Ecological Study Report F6

iNTRODUCTION
rganisms are open systems that interact continuously with their environment. Ecology is the
study of the interaction between organisms and the environment; the connectedness between
living systems and non-living systems on the Earth. The term ecology can also be described as
the study habitat of a living thing. These interactions determine both the distribution of organism
and their abundance in the community.
Because of it’s great scope, ecology is an enormously complex and exciting area of
biology, as well as one of critical importance. Ecology reveals the richness of the biosphere—the
entire portion of Earth inhabited by life—and can provide the basic understanding that will help
us conserve and sustain that richness, now threatened more than ever by human activity. Humans
have always had an interest in the distribution and abundance of other organisms. With the
development of agriculture and the domestication of animals, people learned more about how the
environment affects the growth , survival and reproduction of plants and animals.
Communities of organisms are composed of two or more populations. At this level, an

ecologist could take a closer look at the cohabitation of animals in a certain area, studying how
the animals share food and space. The distinction between a community and an ecosystem is
slight, but essential to understand. While a community describes interaction between organisms
in an area, an ecosystem describes the entirety of the area, including chemical and physical
factors. Research at this level would concentrate on things like nutrient cycling (i.e. the
phosphorus or carbon cycle) or the distribution of energy in the ecosystem.
As we expand, things become more generalized, for instances, the living and nonliving
system. Finally, ecologists can look at biological interaction through the widest scope by
analyzing the biosphere, or the entirety of life's systems on the globe. Ecology at this level
usually involves major atmospheric phenomena like the long term effects of climate change or El
Niño on the Earth's living systems.
At each of these levels of organization, there are near infinite examples of questions to ask
about interaction. Those are just a few examples. Additionally, we have not even considered
narrowing the focus to the levels of physiological, cellular and molecular interaction.
INTRODUCTION
Ecology is a broad biological science and can thus be divided into many sub-disciplines
using various criteria. One such categorization, based on overall complexity (from the least
complex to the most), is:
• Behavioral ecology, which studies the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal
behavior, focusing largely at the level of the individual;
• Population ecology (or autecology), which deals with the dynamics of populations within
species, and the interactions of these populations with environmental factors
• Community ecology (or synecology) which studies the interactions between species within
an ecological community;
• Ecosystem ecology and Landscape ecology, which studies how flows of energy and matter
interact with biotic elements of ecosystems.
OBJECTIVE
OBJECTIVE
The goals intended to be obtained from this ecological study are :
1. Learning the basic principles of ecology through student’s own effort.
- Elements of ecosystem : biosis and abiosis
- Dynamic relationship of elements and flow of energy through ecosystem
2. Using simple apparatus and instruments in ecological studies
3. Learning the methods of collecting and analyzing ecological data
4. Writing an ecological study report
5. Inculcating nature loving attitude
6. Inculcating good moral values-cooperation, independence and self-confidence.

STUDY AREAS
SOIL ANALYSIS
SOIL ANALYSIS
1. SOIL SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Apparatus : Metal cylinder and piston (to dig out soil)
Procedure:
a) The metal cylinder is presses into the soil.
b) The soil sample is removed by using the piston from the cylinder.
Discussion :
1. There are many methods to obtain a sample of soil, however, appropriate technique
should be used to retain the original quality and structure of the soil in order to
determine the actual characteristic or composition of the soil.
2. Using a “corer”
This is the most commonly used method in soil sampling. This method does not disturb
the original structure and quality of the soil. The “corer” consists of a sharp ended metal
cylinder and a piston.
Metal cylinder and piston

SOIL ANALYSIS
3. Scoop
Another method to obtain soil sample is using scoops and spades. This method allows
obtaining of soil from different depths. However, this method is less urged to be used as
it may destroy the soil of area being studied.
Use a garden trowel or shovel to carefully remove the top 10 cm of soil from a small area and
set it on the ground. (Depth varies according to depth of soil wishing to be sampled)
4. Soil bore
Using a soil bore maintains the natural condition of the soil under study. Soil samples can
be obtained from various depths. Hence, a soil bore is suitable for the study of the
characteristics of the different layers of a specific soil profile. A known disadvantage of
this method is the migration of contaminants from one layer of the soil to another
Soil bore
SOIL ANALYSIS
Precaution :
1. Appropriate soil sampling method should be used to ensure the nature and the structure of the
soil are not destroyed.
Conclusion :
The most suitable soil sampling technique is using metal cylinder and piston as it can retain the
natural composition of the soil being studied. Apart from that, this method is convenient and the
variation cost effective.
SOIL ANALYSIS
2. DETERMINATION OF THE TEXTURE OF SOIL
Introduction
Soil texture is a soil property used to describe the relative proportion of different grain sizes
of mineral particles in a soil. Particles are grouped according to their size into what are called
soil separates. These separates are typically named clay, silt, and sand. Soil texture
classification is based on the fractions of soil separates present in a soil. It is also important to
note that soil texture changes slowly with time.
Soil properties related to texture

1. Porosity – an index of the relative pore volume in the soil
2. Infiltration – The downward entry of water into the immediate surface of soil
3. Erodibility – Generally, large particles are less erodible, exceptions being clay
4. Available water holding capacity – The capacity of soil to retain water
5. Soil formation – fine sand to coarse sand ratio for example
6. Permeability – The quality of the soil that enables water to move downward through
the profile
Apparatus : 500cm³ measuring cylinder
100cm³soil sample
300cm³ water
Procedure :
a) The soil sample is added to the measuring cylinder and is covered with water.
b) The contents is shaked vigorously.
c) The mixture is allowed to settle out, according to density and surface area of
particles for 48 hours.
d) The volume of the various fraction of soil sample is measured.

SOIL ANALYSIS
Formula :
The percentage of soil component content is calculated using the following formula :
% soil component content =
Results :
Soil Components Volume of Soil Volume of Soil Percentage of Soil

Sample (cm3) Components(cm3) Components(%)
Stone 100 50 50
Sand 100 20 20
Clay 100 30 30
20
Percentage of sand component = × 100%
100
= 20%
SOIL ANALYSIS
Discussion :
1. Soil particles precipitate at the bottom of measuring cylinder according to their density and
surface area.
2. Stones are the major component of the soil sample, which made up 50% of the soil
component. Whereas clay and sand made up 30% and 20% of the soil component
respectively.
3. Stone particles have highest density among the soil particles, and therefore, they accumulate
at the bottom of the measuring cylinder, followed by sand particles. Clay particles made up
the uppermost layer of the soil sediment because of their very small density and surface area.
Precaution :
1. The mixture of water and soil sample must be allowed to settle for a longer period of time to
allow the soil particles to settle completely and accentuate distinctions among types of
particles.
Conclusion :
From the experiment conducted, it can be concluded that the texture of the soil sample being
studied is sandy loam.
SOIL ANALYSIS
Mechanical Analysis of The Texture of Soil
Soil analysis is a process whereby the different soil particles are mechanically separated
into 4 different basic types of particles of different sizes.
This analysis can determine the ratio or percentage of each type of particle in the soil
sample. Soil texture can influence various aspects and properties of the soil analyzed such as:
1. Drainage
2. Capillarity
3. Aeration
4. Adsorption of water
5. Condition of soil of water
Classification typically uses the primary constituent particle size or a combination of the
most abundant particles size. The types of soil particles are classified according to their sizes.
Type of soil separate Diameter limits (mm)
Gravel >2
Coarse sand 2 – 0.2
Fine Sand 0.2 – 0.02
Silt 0.02 – 0.002
Clay < 0.002
Size classification of soil separates

