http://www.cement.org/
pdf_files/LS012.pdf, 1924, 50 pages (available through
PCA as LS012).
ACI Committee 222, Corrosion of Metals in Concrete, ACI
222R-01, reapproved 2010, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Michigan, 2001, 41 pages.
ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Struc-
tural Concrete and Commentary, ACI 318-08, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 2008.
93
Chap. 5 (2010).qxd:EB001 (2010) 1/27/11 2:23 PM Page 94
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures ◆ EB001
CSA Standard A23.1-09/A23.2-09, Concrete Materials and
Methods of Concrete Construction/ Test methods and Standard
Practices for Concrete, Canadian Standards Association,
Toronto, Canada, 2009.
Lobo, Colin, “Recycled Water in Concrete,” Concrete Tech-
nology Today, Vol. 24, No. 3, CT033, Portland Cement Asso-
ciation, Skokie, Illinois, December 2003, pages 2 to 3.
Lobo, Colin, and Mullings, Gary M., “Recycled Water in
Ready Mixed Concrete Operations,” Concrete in Focus,
http://www.nrmca.org/research_engineering/lab.htm,
2003, 10 pages.
Meininger, Richard C., Recycling Mixer Wash Water,
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Silver
Spring, Maryland, 2000.
NRMCA, A System for 100% Recycling of Returned
Concrete: Equipment, Procedures, and Effects on Product
Quality, National Ready Mixed Concrete Association,
Silver Spring, Maryland, 1975.
94
Steinour, H.H., Concrete Mix Water—How Impure Can It
Be?, Research Department Bulletin RX119, Portland
Cement Association, http://www.cement.org/pdf_files
/RX119.pdf, 1960, 20 pages.
Taylor, Peter C.; Whiting, David A.; and Nagi, Mohamad
A., Threshold Chloride Content of Steel in Concrete, R&D
Serial No. 2169, Portland Cement Association, http://www.
cement.org/pdf_files/SN2169.pdf, 2000, 32 pages.
Whiting, David A., Origins of Chloride Limits for Reinforced
Concrete, R&D Serial No. 2153, Portland Cement Associa-
tion, http://www.cement.org/pdf_files/SN2153.pdf,
1997, 18 pages.
Whiting, David A.; Taylor, Peter C.; and Nagi, Mohamad
A., Chloride Limits in Reinforced Concrete, R&D Serial No.
2438, Portland Cement Association, 2002, 96 pages.
Yelton, Rick, “Answering Five Common Questions about
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