Chapter 1

Part I

Semiconductor Materials

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 1

 Objectives:
j
¾Discuss the basic structure of atoms

¾Discuss properties of insulators, conductors, and

semiconductors

¾Discuss covalent bonding

¾Describe the properties of both p and n type materials

I this
In thi Part
P t I,
I we will:
ill
• gain a basic understanding of semiconductor material properties
–Two types of charged carriers that exist in a semiconductor
–Two mechanisms that generate currents in a semiconductor

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 2

Bohr model of
an atom
t
Electrons circle
th nucleus.
the l
Atomic structure
of a material
determines its
ability to conduct
or insulate.

i) Conductor
ii) Semiconductor Nucleus
iii) Insulator

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 3

Brief Review : Electric Charge

2 types of electric Positive charge

charge
h Negative charge

Electron Negative charge

Proton Positive charge

Neutral material Electron = proton

Negative charged Electron > proton
material
Positive charged Electron < proton
material

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 4

Conductivity & Resistivity
The higher
g the conductivity
y level, the lower the resistance level.
Conductor: Any material that will support a generous flow of charge when a
voltage source is applied across its terminals.

Insulator: A material that offers a very low level of conductivity under pressure
from an applied voltage source.

Semiconductor: A material that has a conductivity level somewhere between a

conductor and an insulator.

Resistivity, ρ, is often used when comparing the resistance levels of materials.

Its metric unit is .

R
ρ=
RA (Ω ) cm 2
=
( )
= Ωcm
ρ l cm
1 cm
A=1 cm2
l 1 cm
l=1

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 5

 Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
ρ ≅ 10 −6 Ωcm(copper
pp ) ρ ≅ 50Ωcm( germanium ) ρ ≅ 1012 Ωcm(mica)
ρ ≅ 50 × 10 3 Ωcm( Silicon)

Why semiconductor is used for electronic device?

(i) Th
Their
i material
t i l characteristics
h t i ti can b be changed
h d significantly
i ifi tl
through the process known as “doping”.
“Doping” is a process of adding impurity into semiconductor
material. That material can be changed from poor conductor
to a good conductor of electricity.
(ii) Their characteristics can be altered significantly through the
application of heat or light- an important consideration in the
development of heat- and light-sensitive devices.

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 6

 Materials:
C d t
Conductors, IInsulators,
l t and
d Semiconductors
S i d t
¾ The ability of a material to conduct current is
Electron valence
based on its atomic structure.
Shell
N
¾ The orbit paths of the electrons M
surrounding the nucleus are called shells. L
K
¾ Each shell has a defined number of
electrons it will hold.
Ex:Copper:2 8 18 1 (1 electron valence)
Ex:Copper:2.8.18.1

¾ The outer shell is called the valence

shell
shell. Copper Atom Valence shell

¾ The less complete a shell is filled to capacity the

more conductive the material is
is.

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 7

 Shell K L M N

Sub-shell/state 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f
Numbers of electrons 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14
Symbol 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14
Total numbers
of electrons in shell 2 8 18 32

For certain shell, there are sub-shells named as s, p, d and f.

Sub-shell
n Shell s p d f
1 K 1s 2
2 L 2s 2p 8
3 M 3s 3p 3d 18
4 N 4s 4p 4d 4f 32
5 O 5s 5p 5d 5f 32
6 P 6s 6p 6d 18
7 Q 7s 7p 8

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 8

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
The valence shell determines the ability of material to
conduct current.
A Copper
C atom
t h
has only
l 1 A Silicon
Sili atom
t h 4 electrons
has l t i
in
electron in its valence ring. This its valence ring. This makes it a
makes it a good conductor. semiconductor.
Cu : 2.8.18.1 Si : 2.8.4

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 9

Covalent Bonding
There are 4 electrons in the valence shell.
The potential (ionization potential) required to remove
any one of these 4 valence electrons is lower than that
required
q for anyy other electron in the structure.
In silicon crystal, these 4 valence electrons are bonded
to 4 adjoining atoms.
Materials
M t i l iin group IV are referred
f d tto as ttetravalent
t l t atoms
t
Si : 2.8.4 because they each have 4 valence electrons.
A bonding of atoms, strengthened
Covalent bonding by the sharing of electrons, is
called covalent bonding.
atom (sharing of electrons)
Although the covalent bond will
result in a stronger bond between
the valence electrons and their
parent atom, it is still possible for
the valence electrons to absorb
sufficient kinetic energy from
natural causes to break the
covalent bond and assume the
“free” state.

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 10

Free Carriers

The natural causes include;

(i) effects such as light energy in the form of photons
photons.
(ii) thermal energy from the surrounding medium.