SOIL ANALYSIS
The soil texture triangle is a diagram often used to figure out soil texture.
Soil Texture Triangle

SOIL ANALYSIS
Apparatus : Soil sieves

Beaker
Balance
Materials : Soil samples
Procedure :
1. An empty beaker is weighted and the mass (a) is recorded.
2. A dried soil sample is sifted using a soil sieve with a 2 mm mesh size to separate stone and
gravel from the soil.
3. The sifted soil is sifted again using soil sieves with 0.425 mm and 0.212 mm mesh size
subsequently to separate course and fine sands from the soil sample. The separated sand
particles are collected in a beaker and weighted. The mass are recorded.
4. The sifted soil is sifted again using soil sieve with 0.040 mm mesh size to separate silt
particles from the soil. The silt particles are collected in the beaker and weighted. The mass is
recorded.
5. The remained clay particles are collected in the beaker and weighted. The mass is recorded.
SOIL ANALYSIS
Results :
Soil Sample Cameron House Area School Area

Highlands
Mass of empty beaker, 252.63 252.63 252.63
a (g)
Mass of beaker and 319.99 322.78 331.45
course sand, b (g)
fine sand, c (g)
silt, d (g)
clay, e (g)
Mass of course sand, 67.36 70.15 78.82
b-a (g)
Mass of fine sand, c-a 72.93 71.67 86.33
(g)
Mass of silt, d-a (g) 13.44 15.72 7.88
Mass of clay, e-a (g) 2.35 3.10 1.01
Mass of sand, silt and 156.08 160.64 174.04

clay (g)
Table 1
SOIL ANALYSIS
Soil sample Cameron Highlands House Area School Area
Percentage of sand 89.88 88.28 94.89

component (%)
Percentage of silt 8.61 9.79 4.53

component (%)
Percentage of Clay 1.51 1.93 0.58

component (%)
Table 2
67.36 + 72.93
Percentage of sand component = × 100%
(Cameron Highlands) 156.08
= 140.29
× 100%
156.08
= 89.88%
Percentage of silt component 13.44

(Cameron Highlands) = × 100%
156.08
= 8.61%
2.35
Percentage of clay component × 100%
= 156.08
(Cameron Highlands)
= 1.51%
SOIL ANALYSIS
Discussion :
1. The texture of the soil can be determined mechanically using soil sieves with different mesh
size to separate the soil particles of different size.
2. A soil texture triangle diagram is used to figure out the texture of the soil based on the
percentage composition of soil components in the soil samples.
3. The soil samples from Cameron Highlands and school areas both are classified as sand
whereas the soil sample from house areas is loamy sand.
Precautions :
1. The soil samples must be dried before sifted using soil sieve to enable the soil particles to be
separated distinctly according to their size.
Conclusion :
According to the percentage composition of the soil components in the soil, the soil samples
from Cameron Highlands and school areas both are classified as sand while the soil sample from
house areas is loamy sand.
SOIL ANALYSIS
C. DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT OF SOIL
Introduction
　　The state of water in soil is described in terms of the amount of water and the energy
associated with the forces which hold the water in the soil. The amount of water is defined by
water content and the energy state of the water is the water potential. Plant growth, soil
temperature, chemical transport, and ground water recharge are all dependent on the state of
water in the soil. While there is a unique relationship between water content and water
potential for a particular soil, these physical properties describe the state of the water in soil
in distinctly different manners.
Soil water is held in the pore spaces between particles of soil. Within the soil system,
the storage of water is influenced by several different forces. Soil water can be further sub-
divided into three categories:
1. Hygroscopic water - found as a microscopic film of water surrounding soil particles
2. Capillary water - held by cohesive forces between the films of hygroscopic water
3. Gravity water - water moved through the soil by the force of gravity
Apparatus : Aluminum foil pie dish
Electronic balance
Oven
　 Desiccator
Tongs
Thermometer
Materials : 80 gm soil
SOIL ANALYSIS
Procedure :
a) An empty aluminum foil pie dish is weighted. The mass (a) is recorded.
b) The broken-up soil sample is added to the pie dish and is weighed. The mass (b)
is recorded.
c) The pie dish containing the soil sample is placed in the oven at 110 oC for 24
hours.
d) The sample is removed from the oven and is cooled in a desiccators.
e) The sample is then weighted and the mass is recorded.
f) The sample is returned to the oven at 110 oC for a further 24 hours.
g) Steps (d) and (e) are repeated until consistent weighing are recorded (constant
mass) . The mass (c) is recorded.
h) The percentage of water content is calculated as follows:
i) The soil sample is retained in the desiccator for experiment 4.
Formula :
The percentage of water content of soil is calculated using the following formula :
% water content of soil =

SOIL ANALYSIS
Results :

Highlands
Mass of aluminum 13.89 14.15 15.14

foil pie dish, a (g)
Mass of foil pie dish 93.89 94.15 95.14

containing soil sample
before dried, b (g)
Mass of foil pie dish 73.19 70.69 82.20

containing soil sample
after dried, c (g)
Mass of soil, b-a (g) 80.0 80.0 80.0
Mass of water , b-c 20.7 23.46 12.94

(g)
Percentage of Water 25.88 29.33 16.18

Content ( % )
Percentage of water content soil 20.7
= × 100%
sample (Cameron Highlands) 80.0
=
25.88%
SOIL ANALYSIS
Discussion :
1. The soil samples are heated in the oven at 110 oC to eliminate all the water content in the
soil.
2. The soil sample from house areas contains the highest percentage of water content, that is
29.33%. The soil sample from Cameron Highlands contains 25.88% of water content while
the soil sample from the school areas contains the least water content which is 16.18%.
3. The amount of water content in the soil depends on the texture and the properties of the soil.
Precaution :
1. During the experiment, the soil samples must be reheated, re-cooled, and re-weighed until
constant masses were obtained to ensure that the water content in the soil samples were
totally removed.
2. The soil samples must be retained well before conducting the experiment to prevent the loss
of water from the soil samples to the surrounding due to evaporation.
3. The soil samples must be placed in the dessicator for cooling to prevent condensation which
may affect the results of the experiment.
Conclusion :
The percentage of water content of soil samples from Cameron Highlands, house areas and
school areas are 25.88%, 29.33% and 16.18% respectively.
SOIL ANALYSIS
D. DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT
Introduction
Organic matter in soil consists of plant and animal material that is in the process of
decomposing. Soil organic matter is the organic matter component of soil. It can be divided
into three general pools: living biomass of microorganisms, fresh and partially decomposed
residues, and humus. Soil organic matter is frequently said to consist of humic substances
and non-humic substances. Non-living components in soil are a heterogeneous mixture
composed largely of products resulting from microbal and chemical transformations of
organic debris. Humus is the well-decomposed organic matter and highly stable organic
material which feeds the soil population of micro-organisms and other creatures, thus
maintaining high and healthy levels of soil life.
Humus has a characteristic

black or dark brown color,
which is due to an abundance
of organic carbon.
Humification of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to break down
into simpler forms which are then made available to growing plants for uptake through their
root systems. During the humification process, microbes secrete sticky gums; these
contribute to the crumb structure of the soil by holding particles together, allowing greater
aeration of the soil. Toxic substances such as heavy metals, as well as excess nutrients, can
be chelated (that is, bound to the complex organic molecules of humus) and prevented from
entering the wider ecosystem
SOIL ANALYSIS
Apparatus : Desiccators
Crucible and lid
Tripod
Bunsen burner
Asbestos mat
Fireclay triangle tongs
Material : Dried soil sample
Procedure:
1. The crucible and lid is heated strongly in the Bunsen Flame to remove all traces of
moisture.
2. The crucible and lid placed in the desiccator to cool. The mass (a) is weighted and
recorded.
3. The dried soil sample (kept from the previous experiment) is added from the desiccator
and weighted. The mass (b) is recorded.
4. The soil sample in the crucible is heated, covered with the lid, to red-heat for 1 hour to
burn off all the organic matter. The soil sample is allowed to cool for 10 min and is
removed to the desiccator.
5. The crucible and soil sample is weighted when cooled.
6. Steps (c) and (d) are repeated until constant mass is recorded.
7. The percentage of organic content is calculated as follow:
8. The experiment on soil samples taken from different areas is repeated to demonstrate
variation of organic content.
SOIL ANALYSIS
Formula :
The percentage of organic matter content in soil sample is calculated using the following formula
:
% of organic component =
Results :

Highlands
Mass of crucible and lid, a
(g) 59.08 58.02 60.63
Mass of crucible and lid

containing dried soil sample 99.08 98.02 100.63
before heating, b (g)
Mass of crucible and lid
containing dried soil sample 97.12 96.66 99.58
after heating, c (g)
Mass of soil sample, b-a (g)
50.0 50.0 50.0
Mass of organic matter, b-c

(g) 1.96 1.36 1.05
Percentage of Organic
Component ( % ) 3.92 2.72 2.10
Percentage of organic matter 1.96

content (Cameron Highlands)
= × 100%
50.0
= 3.92%
SOIL ANALYSIS
Discussion :
1. Soil samples are heated strongly to burn off all the organic matters present in the soil.
2. The soil sample from Cameron Highlands contains the highest composition of organic
matters, that is 3.92%, whereas the soil sample from house areas and school areas contains
2.72% and 2.10% of organic matters respectively.
3. The organic constituents in the soil composed of undecayed plant and animal tissues, partial
decomposition products, and the soil biomass.
4. Humus is important soil organic matter which supply nutrients for plants grow and microbes
in terrestrial ecosystems.
Precaution :
1. The soil samples used are retained from Experiment 3 to ensure that the water content in the
soil samples is totally removed.
2. The soil samples must be burnt, cooled, weighed until a constant mass is obtained to ensure
the complete decomposition of organic matter.
3. The lid of the crucible should be opened occasionally to ventilate the air inside the crucible to
allow the entry of oxygen for the decomposition of organic matter in the soil.
Conclusion :
The percentage of soil organic content for the soil samples from Cameron Highlands, house
areas and school areas are 3.92%, 2.72%, and 2.10% respectively.
SOIL ANALYSIS
E. DETERMINATION OF AIR CONTENT OF SOIL
Introduction
Soil air is the part of ground air in the soil and is similar to the air of the atmosphere but
depleted in oxygen content and enriched in carbon dioxide. Alternatively, the gaseous phase
of soil is called soil air. As the soil water content increases the amount of air in the soil
decreases. The composition of air in an well-aerated soil is close to the composition of
atmospheric air, as the oxygen consumed in the soil by plants and micro-organisms is readily
replaced from the atmosphere.
Two important gases in soil air are carbon dioxide and oxygen. Carbon dioxide is
produced as a by-product of plant root respiration and biological activity. Oxygen is
consumed in the soil by the same processes, and plant roots require oxygen to function
normally. Hence, the oxygen in the soil is consumed by plants and micro-organism and is
replenished by oxygen from the atmosphere above the soil surface. Under reducing
conditions soil air may contain methane, hydrogen sulphide, and ammonia.
Apparatus : Tin can

500 cm³ beaker
Metal seeker
Material : Water
SOIL ANALYSIS
Procedure
1. The empty can is placed with open end uppermost into a 500cm³ beaker and the
beaker is filled with water above the level of the can. The water level in the beaker is
marked.
2. The can that containing the water is removed carefully and the volume of water in the
can is measured in a measuring cylinder. The volume (a) is recorded. The water level
in the beaker will fall by an amount corresponding to the volume of water in the can.
3. The base of the can is perforated by using a drill, making about eight small holes.
4. The open end of the can is pushed into the soil from which the surface vegetation has
been removed until soil begins to come through the perforations. The can is gently
dig out, turned over and the soil is removed from the surface until it is level with the
top of can.
5. The can containing the soil is placed with open end uppermost, gently back into the
beaker of water and the soil in the can is loosen with seeker to allow air to escape.
6. The water level in the beaker will be lower than the original level because water will
be used to replace the air which was present in the soil.
7. Water is added to the beaker from a full 100cm³ measuring cylinder until the original
level is restored. The volume of water added (b) is recorded.
8. The percentage air content of soil sample can be determinate as follows:
9. The experiment on soil samples is repeated from different areas.

SOIL ANALYSIS
Formula :
The percentage of air content in soil sample is calculated using the following formula :
% volume of air in soil sample
Results :
Soil sample Initial volumes Final volumes Volumes of air Percentages of

of soil sample, a of soil sample, b in soil sample, volume of air in
(ml) (ml) a-b (ml) soil sample (%)
Cameron 420 330 90 21.43

Highlands
House Area 420 320 100 23.81
School Area 420 370 50 11.90
Percentage of air content in soil 90

= × 100%
sample (Cameron Highlands) 420
= 21.43%
SOIL ANALYSIS
Discussion :
1. Soil air contains oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane, hydrogen
sulphide, and ammonia.
2. The soil sample from the house areas contains the highest percentage of air content which is
23.81% . The soil sample from Cameron Highlands contains 21.43% of air content while the
soil sample from the school areas contains the lowest percentage of air content which is
11.90%.
3. The can containing soil sample is immersed into the beaker of water and the water flows into
the can through the perforation at the base of the can to allow the air in the soil dissolves in
it.
Precaution :
1. The surface vegetation of the soil must be removed before pushing the perforated can into the
soil to obtain the soil sample.
2. The soil sample in the can needs to be loosen by using a seeker to allow the air in the soil
sample to escape.
Conclusion :
The percentage of air content in the soil samples from Cameron Highlands, house areas and
school areas are 21.43%, 23.81% and 11.90%.
SOIL ANALYSIS
F. DETERMINATION OF SOIL PH
Introduction
The pH of soil or more precisely the pH of the soil solution is very important because
soil solution carries nutrients in it such as Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), and Phosphorus (P)
that plants need in specific amounts to grow, thrive and fight off diseases. Many crops,
vegetables, flowers and shrubs, trees, weeds and fruit are pH dependent and rely on the soil
solution to obtain nutrients.
The pH value of a soil is influenced by the kinds of parent materials from which the soil
was formed. Human distractions like pollution can alter the pH of soil. Application of
fertilizers containing ammonium or urea speeds up the rate at which acidity develops. The
decomposition of organic matter also adds to soil acidity.
If the soil solution is too acidic plants cannot utilize the nutrients they need. In acidic
soils, plants are more likely to take up toxic metals and some plants eventually die of
toxicity. Knowing whether the soil pH is acidic or basic is important because if the soil is
too acidic the applied pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides will not be absorbed and they
will end up in garden water and rain water runoff, where they eventually become pollutants
in our streams, rivers, lakes, and ground water.
Apparatus : Long test-tube
Test-tube rack
Spatula
10 cm3 pipete
Material : BDH universal indicator solution
Barium sulphate
Distilled water
SOIL ANALYSIS
Procedure :
a) 1 cm3 of soil is put in a test-tube. 1 cm3 of barium sulphate is added to the test-tube to
ensure flocculation of colloidal clay.
b) 10 cm3 of distilled water and 5 cm3 of BDH universal indicator solution. The test-tube is
sealed with the bung. The test-tube is shaken vigorously and the contents are allowed to
settle for 5 minutes.
c) The colour of liquid in the test-tube is compared with the colours on the BDH references
colour chart and corresponding pH is read off.
d) The experiment is repeated on soil samples from different areas.
Results :
Soil Sample Colour of Liquid pH value of soil