The “free”state
free state refers to existence of “free
free carriers
carriers”.
“carriers” refers to “electrons” and “holes”.

At room temperature,
temperature there are approximately 1 5 x 1010 free carriers in a
1.5
cubic centimeter of intrinsic silicon material.

The free carriers are sensitive to applied electric fields such as established by
voltage sources or any difference potential.

Produce the flow of current

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 11

Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Intrinsic materials are those semiconductors that have been carefully refined to
reduce the impurities to a very low level ÆIdeally 100% pure material

• Semiconductors can be grouped into two categories:

– Elemental semiconductors
• Silicon (Si)
– Most common semiconductor used today
• Germanium (Ge)
– First
Fi semiconductor
i d used
d iin p-n diodes
di d

– Compound semiconductors
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
(GaAs) Gallium Nitride(GaN)
• Silicon Carbide (SiC)

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 12

 Examples of Semiconductor Materials

Elemental IV Groups Si, Ge

Semiconductors VI Groups Se, Te

III-V Compound
GaAs, GaP, InAs, InP
Semiconductors

II-VI Compound
ZnS,, ZnSe,, CdS,, CdSe
S i
Semiconductors
d t

Oxide Compound
Semiconductors ZnO, Cu2O

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 13

Effect of Temperature

hole

At 0K, no bonds are broken. As temperature increases, a bond can

break, releasing a valence electron and
Si is an insulator.
leaving a broken bond (hole).

Current can flow.

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 14

Effect of Temperature
Temperature The numbers of carriers in a
conductor will not increase
Conductor significantly with temperature, but
their vibration pattern about a
relatively fixed location will make
it increasingly difficult for electrons
to pass through.

Increase in free
Semiconductor carriers

Resistivity

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 15

 Energy Band Diagram
Isolated Atomic Structure
Energy
The more distant the electron from the nucleus,
Valence level
the higher the energy state, and any electron that
(outermost shell)
Energy gap has left its parent atom has a higher energy state
Second level
(next inner shell)
than any electron in the atomic structure.
Energy gap
Third level
etc
etc. Between the discrete energy levels are gaps in
Nucleus which no electron can appear.

Crystal Lattice Structure

Energy
As the atoms of a material are brought closer together to
Conduction band
form the crystal lattice structure, there is an interaction
between atoms that will result in the electrons in the
particular orbit of one atom having slightly different energy
Energy gap levels from electrons in the same orbit of an adjoining
atom
atom.

The net result is an expansion of the discrete levels of

Valence band possible energy states for the valence electrons.

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 16

Crystal Lattice Structure
There are boundary levels and maximum energy states in
Energy which any electron in the atomic lattice can find itself, and
there remains the forbidden region between the valence
Conduction band
band and the ionization level.
Energy
gy g
gap
p/
Band gap
IIonization
i ti iis th
the mechanism
h i whereby
h b electron
l t can absorb
b b
sufficient energy to break away from the atomic structure
and enter the conduction band.

Valence band Energy gap is measured in electron volt (eV)

Room temperature=300K
Energy I
Insulator
l t E
Energy
Electrons Semiconductor Energy Conductor
Conduction band “free” to
establish Conduction band
conduction
The bands Conduction band
Eg > 5eV Eg overlap
Valence Valence band
electrons
bound to Valence band Hole
the Eg=1.1 eV(Si)
Valence band atomic Eg=0.67eV(Ge)
structure Eg=1.41eV(GaAs)

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 17

Energy Band Diagram

Ev – Maximum
a u eenergy
e gy o
of a valence
a e ce e
electron
ect o oor hole
oe
Ec – Minimum energy of a free electron
Eg – Energy required to break the covalent bond

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 18

Movement of Holes

A valence electron in a
nearby bond can
move to fill the broken
bond making it
bond,
appear as if the ‘hole’
shifted locations.

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 19

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

− Eg

ni = BT e 32 2 kT

B – coefficient
ffi i t related
l t d to
t specific
ifi semiconductor
i d t
T – temperature in Kelvin
Eg – semiconductor bandgap energy
k – Boltzmann’s constant

−3
ni ( Si,300 K ) = 1.5 x10 cm 10

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 20

 Extrinsic
t s c Semiconductors
Se co ducto s
The characteristics of semiconductor materials can be altered significantly by the
addition of certain impurity
p y atoms into the relativelyy ppure semiconductor material.
These impurities, although only added to perhaps 1 part in 10 million, can alter the
band structure sufficiently to totally change the electrical properties of the material.

A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is called
extrinsic semiconductor.