In The Test-tube sample
Cameron Highlands Dark Green 9
House Area Dark Green 9
School Area Blue 10

SOIL ANALYSIS
Discussion :
1. The pH of the soil is important to provide suitable medium for the growth of plants.
2. Barium sulphate is added to the soil sample in the test-tube to ensure flocculation of colloidal
clay in the soil.
3. The pH value of the soil samples from Cameron Highlands and house areas are the same that
is pH 9 while the soil sample from school areas are pH 10.
Precaution :
1. The test tube containing the soil solution must be shaken vigorously and the contents are
allowed to settle for 5 minutes to ensure the complete flocculation of colloidal clay in the
soil.
Conclusion :
The soil samples from Cameron Highlands and house areas both have a pH value of 9 while the
soil sample from school areas have a pH value of 10.
DETERMINATION
OF TYPES OF SOIL
ORGANISMS
DETERMINATION OF TYPES OF SOIL ORGANISMS
Introduction
Soil organisms are part of soil population. The types of soil organisms commonly found
include Nematoda, Annelida, Myriapoda, Insecta, Mollusca and Amoeba.
The Tullgren funnel is a device used to separate insects and mites from leaf mold and similar
materials to study the types of organisms presented. A soil or leaf litter sample is placed in the
removable upper part of the funnel. Heat and light from the lamp creates a temperature gradient
of approximately 14°C in the soil sample. This stimulates the downward movement of soil
arthropods, and similar organisms, through the gauze to a the collecting tube attached to the base
of the funnel. The position of the lamp is adjustable to enable the temperature of the soil to be
raised gradually.
Tullgren funnel
Baermann funnel is a device used to extract nematodes from a soil sample or plant material.
A muslin bag containing the sample is submerged in water in a funnel sealed at the lower end by
a rubber tube and clip. Being heavier than water, the nematodes pass through the muslin and sink
to the bottom. This device relies on the phenomenon of the migration of the nematodes
downward from soil or feces to water of warmer temperature. After permitting sufficient time to
permit migration, the warm water is drained off, centrifuged, and examined microscopically for
the presence of the nematodes.
Bearmann funnel
Apparatus: Tullgren Funnel, Retort stand, Beakers, Magnifying glass, Microscope, glass slide,
Bearmann funnel
Material : 4% formalin solution
Procedure :
A. Using Tullgren funnel
1) A beaker containing 4% of formalin solution is prepared.

2) A soil sample is placed on the screen near the top of the funnel. Light bulb is placed above
the sample to produce heat and light to drive the insects downward into the funnel.
3) The soil arthropods are collected in the beaker containing formalin solution placed below the
funnel after 48 hours.
4) The solution in the beaker is drained off, centrifuged, and examined by using microscope.
5) The appearance of the soil organisms is drawn and the name of the types of the animals is
stated.
B. Using Baermann funnel
1) A beaker containing 4% of formalin solution is prepared.

2) A muslin bag containing the soil sample is submerged in water in a funnel sealed at the lower
end by a rubber tube and clip.
3) The nematodes sank to the lower end of the rubber tube and are collected in the beaker
containing formalin solution by drawing off the clip at the lower end of the rubber tube after
48 hours.
4) The solution in the beaker is drained off, centrifuged, and examined by using microscope.
5) The appearance of the soil organisms is drawn and the name of the types of the animals is
stated.
Results :
Types of soil organism Appearance of organism
Nematoda
Annelida
Myriapoda
Types of soil organism Appearance of organism
Insecta
Mollusca
Amoeba
Discussion :
1. Tullgren funnel applies the phenomena of the response of organisms towards light and
temperatures to extract the soil arthropods from the soil sample or the leaf litter.
2. The application of Baermann funnel relies on the characteristic of nematodes which migrate
downward from soil or feces to water of warmer temperature.
3. The soil organisms found in the soil sample being studied are Myriapoda, Nematode,
Amoeba, Insecta, and Annelida.
Precaution :
1. The temperature of the soil in the Tullgren funnel is raised gradually by adjusting the
position of the lamp to prevent the slower moving soil organism from being trapped in hard
dry cakes of soil.
2. The Tullgren funnel and Baerman funnel are set up for 48 hours to provide sufficient time for
the migration of the soil organisms in the soil sample.
Conclusion :
1. The soil organisms can be isolated by using Tullgren funnel and Baermann funnel devices.
2. The soil organisms found in the soil sample being studied are
3.
DETERMINATION
OF THE DENSITY
OF PLANT SPECIES
IN A HABITAT
DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT
SPECIES
A. QUADRAT SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Introduction
Quadrats are generally used for the quantitative assessment of biodiversity occurring within
an area. The objective generally relates to the quality of a particular feature, where species
richness may be an important or valued attribute of that feature. Quantitative counts using
quadrats provide a structured way to estimate the abundance of species to estimate their
population size or to assess species richness and diversity of a biotope. There are three
factors need to be considered in relation to the use of quadrats.
• Distribution of plants
• Shape and size of the quadrat
• Number of observations needed to obtain an adequate estimate of density
Systematic quadrat sampling is applied when samples are taken at fixed intervals, usually
along a line. Random quadrat sampling is usually carried out when the area under study is
fairly uniform, very large and when there is limited time available. When using random
sampling techniques, large numbers of samples are taken from different positions within the
habitat. A quadrat frame is most often used for this type of sampling.
Systematic distribution of quadrat Random distribution of quadrat

SPECIES
Apparatus : Quadrats measuring 1m2
Procedure :
1. A quadrat frame is placed on the field being investigated.
2. The frequency and the coverage of the plants inside the quadrat is counted, measured and
recorded.
3. 10 quadrats are sampled systematically at uniform distance all over the investigated field.
4. The percentage of relative species cover, relative density and relative frequency of the plant
species found in the investigated field are determined
Formula :
1. Frequency = Number of quadrats containing the species

× 100%
Total number of quadrats
Frequency of the species

2. Relative frequency = × 100%
Total frequency of all species
Total base area or aerial coverage (cm2) of all quadrats

3. Species coverage = × 100%
Total number of quadrats sampled × Quadrat area
Coverage of a species
4. Relative species coverage = × 100%
Total coverage of all species
Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrat

5. Density =
Total number of quadrats × Area of each quadrat
Density of a species
6. Relative density = × 100%
Total density of all species
DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF PLANT SPECIES
Results :
Table of data for the measurement of relative frequency of each species in quadrat sampling
Student’s name : Type of plants : Tropical plants

Habitat : Tropical plain Quadrat size : 1 m2
Location/Place : Open grass field in school area Date
No. Names of plant species Number of quadrats Number of Frequency Relative

quadrat % frequency
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 containing (%)
the species
1 Axoropus Compressus / / / / / / / / / / 10 100 16.67

2 Mimosa Pudica / / / / / / / / 8 80 13.33
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus / / / / / / 6 60 10.0
4 Cyperus Iria / / / / 4 40 6.67
5 Cyperus Acromaticus / / / / / 5 50 8.33
6 Imperata Cylinderica / / / / / / / 7 70 11.67
7 Cyperus Rotundus / / / / 4 40 6.67
8 Echinochloa Colona / / / / / / 6 60 10.0
9 Isachne Globosa / / / / / / / 7 70 11.67
10 Taraxacum Officinate / / / 3 30 5.0
Total 600 100
Table of data for the measurement of each species cover in quadrat sampling

Location/Place : Open grass field in school area Date :
No. Names of plant species Species coverage (m2) Total Species Relative
species coverage species
coverage % coverage
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (m2) (%)
1 Axoropus Compressus 0.41 0.52 0.59 0.65 0.42 0.54 0.38 0.46 0.55 0.57 5.09 50.90 50.80
2 Mimosa Pudica 0.16 0.15 - 0.20 - 0.13 0.22 0.17 0.20 0.19 1.42 14.20 14.17
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.12 0.09 0.14 - - 0.10 0.09 0.09 - - 0.63 6.30 6.29
4 Cyperus Iria - - - 0.08 - 0.09 0.04 - - 0.04 0.25 2.50 2.50
5 Cyperus Acromaticus 0.14 - 0.08 - 0.15 - - 0.08 0.06 - 0.51 5.10 5.09
6 Imperata Cylinderica - 0.05 0.04 - 0.02 0.07 0.07 - 0.03 0.09 0.37 3.70 3.69
7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.09 - - - 0.12 - - - 0.09 0.06 0.36 3.60 3.59
8 Echinochloa Colona - 0.09 0.07 - 0.07 0.06 - 0.07 - 0.06 0.42 4.20 4.19
9 Isachne Globosa 0.08 0.10 - 0.08 0.10 - 0.09 0.14 0.08 - 0.67 6.70 6.69
10 Taraxacum Officinate - - 0.07 - 0.11 - 0.12 - - - 0.30 3.0 2.99
Total 100.2 100.0
Table of data for the measurement of relative density of each species in quadrat sampling

Location/Place : Open grass field in school area Date :
No. Names of plant species Number of individuals of the species Total Species Relative
number of density density (%)
individuals (m-2)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Axoropus Compressus 88 98 12 13 81 10 77 83 98 95 978 97.8 60.26
1 2 5
2 Mimosa Pudica 5 4 - 6 - 3 6 4 6 5 39 3.9 2.40
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 22 15 23 - - 19 16 17 - - 112 11.2 6.90
4 Cyperus Iria - - - 10 - 12 7 - - 8 37 3.7 2.28
5 Cyperus Acromaticus 21 - 17 - 23 - - 16 10 - 87 8.7 5.36
6 Imperata Cylinderica - 8 6 - 4 9 8 - 5 12 52 5.2 3.20
7 Cyperus Rotundus 13 - - - 18 - - - 15 8 54 5.4 3.33
8 Echinochloa Colona - 20 14 - 18 12 - 15 - 13 92 9.2 5.67
9 Isachne Globosa 17 18 - 16 22 - 21 36 20 - 150 15.0 9.24
10 Taraxacum Officinate - - 4 - 8 - 10 - - - 22 2.2 1.36
Total 162.3 100.0
SPECIES
Summary of the measurements obtained by the quadrat sampling technique
No. Name of species Frequency Relative Species Relative Density Relative

(%) frequency coverage species (m-2) density
(%) (%) coverage (%)
(%)
1 Axoropus 100 16.67 50.90 50.80 97.8 60.26
Compressus
2 Mimosa Pudica 80 13.33 14.20 14.17 3.9 2.40
3 Chrysopogon 60 10.0 6.30 6.29 11.2 6.90

Aciculatus
4 Cyperus Iria 40 6.67 2.50 2.50 3.7 2.28
5 Cyperus 50 8.33 5.10 5.09 8.7 5.36

Acromaticus
6 Imperata 70 11.67 3.70 3.69 5.2 3.20
Cylinderica
7 Cyperus 40 6.67 3.60 3.59 5.4 3.33
Rotundus
8 Echinochloa 60 10.0 4.20 4.19 9.2 5.67
Colona
9 Isachne Globosa 70 11.67 6.70 6.69 15.0 9.24
10 Taraxacum 30 5.0 3.0 2.99 2.2 1.36

Officinate
SPECIES
Calculation :
10
Frequency of Axoropus Compressus = × 100%
10
= 100%
Relative frequency of
= 100 × 100%
Axoropus Compressus 600
= 16.67%
Species coverage of 5.09

Axoropus Compressus = × 100%
10.0
= 50.90%
Relative species coverage 50.90

of Axoropus Compressus = × 100%
100.2
= 50.80%
978
Density of Axoropus Compressus =
10 × 1 m2
= 97.8 m-2
Relative density of 97.8

Axoropus Compressus = × 100%
162.3
=
= 60.26%
SPECIES
Discussion :
1. Quadrat sampling technique can be used to investigate the plants communities in a defined
area.
2. Quadrat sampling technique involves the counting of the number of the plants and the aerial
coverage of each plant species in a defined area.
3. Systematically distribution of quadrats is selected as the plant characteristics are close to the
actual natural condition.
SPECIES
B. SAMPLING TECHNIQUE USING LINE TRANSECT
Introduction :
A transect refers to a line that cut across a community to investigate the progressive
invasion of plants into the community without causing any obvious change in that habitat.
Transect is very useful especially when existing plants are zoned. This means the transect
forms uniform sequential zones representing different communities. The division into zones
is usually related to the uniform variation in physical factors in that habitat along lines that
are perpendicular to the zones. An advantage of transect charts is that they can show a range
of specific plants. By charting these transects at suitable time intervals, any progression
change in the plants along the transect line can be detected and measured. Other information
can be obtained from a series of transects through a specific plants area include composition,
extrapolation, individual occurrence frequency and width of occurrence of different species.
Line transect are the simplest and easiest sampling method to used. A line transect can be
prepared by placing a measuring tape (15-30m) along desired line and marking the locations
of individual plant that touch one or both sides of the tape.
Apparatus : Rope (15.3 meters)
Procedure :
1. A base line along the border of the area is determined under investigation.
2. A series of points along this base line is chosen either randomly or systematically. These
points are used as the starting points for the transects to run across the area being
investigated .The plants which touch the line as seen vertically above or below the
transect line is recorded.
3. 10-20 lines are placed randomly in the area to provide enough samples to investigate the
community
SPECIES
Formula :
a) The frequency of a species is calculated by using the following formula :
Frequency =
b) The percentage of surface cover of each species is calculated as follow:
% species cover =
c) The relative species cover is calculated as follow :
Relative species cover =