If certain impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor materials, energy

states in the forbidden bands will occur which will cause a net reduction in Eg
for both semiconductor materials – consequently, increased carrier density in
th conduction
the d ti b bandd att room ttemperature.
t

There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors : n-type and p-type

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 21

Phosphorous – Donor Impurity in Si

Phosphorous (P) replaces a Si atom and forms four covalent

bonds with other Si atoms.
The fifth outer shell electron of P is easily freed to become a
conduction band electron, adding to the number of electrons
available to conduct current.
Thi process will
This ill create
t n-type
t Si.
Si

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 22

Boron – Acceptor Impurity in Si

Boron (B) replaces a Si atom and forms only three covalent bonds
with other Si atoms.
The missing covalent bond is a hole, which can begin to move
through the crystal when a valence electron from another Si atom
is taken to form the fourth B-Si bond.
This process will create p
p-type
type Si
Si.

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 23

Summary:
2 ttype off extrinsic
t i i semiconductors
i d t : n-type
t and
d p-type
t semiconductors.
i d t
The process of creating n- and p-type materials is called doping.

How to create N-type How to create P-type

Example: Adding other atoms with 5 Example: Adding other atoms with 3
valence
l electrons
l t such
h as l
valence electrons
l t such h as B
Boron(B),
(B)
Antimony(Sb),Arsenic(As) and Gallium(Ga) and Indium(In) to Silicon to
Phosporous(P) to Silicon to increase create a deficiency of electrons or hole
tthe
e free
ee e
electrons.
ect o s ccharges.
a ges

Donor atom
Acceptor atom

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 24

 The effect of this doping process can be described through the use of the energy-band
diagram.
n-type
n type Note that the discrete energy gy level(donor
(
Energy energy level) appears in the forbidden
gap/band with an Eg significantly less
Conduction band than that of the intrinsic material. Those
Eg=0.05eV(Si), “free”
“f ” electrons
l t due
d to t the
th added
dd d
0.01eV(Ge) impurity sit at this energy level and have
Donor less difficulty absorbing a sufficient
Eg as before energy
gy level measure of thermal energy gy to move into
the conduction band at room
temperature.
Valence band
The result is that at room temperature,
there are a large n number
mber of
p-type
Energy carriers(electrons) in the conduction
level and the conductivity of the material
increases significantly.
g y
Conduction band

Eg as before Explanation concept is same with the

Acceptor
energy level above.
Valence band

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 25

Electron and Hole Concentrations

n = electron concentration n = n⋅ p
2
i
p = hole concentration

n-type: p = n / ND
2
i

n = ND, the donor concentration

p-type: n = n / NA
2
i
p = NA, the acceptor concentration

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 26

Electron versus Hole Flow
The effect of the hole on conduction
is described. If a valence electron
- - - - acquires sufficient kinetic energy to
b k itits covalent
break l tbbondd andd fill
fills th
the
- Si - - Si - - Si - - Si - void created by a hole, then a vacancy
- - - - or hole, will be created in the covalent
bond that released the electron.
- - + -
There is, therefore, a transfer of holes
- Si - - Si - - B - - Si - to the left and electrons to the right.
- - - -

Hole flow

Electron flow

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 27

Majority and Minority Carriers

In the intrinsic state, the number of free electrons in Ge or Si is due only to those
few electrons in the valence band that have acquired sufficient energy from
thermal or light sources to break the covalent bond or to the few impurities that
could not be removed.
The vacancies left behind in the covalent bonding structure give limited supply of
holes.

In an n-type material, the number of holes has not changed significantly from this
Intrinsic level. The net result, therefore, is that the number of electrons far
outweighs the numbers of holes.
In an n-type material, the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole is
called the minority carrier.

For the p-type material the number of holes far outweighs the number of electrons.
In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the
minority
i it carrier.i

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 28

 Donor ions Majority Acceptor ions
carrier
- - + - + - - + - + -
+
- - - + - - - - + -
+
- - + - - + - + + +- + - + +
-
+ + - + - + +- - + + - + + -
- - -
- +
- - + - - - - + Minority - ++ - + - - +
carrier
+ +
n-type p-type

When the fifth electron of a donor atom leaves the parent atom, the atom
remaining acquires a net positive charge: hence the positive sign in the
donor-ion representation.
For the similar reasons, the negative sign appears in the acceptor ion.

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 29

Drift Currents

Electrons and hole flow in opposite directions when under the influence
of an electric field at different velocities.
The drift currents associated with the electrons and holes are in the
same direction.

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 30

Diffusion Currents
Concentration Concentration
High High

Low Low

Both electrons and holes flow from high concentration to low

low.

The diffusion current associated with the electrons flows in the opposite
direction when compared to that of the holes.

SEE 2063 Chapter 1, Part I , Semiconductor Materials 31