Results :
Line Transect 1
Student’s name : Distance of each interval : 1.5m
Habitat : Tropical plain Total number of intervals : 10
Location : Open grass field in school area Total length of transect : 15m
Type of plant : Tropical plant Date :
No. Names of plant species Cross sectional length of the species in each interval (m) Total cross Number of
sectional intervals
length of the where the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 species found
species (m)
1 Axoropus Compressus 0.39 0.44 0.45 0.48 0.37 0.39 0.37 0.52 0.42 0.47 4.30 10
2 Mimosa Pudica - 0.35 0.32 - 0.35 0.40 - 0.34 0.33 0.37 2.46 7
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - - 0.23 0.33 0.30 - 0.35 0.29 - - 1.50 5
4 Cyperus Iria - - - 0.26 - 0.24 - - - - 0.50 2
5 Cyperus Acromaticus 0.24 - - - 0.27 0.25 - - 0.27 - 1.03 4
6 Imperata Cylinderica 0.22 0.24 - - - - 0.47 0.35 0.25 - 1.53 5
7 Cyperus Rotundus - - 0.24 0.22 - - 0.32 - - - 0.78 3
8 Echinochloa Colona 0.35 0.23 - 0.23 - - - - - 0.38 1.19 4
9 Isachne Globosa 0.32 0.24 - - - 0.24 - - - - 0.80 3
10 Taraxacum Officinate - - 0.28 - 0.23 - - - 0.26 0.31 1.08 4
Total 15.17 47
Line Transect 2
sectional length intervals where
of the species the species found
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(m)
2 Mimosa Pudica 0.31 - 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 - - 0.32 - 1.95 6

3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.25 0.24 0.24 - - - - 0.25 - - 0.98 4
4 Cyperus Iria - - 0.32 - - 0.26 0.29 0.24 - 0.28 1.39 5
5 Cyperus Acromaticus - 0.31 - - 0.31 0.22 0.32 - - 0.24 1.40 5
6 Imperata Cylinderica - - 0.22 - 0.34 0.22 - 0.32 - - 1.10 4
7 Cyperus Rotundus - - - 0.25 - - 0.24 - - 0.23 0.72 3
8 Echinochloa Colona 0.24 0.22 - 0.32 - - - 0.23 - - 1.01 4
9 Isachne Globosa - 0.21 - - - - 0.28 - 0.30 0.26 1.05 4
10 Taraxacum Officinate 0.24 - - 0.23 - - - - 0.34 - 0.81 3
Total 15.17 48
Line Transect 3
of the species the species
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 found
(m)
2 Mimosa Pudica - 0.33 0.36 - 0.35 0.43 - 0.33 0.42 0.47 2.69 7
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.25 0.25 - 0.24 - 0.33 - - - - 1.07 4
4 Cyperus Iria - 0.24 - 0.23 - 0.22 - - 0.35 - 1.04 4
5 Cyperus Acromaticus 0.28 - 0.28 - 0.26 - 0.28 - - 0.24 1.34 5
6 Imperata Cylinderica - - 0.31 - 0.24 - - - 0.34 - 0.89 3
7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.36 - - - 0.30 - - 0.23 - 0.26 1.15 4
8 Echinochloa Colona - 0.24 - 0.20 - - 0.26 0.27 - 0.22 1.19 5
9 Isachne Globosa - - - 0.25 - - 0.31 - - - 0.56 2
10 Taraxacum Officinate - - - 0.22 - - - 0.24 - - 0.46 2
Total 15.22 46
Line Transect 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 found
(m)
2 Mimosa Pudica 0.33 0.41 - 0.31 - 0.29 - 0.40 0.34 0.28 2.36 7
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - - 0.26 - 0.33 - - 0.23 - - 0.82 3
4 Cyperus Iria - 0.32 - 0.23 0.31 - 0.39 0.25 0.29 - 1.79 6
5 Cyperus Acromaticus - - 0.31 - 0.34 0.32 0.34 - - - 1.31 4
6 Imperata Cylinderica 0.35 - - 0.26 - 0.24 0.33 0.23 - - 1.41 5
7 Cyperus Rotundus - - 0.21 0.27 - - - - 0.31 0.30 1.10 4
8 Echinochloa Colona 0.24 - 0.24 - - - - - - 0.29 0.77 3
9 Isachne Globosa - 0.26 - - - - - - - 0.24 0.50 2
10 Taraxacum Officinate - - - - - 0.24 - - - - 0.24 1
Total 15.16 45
Line Transect 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 found
(m)
2 Mimosa Pudica 0.38 0.28 0.31 0.34 - - - 0.42 0.35 0.38 2.36 7
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - 0.41 - 0.24 - 0.32 - - - 0.28 1.25 4
4 Cyperus Iria - - 0.27 - - 0.34 - - 0.32 0.23 1.16 4
5 Cyperus Acromaticus 0.24 - 0.34 - 0.23 - - 0.34 - 0.23 1.38 5
6 Imperata Cylinderica - 0.23 - - - 0.4 0.28 - 0.31 - 1.22 4
7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.23 - - 0.31 - - - 0.36 - - 0.90 3
8 Echinochloa Colona 0.33 - - - 0.22 - - - - - 0.55 2
9 Isachne Globosa - - - - 0.25 - 0.42 - - - 0.67 2
10 Taraxacum Officinate - - - - 0.27 - 0.34 - - - 0.61 2
Total 15.06 43
Line Transect 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 found
(m)
2 Mimosa Pudica 0.48 0.30 0.32 0.38 0.41 0.38 - - 0.28 0.36 2.91 8
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - - - 0.24 - - 0.28 0.31 0.30 0.24 1.37 5
4 Cyperus Iria - - 0.31 0.25 - - 0.24 0.24 - 0.32 1.36 5
5 Cyperus Acromaticus - 0.33 - - 0.25 - - 0.27 0.21 - 1.06 4
6 Imperata Cylinderica - 0.37 - 0.25 0.26 - 0.46 - - 0.22 1.56 5
7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.31 - - - - 0.25 - - 0.23 - 0.79 3
8 Echinochloa Colona - - - - - 0.21 - 0.23 - - 0.44 2
9 Isachne Globosa - - 0.34 - - - - - - - 0.34 1
10 Taraxacum Officinate 0.27 - - - - 0.22 - - - - 0.47 2
Total 15.17 45
Line Transect 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 found
(m)
2 Mimosa Pudica - 0.50 0.42 0.43 - - 0.38 0.32 0.40 0.38 2.83 7
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.24 - - - 0.25 - 0.24 - - - 0.73 3
4 Cyperus Iria 0.27 - 0.23 - 0.26 - 0.26 0.28 - - 1.30 5
5 Cyperus Acromaticus - 0.24 0.25 - - 0.45 - 0.22 0.24 - 1.40 5
6 Imperata Cylinderica - 0.31 - 0.40 - - 0.22 - - - 0.93 3
7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.38 - - - - 0.27 - 0.22 0.25 0.25 1.37 5
8 Echinochloa Colona - - 0.22 - - 0.23 - - - 0.21 0.66 3
9 Isachne Globosa - - - - 0.38 - - - - - 0.38 1
10 Taraxacum Officinate - - - 0.29 - - - - - 0.22 0.51 2
Total 15.21 44
Line Transect 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 found
(m)
2 Mimosa Pudica 0.33 0.32 0.34 0.41 0.31 0.38 0.40 - - - 2.49 7
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.24 - - 0.31 - - - 0.38 0.32 - 1.25 4
4 Cyperus Iria - - 0.38 - - 0.31 - 0.32 - - 1.01 3
5 Cyperus Acromaticus - 0.24 - 0.25 - - - - 0.31 - 0.80 3
6 Imperata Cylinderica 0.38 - - - - 0.33 0.23 - 0.40 0.28 1.62 5
7 Cyperus Rotundus - 0.30 - - - - 0.21 0.34 - - 0.85 3
8 Echinochloa Colona - 0.23 - - 0.28 - - - - - 0.51 2
9 Isachne Globosa - - 0.32 - 0.24 - - - - 0.42 0.98 3
10 Taraxacum Officinate - - - - 0.28 - 0.28 - - 0.34 0.90 3
Total 15.16 43
Line Transect 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 found
(m)
2 Mimosa Pudica - 0.32 - - 0.47 0.30 0.26 0.40 0.33 0.30 2.38 7
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus 0.31 - - - 0.33 - 0.21 0.30 - - 1.15 4
4 Cyperus Iria 0.32 - - - - 0.31 0.26 - 0.32 - 1.21 4
5 Cyperus Acromaticus - 0.30 - 0.24 0.31 - - 0.24 0.25 0.33 1.67 6
6 Imperata Cylinderica - 0.25 0.35 - - 0.22 - - - 0.37 1.19 4
7 Cyperus Rotundus 0.35 - - 0.27 - 0.21 - - - - 0.83 3
8 Echinochloa Colona - - 0.26 0.24 - - 0.22 - - - 0.72 3
9 Isachne Globosa - - 0.27 0.32 - - - - - - 0.59 2
10 Taraxacum Officinate - 0.22 - - - - - - - - 0.22 1
Total 15.09 44
Line Transect 10
SPECIES
Summary of the measurements obtained by the line transect technique

sectional intervals
length of the where the
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 species found
species (m)
7 4 3 4 7 5 4 8
2 Mimosa Pudica 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 - 0.41 0.3 0.3 0.43 3.51 9
0 6 4 0 6 7 4
3 Chrysopogon Aciculatus - - 0.2 - 0.3 0.3 - - - - 0.91 3
6 3 2
4 Cyperus Iria - 0.2 - 0.3 0.2 - 0.24 - 0.2 - 1.32 5
No. Name of species 8 Number2 of 2 Total cross Percentage 6 Relative Frequency
5 Cyperus Acromaticus 0.3 - intervals
- 0.2 - sectional
0.2 - coverage
0.3 0.2 coverage
- 1.39 (%) 5
0 where species
6 length
3 of 8(%) 2 (%)
6 Imperata Cylinderica - - 0.3 -
are recorded - -
the species - 0.3 - 0.40 1.08 3
7 (m) 1
7 Cyperus
1 Rotundus 0.2
Axoropus Compressus - - 100 - - 48.20 -
0.2 -
32.13 0.2 -31.81 0.75 100.0 3
6 7 2
8 Echinochloa Colona - 0.2 - - - 0.2 - - - - 0.47 2
2 Mimosa Pudica 3 72 25.94
4 17.29 17.12 72.0
9 Isachne Globosa - - - - 0.2 - 0.35 - - - 0.57 2
3 Chrysopogon 39 2 11.03 7.30 7.28 39.0
10 Taraxacum Officinate
Aciculatus - 0.2 - - - - - - - 0.29 0.49 2
0
4 Cyperus Iria 43 12.08 8.05 Total 7.97 15.13 43.0 44
5 Cyperus Acromaticus 46 12.78 8.52 8.43 46.0
6 Imperata Cylinderica 41 12.53 8.35 8.27 41.0
7 Cyperus Rotundus 34 9.24 6.16 6.10 34.0
8 Echinochloa Colona 30 7.51 5.01 4.96 30.0
9 Isachne Globosa 22 6.44 4.29 4.25 22.0
10 Taraxacum Officinate 22 5.79 3.86 3.82 22.0
Total 449 151.54 100.96 100.0 449.0

SPECIES
Calculation :
100
Frequency of Axoropus Compressus = × 100%
100
= 100%
Percentage coverage of 48.20 m

= × 100%
Axoropus Compressus
150 m
= 32.13%
Relative coverage of 48.20 m

= × 100%
Axoropus Compressus 151.54 m
= 31.81%
SPECIES
Discussion :
OVERRALL
DISCUSSION
OVERRALL DISCUSSION
An appropriate soil sampling techniques must be used so that the natural composition of the soil
can be retained. The soil samples obtained from the study areas composed of different soil
components - sand (both coarse and fine sand), silt and clay. In order to determinate the texture
of the soil, these soil components are mechanically separated using sedimentation method. The
soil particles precipitated in the measuring cylinder according to their density and surface area.
Hence, the composition of the soil components can be determined by calculating the percentage
of different soil components of the soil sample. An alternative method used to determine the
texture of the soil is by mechanical analysis using soil sieve. The soil particles are separated
according to their size by using soil sieves with different mesh size. The separated soil particles
are weighted and the percentages of the soil components are determined. A soil texture triangle
diagram is used to figure out the texture of the soil sample according to the composition of the
soil components.
The water content of soil is the amount of water retained in the soil. The percentage of
the water content can be determined by heating the soil sample in the oven to remove the water
from the soil. The soil sample is allowed to cool and weighted. The drop in the mass of the soil
sample due to the loss of water is calculated. The soil sample is reheated, re-cooled, and re-
weighed until constant masses were obtained to ensure that the water content in the soil samples
are totally removed. The percentage of water content in the soil depends on the texture and the
properties of the soil.
Soil organic matter is the organic matter component of soil. In the determination of
organic matter content of soil, the dried soil sample is heated strongly using Bunsen burner in the
crucible covered with lid. The lid of the crucible is opened occasionally to ventilate the air inside
the crucible to allow the entry of oxygen for the decomposition of organic matter in the soil. The
soil sample is allowed to cool and weighted. The soil sample is burnt, cooled, and weighed until
a constant mass is obtained to ensure the complete decomposition of organic matter. Hence, the
percentage of the soil organic matter content can be determined.
Soil air contains oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane, hydrogen
sulphide, and ammonia. In the determination of the air content of soil, a perforated can is pushed
into the soil where the surface vegetation of the soil is removed to obtain the soil sample. The
can containing soil sample is immersed into the beaker of water and the soil sample is loosen by
using a seeker to allow the air in the soil sample to escape. The water flows into the can through
the perforation at the base of the can to replace the space occupied by the air in the soil sample.
The percentage of the air content of soil is determined by measuring the volume of the water
required to replace the air content in the soil sample.
OVERRALL DISCUSSION
The pH value of soil is the measure of the acidity of the soil. The pH value of a soil is influenced
by the kinds of parent materials from which the soil was formed. In the determination of soil pH,
barium sulphate is added to the soil sample in the test tube to ensure flocculation of colloidal
clay. The soil sample in the test tube is then added with distilled water and BDH universal
indicator solution. The test-tube is sealed with the bung and shaken vigorously. The colour of
liquid in the test-tube is compared with the colours on the BDH references colour chart and
corresponding pH is read off. The pH of the soil is important to provide suitable medium for the
growth of plants.
The techniques used to isolate soil organism depend on the size and responses of the
organisms. The Tullgren funnel is used to extract soil arthropods from the soil sample or leaf
litter to study the types of organisms presented. The Tullgren funnel technique is based on the
negative response of organisms towards bright, high temperature and low moisture. The
Baermann funnel is a device used to extract nematodes from a soil sample or plant material. The
application of Baermann funnel relies on the characteristic of nematodes which migrate
downward from soil or feces to water of warmer temperature.
Quadrat sampling technique is used for quantitative analysis of plant communities within
an area. The quadrat size used depends on the size and density of the plants sampled. The
distribution of the quadrats must cover all over the area under study so that the composition of
the plants community can be determined qualitatively. Line transect is another method used to
obtain qualitative information on the distribution and abundance of plants population. Line
transect techniques is usually used to investigate the distribution and abundance of plants species
which forms uniform sequential zone representing different communities.
OVERALL
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
REFERENCE
http://www.donnan.com/soilph.htm
http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/soil_pH/plant_pH.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_pH
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrat
http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/howto.htm
http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/3howto.htm#SYSTEMATIC%20SAMPLING
http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/wetland_survey/line.htm
http://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/hmv1/watrsoil/theta.htmhttp://www-
pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TCS-30_web.pdf
http://www.usyd.edu.au/su/agric/ACSS/sphysic/water.html
http://campbellsci.com/documents/apnotes/soilh20c.pdf
http://www.fao.org/docrep/r4082e/r4082e03.htm
http://www.css.cornell.edu/faculty/hmv1/watrsoil/frontp.htm
http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TCS-30_web.pdf
http://www.usyd.edu.au/su/agric/ACSS/sphysic/water.html
http://campbellsci.com/documents/apnotes/soilh20c.pdf
http://www.fao.org/docrep/r4082e/r4082e03.htm
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Water_content
http://web1.msue.msu.edu/imp/modzz/00001813.html
http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0452.htm
http://www.ar.wroc.pl/~weber/def2.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_material
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/feature/backyard/orgmtrsl.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotic_factor
http://www.botany.uwc.ac.za/SCI_ED/grade10/ecology/biotic/biot.htm#Cons_2
http://www.bcgrasslands.org/grasslands/bioticcomponents.htm
http://www.burkardscientific.co.uk/agronomics/pdf/TullgrenFunnelUnit.pdf
http://www.saburchill.com/lab/experiments/expt01.html
http://www.burkardscientific.co.uk/agronomics/tullgren_funnels.htm
Success in Biology for STPM Volume 2

Penerbitan Fajar Bakti SDN. BHD.
Lee soon Ching
Liew Shee Leong
Choong Ngok Mang
CONFIDENTIAL
REPORT
CONFIDENTIAL REPORT
Undeniably, this ecological study project offers us an opportunity to learn of the

application of science of ecology to natural resources management, research and conservation.
The purpose of this project work is to develop a well understanding of the basic principles of
qualitative ecological study among the students.
We had planned a rough working scheme of the ecological study and constructed a
working schedule to distribute our tasks thoroughly. In the progression of the ecological study,
we had gathered related information through different sources to help us
GROUP REPORT
The purpose of this project work is to enhance the students’ acknowledgement and skills
applied in environmental and resources management. Through this ecological study project, we
could comprehend the application of statistics, mathematics and science to solve a broad of
problems in terrestrial and marine ecology, natural resource management, biometrics, and
mathematical biology.
Through comprehensive project planning, we had outlined the assignment of the

ecological study and constructed a thoughtful working schedule to smooth the progression of this
project work. In accordance with the requirement of this project work, we had selected suitable
study field to conduct soil analysis and qualitative ecology study. Therefore, we had organized a
trip to Cameron Highlands to obtain soil samples for soil analysis.
In the analysis of soil, we have conducted diversified experiments to investigate the

natural composition and properties of soil.
MARKING SCHEMA

Ecological Study Report F6

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Ecological Study Report F6

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iNTRODUCTION

Communities of organisms are composed of two or more populations. At this level, an

The goals intended to be obtained from this ecological study are :

1. Learning the basic principles of ecology through student’s own effort.

- Elements of ecosystem : biosis and abiosis

- Dynamic relationship of elements and flow of energy through ecosystem

2. Using simple apparatus and instruments in ecological studies

3. Learning the methods of collecting and analyzing ecological data

4. Writing an ecological study report

5. Inculcating nature loving attitude

6. Inculcating good moral values-cooperation, independence and self-confidence.

1. SOIL SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Apparatus : Metal cylinder and piston (to dig out soil)

a) The metal cylinder is presses into the soil.

Metal cylinder and piston

2. DETERMINATION OF THE TEXTURE OF SOIL

Soil properties related to texture

Apparatus : 500cm³ measuring cylinder

b) The contents is shaked vigorously.

particles for 48 hours.

d) The volume of the various fraction of soil sample is measured.

% soil component content =

Soil Components Volume of Soil Volume of Soil Percentage of Soil

Mechanical Analysis of The Texture of Soil

Type of soil separate Diameter limits (mm)

Coarse sand 2 – 0.2

Fine Sand 0.2 – 0.02

Silt 0.02 – 0.002

Clay < 0.002

Size classification of soil separates

Soil Texture Triangle

Apparatus : Soil sieves

Materials : Soil samples

1. An empty beaker is weighted and the mass (a) is recorded.

Soil Sample Cameron House Area School Area

Mass of clay, e-a (g) 2.35 3.10 1.01

Mass of sand, silt and 156.08 160.64 174.04

Soil sample Cameron Highlands House Area School Area

Percentage of sand 89.88 88.28 94.89

Percentage of silt 8.61 9.79 4.53

Percentage of Clay 1.51 1.93 0.58

Percentage of silt component 13.44

C. DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT OF SOIL

1. Hygroscopic water - found as a microscopic film of water surrounding soil particles

Apparatus : Aluminum foil pie dish

d) The sample is removed from the oven and is cooled in a desiccators.

e) The sample is then weighted and the mass is recorded.

f) The sample is returned to the oven at 110 oC for a further 24 hours.

h) The percentage of water content is calculated as follows:

i) The soil sample is retained in the desiccator for experiment 4.

% water content of soil =

Soil Sample Cameron House Area School Area

Mass of aluminum 13.89 14.15 15.14

Mass of foil pie dish 93.89 94.15 95.14

Mass of foil pie dish 73.19 70.69 82.20

Mass of soil, b-a (g) 80.0 80.0 80.0

Mass of water , b-c 20.7 23.46 12.94

Percentage of Water 25.88 29.33 16.18

D. DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT

Humus has a characteristic

Material : Dried soil sample

5. The crucible and soil sample is weighted when cooled.

7. The percentage of organic content is calculated as follow: