Acoustic

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Architectural Acoustic
Architectural acoustics (also known as room
acoustics and building acoustics) is the science
and engineering of achieving a good sound within
a building and is a branch of acoustical
engineering.
The first application of modern scientific methods

to architectural acoustics was carried out
by Wallace Sabine in the Fogg Museum lecture
room who then applied his new found knowledge
to the design of Symphony Hall, Boston.
Architectural acoustics can be about achieving

Symphony Hall, Birmingham, an
good speech intelligibility in a theatre, restaurant example of the application of
or railway station, enhancing the quality of music architectural acoustics.
in a concert hall or recording studio, or suppressing
noise to make offices and homes more productive
and pleasant places to work and live in.
Architectural acoustic design is usually done by
acoustic consultants.
Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

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Need to Study Acoustics
When designing a building’s environment, Architect must
deal primarily with human senses of 1. Sight 2. Touch 3.
Hearing
Julian Treasure:
Knowledge of the concepts of architectural acoustics, the Why architects
study of everything which concerns hearing in or around need to use their
buildings, will enable the designer to properly integrate the ears
requirements of the sound control with the requirements of
other building functions. Every space that man occupies https://www.youtube.
possesses an acoustical environment. com/watch?v=y5nb
WUOc9tY
Because of poor acoustics, students in classrooms miss 50
percent of what their teachers say and patients in hospitals
have trouble sleeping because they continually feel stressed.
The goal of architectural acoustic is to make the environment

best serve the functions intended, such as work, relaxation or
sleep. All architects can benefit from a study of architectural
acoustics for several important reasons.

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2. Basic theory of Sound

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2.1 Generation of Sound
In physics, sound is a vibration that typically propagates as an audible wave of

pressure, through a transmission medium such as a gas, liquid or solid.
In human physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of such waves and
their perception by the brain. Humans can only hear sound waves as distinct
pitches when the frequency lies between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sound above
20 kHz is ultrasound and is not perceptible by humans. Sound waves below 20 Hz
are known as infrasound. Different animal species have varying hearing ranges.
The sensation of sound is a result of vibrations in the air caused by pressure

fluctuations, which can be measured with a sound level meter. Vibrations are
more commonly associated with mechanical systems, but air also has mass and
stiffness, and as sound travels in the air it is locally compressed and expanded.
The simplest type of vibration is a pure tone, which is a one-dimensional
sinusoidal vibration with only one frequency component. These sinusoidal
vibrations are called simple harmonic vibrations.
Measuring sound is done with a sound level meter and can be presented by
both sound pressure, measured in Pascal (Pa), and sound intensity, measured in
Watt/m2.

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2.2 Propagation of Sound
Sound can propagate through a medium such as air,
water and solids as longitudinal waves and also as
a transverse wave in solids.
Sound is propagated in air, much like blowing up a large

balloon, which expands equally in all directions. (Fig 1)
For sound to be generated and heard it must have a

source, a medium through which to pass and a receiver.
For purposes of this discussion, we will assume that we

are talking about normal speech communications. The
source is the speaker’s voice, the medium through which
it is transmitted is air and the receiver is the listener’s ear.
(Fig 1)
As sound is generated by the speaker’s speech, the
speaker’s voice acts like a diaphragm which causes the
molecules in the air to pulsate back and forth while
moving in all directions, at a speed of 1130 ft per second
(770 mph).

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A single segment of a sound wave may be characterized as pressure
compressions and rarefactions.

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The behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three
things:
1. A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This
relationship, affected by temperature, determines the speed of sound within the
medium.
2. Motion of the medium itself. If the medium is moving, this movement may increase or
decrease the absolute speed of the sound wave depending on the direction of the
movement. For example, sound moving through wind will have its speed of propagation
increased by the speed of the wind if the sound and wind are moving in the same
direction. If the sound and wind are moving in opposite directions, the speed of the
sound wave will be decreased by the speed of the wind.
3. The viscosity of the medium. Medium viscosity determines the rate at which sound is
attenuated. For many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is
negligible.
When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical
properties, it may be refracted (either dispersed or focused).
The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through
all forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports
the sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through a vaccum

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CASSIFICATION OF SOUND :
On the basis of frequency sound waves are classified

into 3 types.
- INFRA SOUND [f<20Hz]

- AUDIBLE SOUND [ 20Hz < f < 20kHz]
- ULTRA SOUND [ f > 20kHz]
CLASSIFICATION OF AUDIBLE SOUND:
1) MUSICAL SOUND
2) NOISE
Musical Noise
•The Sound which produces •The sound that produces a jarring

pleasing effect on the ear is effect on the ear and unpleasant
called Musical Sound. to hear is called noise.
•Sounds Of Sitar, Violin, Flute •Sound Of Road

Traffic, Crackers, Aeroplane

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PROPERTIES OF MUSICAL SOUND
•Regular in Shape.
•Have definite Periodicity.
•They do not undergo a sudden
change in amplitude.
Properties Of Noise
• Irregular in Shape.
• Do not have Definite Periodicity.
• They Undergo a Sudden Change In Amplitude.

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2.3 Transmission of Sound
Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids
as longitudinal waves, also called compression waves.
It requires a medium to propagate. Through solids,
however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal
waves and transverse waves.
Longitudinal sound waves are waves of

alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium
pressure, causing local regions
of compression and rarefaction, while transverse
waves (in solids) are waves of alternating shear stress at
right angle to the direction of propagation. Sound Spherical compression
(longitudinal) waves
waves may be "viewed" using parabolic mirrors and
objects that produce sound.
The energy carried by an oscillating sound wave

converts back and forth between the potential energy
of the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves)
or lateral displacement strain (in case of transverse
waves) of the matter, and the kinetic energy of the
displacement velocity of particles of the medium.

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Physical properties of sound
• Wavelength of sound – This the distance between two pressure peaks or valleys,
measured in metres (m) and represented with the Greek alphabet ‘l’ (lambda). •
Period – This is the time taken for on complete oscillation. This is measured in
seconds(s) and represented with the letter ‘T’.
• Frequency – This is the number of oscillations per second. This is represented with ‘f’
and measured in Hertz
• Velocity of sound – This is the rate at which a sound wave travels from a source
through a medium to the receiver. The unit is m/s.
• Amplitude – This is the distance between a crest (the highest point) and a valley
(the lowest point)

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Sound intensity
Sound intensity level also known as acoustic intensity is defined as the power
carried by sound waves per unit area in a direction perpendicular to that
area. The SI unit of intensity, which includes sound intensity, is the watt per
square meter (W/m2). One application is the noise measurement of sound
intensity in the air at a listener's location as a sound energy quantity.
Sound intensity is not the same physical quantity as sound pressure. Hearing is
directly sensitive to sound pressure which is related to sound intensity. In
consumer audio electronics, the level differences are called "intensity"
differences, but sound intensity is a specifically defined quantity and cannot
be sensed by a simple microphone. The rate at which sound energy passes
through a unit area held perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
sound waves is called intensity of sound.

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Mathematical definition
Sound intensity, denoted I, is

defined by
I = pν
Where Also,
• p is the sound pressure; I = 2 𝝅𝟐 𝝂𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝝆𝒗
• ν is the particle velocity.
Where,
Both I and v are vectors, which
means that both have 𝝂 is frequency of sound
a direction as well as a A is amplitude of the sound wave
magnitude. The direction of 𝒗 is velocity of sound
sound intensity is the average 𝝆 is density of medium in which the
direction in which energy is sound is travelling
flowing.
The average sound intensity

during time T is given by
𝟏 𝑻
I= 𝒑 𝒕 𝒗 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝟎

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Many sound intensity measurements are made relative to a
standard threshold of hearing intensity I0 :
The most common approach to sound intensity measurement is

to use the decibel scale:
Decibels measure the ratio of a given intensity I to the threshold

of hearing intensity , so that this threshold takes the value 0
decibels (0 dB). To assess sound loudness, as distinct from an
objective intensity measurement, the sensitivity of the ear must be
factored in.

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•Sound intensity decreases at a
Inverse –Square Law rate inversely proportional to the
square of the distance from the
sound source. The relationship
can be expressed as:
•I = W/4π r2
• Where I = sound intensity

in watts per square
centimeter;
• W = sound power in
watts;
• r = distance from the
sound source in
centimeter.
• If the distance is
measured in feet,
4πr2 has to be multiplied
by 930 (because 1
square foot equals 930
square centimeter).

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Decibel Scale
The decibel ( dB) is used to measure sound level, but it is also widely used in
electronics, signals and communication. The dB is a logarithmic way of
describing a ratio. The ratio may be power, sound pressure, voltage or
intensity or several other things.
Later on we relate dB to the phon and the sone(related to loudness). But

first, to get a taste for logarithmic expressions.
For instance, suppose we have two loudspeakers, the first playing a sound
with power P1, and another playing a louder version of the same sound with
power P2, but everything else (how far away, frequency) kept the same
The difference in decibels between the two is defined to be
10 log (P2/P1) dB where the log is to base 10.
If the second produces twice as much power than the first, the difference in
dB is
10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 2 = 3 dB.

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as is shown on the graph, which plots 10 log (P2/P1)
against P2/P1. To continue the example, if the
second had 10 times the power of the first, the
difference in dB would be
10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 10 = 10 dB
If the second had a million times the power of the

first, the difference in dB would be
10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 1,000,000 = 60 dB.
This example shows one feature of decibel scales

that is useful in discussing sound: they can describe
very big ratios using numbers of modest size. But
note that the decibel describes a ratio: so far we
have not said what power either of the speakers
radiates, only the ratio of powers. (Note also the
factor 10 in the definition, which puts the 'deci' in
decibel).

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Phon:
• The phon is a unit of loudness level for pure tones. Its purpose is to compensate
for the effect of frequency on the perceived loudness of tones. The phon was
proposed in DIN 45631 and ISO 532 B by S. S. Stevens.
• The phon is a non-standard noise unit that is designed to reflect perceived

loudness, and is based on psychoacoustic experiments in which volunteers
were asked to adjust the decibel level of a reference tone of 1 kHz until it was
the same loudness as the signal being measured. So for example, if a sound is
70 phons, that means it sounds as loud as a 70-dB, 1-kHz tone. The dBA scale is
now widely used instead of phons.
• By definition, the number of phon of a sound is the dB SPL of a sound at

a frequency of 1 kHz that sounds just as loud. This implies that 0 phon is the limit
of perception, and inaudible sounds have negative phon levels.
• The equal-loudness contours are a way of mapping the dB SPL of a pure tone
to the perceived loudness level (LN) in phons. These are now defined in the
international standard ISO 226:2003, and the research on which this document
is based concluded that earlier Fletcher–Munson curves and Robinson–
Dadson curves were in error.

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Sone:
The sone ( /ˈsoʊn/) is a unit of loudness, how loud a sound is perceived. The sone
scale is linear. Doubling the perceived loudness doubles the sone value.
Proposed by Stanley Smith Stevens in 1936, it is a non-SI unit.
In acoustics, loudness is the subjective perception of sound pressure. The study of

apparent loudness is included in the topic of psychoacoustics and employs
methods of psychophysics.
Conversion
According to Stevens' definition, a loudness of 1 sone is equivalent to the
loudness of a signal at 40 phons, the loudness level of a 1 kHz tone at 40 dB
SPL. But phons scale with level in dB, not with loudness, so the sone and phon
scales are not proportional. Rather, the loudness in sones is, at least very
nearly, a power law function of the signal intensity, with an exponent of 0.3.
With this exponent, each 10 phon increase (or 10 dB at 1 kHz) produces almost
exactly a doubling of the loudness in sones.
Phons 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Sones 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

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Weighting networks
A-weighting network: Generally, the sensitivity of human hearing is restricted

to the frequency range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. The human ear, however, is
most sensitive to sound in the 400 to 10,000 Hz frequency range. Above and
below this range, the ear becomes progressively less sensitive. To account for
this feature of human hearing, sound level meters incorporate a filtering of
acoustic signals according to frequency. This filtering is devised to
correspond to the varying sensitivity of the human ear to sound over the
audible frequency range. This filtering is called A-weighting. Sound pressure
level values obtained using this weighting are referred to as A-weighted
sound pressure levels and are signified by the identifier dBA. Simply speaking,
it may be defined as a frequency-response adjustment of a sound-level
meter that makes its reading conform, very roughly, to human response.
C-weighted network: The C-weighted network provides unweighted

microphone sensitivity over the frequency range of maximum human
sensitivity (over 1000 Hz).

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EQUAL LOUDNESS CONTOUR
Our ears do not perceive all

sounds equally at the various
frequencies or sound intensities.
(FIGURE 6) shows an equal
loudness contour chart. The
sound levels for a particular
sound as defined by the level at
1000 Hz will find the same for any
given frequency along the
curve. For example, a 20-decibel
sound at 1000 Hz would be
perceived as the same sound
level of 50 decibels at 100 Hz.
This indicates that our ears are
less sensitive to low-frequency
sounds than mid to high
frequencies. As will be seen
later, this sensitivity difference will
feature repeatedly in the control
of noise.

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Credit: Yang Ku / Ty Finocchiaro / C&EN
Source: https://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i14/Sound-Science.html

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Perception of Sound (Loudness)
The deviation of sound above and below the atmospheric pressure levels is
called Sound Pressure. The energy expanded in the process of sound
propagation is labeled intensity (loudness) and is measured in energy units. At
this point the science of sound can be a little more complex and intimidating
since placing a numerical value on sound is very difficult due to the
extraordinary sensitivity of the human ear. Our ears can detect deviations in
atmospheric pressure in the order of 1,000,000 to 1 and sound intensities of over
a trillion to one.
In order to make the measurement, calculation, and perception of sound more

manageable, a compact scale has been devised incorporating the decibel
(dB). A decibel is a logarithmic unit measure of sound pressure.
(FIGURE 7) Shows sound levels of recognizable sound in decibels with a

subjective evaluation from “very faint” to “deafening”. It shows the logarithmic
values of intensity of energy units and the relative loudness as perceived by the
human ear. Obviously, it is much easier to comprehend the decibel levels.

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TYPICAL A-WEIGHTED SOUND LEVELS
(FIGURE7) THRESHOLD OF AUDIBILITY
The Relative Loudness levels are THRESHOLD OF FEELINGS DECIBELS
INTENSITY
RELATIVE
ENERGY
important insofar as they RE 20 uPA
UNITS
LOUDNESS
demonstrate that a 10-decibel Jet Takeoff (200′) 1,000,000,0
120 4096
increase will be perceived as twice DEAFENING Artillery 00,000
as loud as the previous level or Elevated Train 100,000,000
conversely, a decrease of 50% from Subway (20′)
110
,000
2048
the previous higher level. It is less 10,000,000,

important to understand the VERY LOUD Printing Press 100
000
1024
1,000,000,0
physics of this relative difference as Police Whistle 90
00
512
much as to accept it as an acoustical
Vacuum Cleaner (10′) 80 100,000,000 256
phenomenon.
LOUD
Street Noise 70 10,000,000 128
Note: (FIGURE 7) expresses the Noisy Office
60 1,000,000 64
Large Store
sound pressure levels as single
number levels in the A weighted MODERATE Conversation 50 100,000 32
Average Office
scale. The A weighted scale uses the 40 10,000 16
equal loudness contours to provide Private office
a single number value in the same FAINT Quiet Conversation

30 1,000 8
manner as our ears perceived Studio (Speech)
sound. The A weighting discounts Rustle of Leaves 20 100 4
the low-frequency sound level
VERY FAINT Whisper 10 10 2
perception (This will be discussed
Soundproof Room 0 0 0
further under Sound Level Meters).

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Subjective effects
• Physiolocial
• Psycholocial
• Cognitive
• Behavioural

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Characteristics of Sound
The physical characteristics of sound waves influence the three psychological

features of sound: loudness, pitch, and timbre.
Pitch
Pitch refers to the
highness or lowness of a
sound.
The pitch of a sound that

you hear depends on
the frequency of the
sound wave.
Sound waves with a high

frequency have a high • High frequency means more vibrations hitting the ear.
pitch and sound waves • Pitch is how high or how low a sound seems to be.
with a low frequency • Healthy humans can hear from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
have a low pitch. • We are most sensitive from 440 Hz to 7,000 Hz.

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• Lungs: Air From the lungs rushes up the
trachea
• Vocal Cords: which are located in your
voice box, or larynx vibrate as air rushes
pass them
• Sound: Sound waves produced by the
vibrating vocal cords come out through
the mouth
A man’s vocal chords are normally longer and more massive than a
female’s voice. Hence, a male’s voice is low pitched compared to
the female’s voice.

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Loudness
Loudness or intensity describes your

perception of energy of sound.
Intensity refers to energy delivered to a unit

area of a surface per unit of time.
The SI unit of intensity is watts/𝑚2 .
The degree of loudness or faintness of a sound depends upon the

different factors
1. Amount of energy of a sound

2. Distance from the source of sound
3. The state of the medium through which the sound is transmitted
4. The amount of the original vibrations
5. The frequency of the vibration
6. Area to which the sound is produced

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Energy of a Sound Source
The greater the energy used to make a

sound, the louder the sound
Example: Playing a guitar

• When you use more energy to pull the
strings of the guitar, the louder the
noise produced by the guitar is.
• The more energy you use, the larger the amplitude

• The larger the amplitude produces a louder sound.
Amplitude is the distance between the normal position to the final

position of an object which is producing specific vibration.

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Distance From a Sound Source
• Loudness increases the closer you are to a sound source.
• Close to the sound source, the sound waves cover a small area
• As waves travel away from the sound source, it covers more area
• The total energy of the wave stays the same whether it’s close to the
source or far away from it
• The closer the sound wave is to its source, the more energy it has in a
given area.
• The amount of energy a sound wave carries per second through a

unit area is its Intensity
• A sound wave of greater intensity sounds louder
• When you move away from the sound source, loudness decreases,
because the intensity decreases.

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LOUDNESS INTENSITY
• It is degree of SENSATION • It is the quantity of SOUND

Produced on the ear. ENERGY flowing across unit
• It various from listener to AREA in unit TIME.
listener. • It is independent to listener.
• It is a PHYSIOLOGICAL • It is a PHYSICAL quantity.
quantity. • Its unit is Weber/m².
• Its unit is SONE.

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Measuring Loudness
Loudness is measured using the unit called the Bel (B) in honor of
Alexander Graham Bell. A bel is a rather large unit; the smaller unit is
decibel (dB) is often used instead.
1B = 10dB
Intensity Levels of Common Sounds

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OCTAVE BANDS:
For convenience, the
audible frequency range is
divided into octave bands,
each band having range of
one octave. The upper
frequency limit is therefore
twice the value of lower
limit. A large percentage of
total speech intelligibility is
provided by the fifth, sixth,
seventh bands.
Octaves in Human Hearing

Octaves are groups of
frequencies that help
quantify how humans
distinguish between
frequencies.
Octaves represent the

overall level of energy over
a specific frequency range.
Figure 1: An octave map. Each vertical block is an octave and represents
the overall level of sound energy over that range of frequencies.

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How are octave bands determined?
The term “octave band” is borrowed from music theory where there is a
doubling of frequency between notes of the same name.
figure 2: In music, there is a doubling of frequency between notes of the same name

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Octave bands in human hearing are developed in the same
manner: the range of human hearing (20-20kHz) is divided
into eleven octave bands, each band having double the
frequency span of the previous band. These are called the
1/1 octave bands.
To more closely
match how humans
distinguish
frequencies, each
1/1 octave band
can be split into
three bands. These
are called the 1/ 3
octave bands.
These smaller bands
more closely
Figure 3: The lower, upper, and center frequencies of the
1/1 octave bands over the human hearing range.
represent how
humans distinguish
between
Figure 4: The upper, lower, and center
frequencies. frequencies for the 1/3 octave bands.

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Quality/ Timbre
• Quality or timbre is that the property of
tone that distinguishes it from another
tone of the same pitch and intensity
but produced by different sources
(voices and instruments).
• Timbre is then a general term for the

distinguishable characteristics of a
tone.
• These difference in quality are due to

the varying vibrations of the sound
sources.
• In simple terms, timbre is what makes a

particular musical sound different from
another, even when they have the
same pitch and loudness.
• For instance, it is the difference

between a guitar and a piano playing
the same note at the same loudness.

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Behavior of sound in an enclosed space
An enclosed space is a room or area bounded on every of its sides. The materials for
enclosure may be classified into two:
• Those that allow sound rays to pass through and
• Those that do not allow sound rays to pass through.
Areas bounded with materials that allow sound rays to pass through tend to enjoy good
acoustic as the effect of indirect sound from reflection is reduced within the space. In this
space, sound from external source can pass through the material into the enclosure as
background noise. The vibration of some of the materials can be a source of noise within the
space and this can be a bane to the achievement of clear and audible speech and music.
The effect of indirect sound may be pronounced in spaces enclosed with materials that do
not allow the passage of sound rays through them. Adjustments to the material to aid
diffusion will improve the acoustic of the space. Some of these materials can absorb sound,
reducing the effect of indirect sound
On encountering barriers posed by the enclosure, sound waves are likely to behave in the
following ways:
• Reflection
• Absorption
• Refraction
• Diffusion
• Diffraction
• Transmission

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Reflection
This occurs when the wavelength of a sound wave is smaller than the surface of an
obstacle. In the case of an enclosed space, the sound waves hit every side of the
enclosure continuously until the sound energy reduces to zero. The amount of waves
reflected depends on the smoothness, size, and softness of the materials of enclosure.
The angle of incidence of sound rays is equal to that of the reflected rays only if the
surface of the reflector is flat. But when it is curved, the angles are different.

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Absorption
When sound waves hit

the surface of an
obstacle, some of its
energy is reflected while
some are lost through its
transfer to the molecules
of the barrier. The lost
sound energy is said to
have been absorbed by
the barrier. The thickness
and nature of the
material as regards its
softness and hardness
influences the amount of
sound energy absorbed.

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Refraction
This is the bending of

sound when it travels from
one medium into another
medium. The difference in
the composition of the
two different media bends
the sound i.e. the angle of
incidence changes into
an angle of refraction as it
travels into the new
medium.

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Diffusion
This is the scattering of

waves from a surface. It
occurs as a result of the
texture and hardness of the
obstacle is comparable to
the wavelength of the
sound.
The direction of the incident

ray changes when it strikes
the surface of the obstacle.
Satisfaction is achieved
when sound is heard in all
direction at equal level.

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Diffraction
When the
wavelength of a
sound wave is smaller
or equal to the size of
the obstacle, the
sound rays tend to
bend round the edge
of the obstacle
thereby turning the
edge to a sound
source.

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Transmission
In this phenomenon, sound wave is carried by molecules of

the obstacle through vibration and reemitted at the other side
irrespective of the medium. It can be structure borne, air
borne or impact sound.

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Ray diagram
• Ray diagram is analogous to specular reflection of

light. Analysis of ray diagrams can be used to study
the effect of room shape on the distribution of sound
and to identify surfaces that may produce echoes.
• A ray diagram shows both reflected and direct sound

paths.
• The difference between these two paths is called

path difference (Path Difference = Reflected Path -
Direct Path).
• A path difference in excess of the distance that can

be travelled by a sound wave in 0.05
seconds indicates that the reflected sound can be
perceived as discrete echo.

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Source – Path – Receiver

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Ray diagram

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SOUND ABSORPTION The amount of absorption,
reflection, and transmission
When sound reaches a barrier, three things can happen as of the sound is different for
shown in Figure 1: every frequency.
• Absorption – The sound is absorbed and dissipated as For example, a high

heat. frequency sound with a
• Transmission – Sound can pass through the barrier. short wavelength can be
• Reflection – Sound can be reflected back off the barrier. absorbed by a thinner piece
of material, while lower
frequency sounds are not
absorbed, due to their
longer wavelength.
An open window is an
excellent absorber since the
sounds passing through the
open window are not
reflected back but makes a
poor sound barrier. Painted
concrete block is a good
sound barrier but will reflect
about 97% of the incident
sound striking it.
Figure 1: Sound at a barrier can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected.

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For the vast majority of
conventional acoustical
materials, the material
thickness has the greatest
impact on the material’s
sound absorbing qualities.
While the inherent
composition of the acoustical
material determines the
material’s acoustical
performance, other factors
can be brought to bear to
improve or influence the
acoustical performance.
Incorporating an air space
behind an acoustical ceiling
or wall panel often serves to
improve low-frequency
performance.

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Absorption Quantification
Absorption is can be expressed via the “absorption coefficient” (Equation 1)
which can have a value between 0 and 1.
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

α=
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Equation 1: Calculating the absorption coefficient.
Alpha represents the absorption coefficient.

• When the absorption coefficient equals one, all the sound is absorbed
• When the absorption coefficient equals zero, no sound is absorbed
Absorption coefficient
α=Iα/Ii
α = absorption coefficient
Iα = sound power intensity absorbed (w/cm2)
Ii = sound power impinging on material (w/cm2)
1.0 is total absorption

51
Absorption Quantification
Typically, the absorption coefficient for a given material is plotted as a
function of frequency as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Absorption curve.
Between 50 and 100 Hz in Figure 2, 100% of sound is absorbed. Below

50Hz, the material does not absorb well. Thicker material may aid in
helping to absorb the lower frequencies.

52
Sound Absorption Coefficients
All materials constituting the boundaries of an enclosure will absorb
and reflect sound. A fraction α of the incident energy is absorbed
and the balance (1 – α) is reflected. Reflection is indicated by the
reflection coefficient r defined as
amplitude of reflected wave

r=
amplitude of incident wave
Because the energy in a sound wave is proportional to the square of

the amplitude, the sound absorption coefficient α and the reflection
coefficient are related by
α=1−r2
The value of the sound absorption coefficient α will vary with the
frequency of the incident ray and the angle of incidence. Materials
comprising room surfaces are subject to sound waves that impinge
upon them from many different angles as a result of multiple
reflections.

53
The value of the sound absorption coefficient α
will vary with the frequency of the incident ray
and the angle of incidence. Materials comprising
room surfaces are subject to sound waves that
impinge upon them from many different angles
as a result of multiple reflections. Hence,
published data for absorption coefficients are for
“random” incidence as distinguished from
“normal” or “perpendicular” incidence. The
angle–absorption correlation appears to be of
somewhat erratic nature, but at high frequencies
the absorption coefficients in some materials is
roughly constant at all angles. At low frequencies
the random-incidence absorption tends to be
greater than for normal incidence. However, as
Table 11.1 shows, α varies considerably with
frequency for many materials, and the absorption
coefficients are generally measured at six
standard frequencies: 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000,
and 4000 Hz. Absorption occurs as the result of
incident sound penetrating and becoming
entrapped in the absorbing material, thereby
losing its vibrational energy that converts into
heat through friction. Ordinarily the values of α
should fall between zero for a perfect reflector
and unity for a perfect absorber. Measurements
of α > 1.0 have been reported, owing possibly to
diffraction at low frequencies and other testing
condition irregularities.

54
Let α1, α2, α3, ...αi denote the absorption coefficient of different
materials of corresponding areas S1, S2, S3,.... Si forming the interior
boundary planes (viz. the walls, ceiling and floor) of the room as well
as any other absorbing surfaces (e.g. furniture, draperies, people,
etc.). The average absorption coefficient α for an enclosure is defined
by
(α1 S1 + α2 S2 + α3 S3 +···+ αi Si)

α= =AS
(S1 + S2 + S3 +···+ Si )
where A represents the total absorptive area ∑ αiSi , and S the total
spatial area.

55
Reverberation and Echo
Reverberation: This is the persistence of sound in an enclosed

space as a result of continuous reflection or scattering of sound
after the source has stopped. It is one the most prominent
behaviors of sound in an enclosure. It occurs when sound waves
hits a surface and are reflected toward another surface which also
reflects it. Some of the sound is absorbed with this continuous
reflection which gradually reduces the energy of the sound to zero.
The phenomenon can affect the audibility of sound in an
enclosure, especially if the reverberation time, which is the time
taken for the sound pressure level to diminish to 60 dB below its
initial value is considerably long.
Echo: this occurs when the reverberation time is long enough to

cause a distinct repetition of the direct sound. This condition is an
advanced form of reverberation where the sound is heard clearly
and repeatedly after some time until it fades.

56
Effects of geometery
Round: Reflections
Rectangle: Lateral Fan-shape: Reflections
from concave
reflections occur scatter and are directed
surfaces cause sound
in the entire space mainly to the rear part of
to strongly focus on
the space (not in the
some parts of the
middle)
space

57
Effects of geometry

58
Sabine’s Formula
Sabine’s formula is given by the following:
• RT60 is the reverberation time (to drop 60 dB)

• V is the volume of the room
• c20 is the speed of sound at 20°C (room temperature)
• Sa is the total absorption in sabins
The sabin unit has the same dimension as area (e.g. m2). A one square meter
surface with an absorption coefficient of 0.75 would be considered 0.75 sabins.
The absorption coefficient has a range of 0 to 1, where a coefficient of 0
indicates none of the sound is absorbed, and a coefficient of 1 indicates that
100% of it is absorbed.
Since we know the speed of sound at 20°C is 343 m/s, we can do a little math
and reduce the formula to:
(Note that the factor 0.161 has the units seconds per
meter; dimensional analysis on the equation will yield a
time in seconds as the volume is measured in cubic meters
and sabins in square meters).

59
Problem 1: Let us use this formula to calculate the reverberation time of a fictitious
lecture hall. Let us say the hall has a 5-meter tall ceiling, is 20 meters wide and 10 meters
deep. Let us also say that the absorption coefficient for the walls, ceiling, and floors is
0.3.
To use Sabine’s Formula, we’ll first need the volume:
The total absorption, in sabins, is the total area times the absorption coefficient. The total
area in includes 4 walls, a ceiling, and a floor, which when multiplied by the absorption
coefficient gives us the total absorption in sabins:
Problem 2: Let us use the dimensions of the room above, but specify different absorption
coefficients for the different surfaces. Let us say the tile floor has a coefficient of 0.01,
the ceiling a coefficient of 0.5, and the 4 walls a coefficient of 0.2.
The total absorption in sabins becomes:
This is very close to one second, which is ideal for a lecture hall.

60
In the examples above, we used the metric system, but if we wanted to measure the room in
feet, we would need to use the speed of sound in feet per second (1125 ft/s). Doing so would
result in a different coefficient for Sabine’s formula:
(Note now the coefficient has the units s/ft. Here the sabin has the units of ft2and can be called the imperial
sabin, as opposed the metric sabin used in the previous examples).
Conclusion
The sabin, named in honor of Wallace Sabine, is a unit of measure; one imperial sabin equals
one square foot of 100% absorbing material, and one metric sabin equals one square meter
of 100% absorbing material. Stemming from Sabine’s 19th century work a new field of study
was born. Today, computer programs incorporate Sabine’s formula to help engineers and
architects model and design future concert and lecture halls around the globe.
Source: https://www.thermaxxjackets.com/sabine-modern-architectural/

61
Sound Absorbent Materials
The sound absorbing materials are broadly classified into the

following four categories:
Porous absorbents
e.g. : fiber boards, rock wood, wool, soft plasters, mineral wools, glass silk,
asbestos fiber, spray, etc.
Cavity Resonators: It is a chamber or a container having a

small opening for sound waves to enter.
Resonant Panel: e.g. : window doors, rigid plastic boards, wood and hard-
board, panels, suspended plaster ceilings, gypsum boards etc.
Composites type absorbents: e.g. : bottle or an empty jars, glass, wood, quilt or
slab, perforated hard board backed by perforated fiber board etc.

62
Porous absorbents
Porous absorbers are the most

commonly used sound absorbing
materials. Commonly used porous
materials are Wood, wools, soft
plaster, asbestos fibre, glass wool,
Fibre boards carpet etc.
Generally, all of these materials
allow air to flow into a cellular
structure where sound energy is
converted to heat. Thickness
plays an important role in sound
absorption by porous materials.
Thin film of Fabric applied directly
to a hard, massive substrate, such
as plaster or gypsum board does
not make an efficient sound
absorber. Thicker materials
generally provide more bass
sound absorption or damping.

63
Porous absorbents
• When sound waves strike the surface of porous material, a part of the
waves get reflected while a part enters the pores of the material and
dissipated into heat energy
• The efficiency of this type of absorbent increases with the increase in the
resistance offered by the material.
• It is used to absorb sound having high frequency

64
Resonant absorbents:
Panel absorbers are non-rigid, non-porous

materials which are placed over an
airspace that vibrates in a flexural mode in
response to sound pressure exerted by
adjacent air molecules. When the sound
wave strikes the panel due to vibration of
the panel the energy is absorbed and finally
converted into heat. Common panel
(membrane) absorbers include thin wood
paneling over framing, lightweight
impervious ceilings and floors, glazing and
other large surfaces capable of resonating
in response to sound. Panel absorbers are
usually most efficient at absorbing low
frequencies.

65
Resonant absorbents :-
• The absorbent material is fixed on sound

framing (timber) with an air space between the
framing and the wall at back.
• Such arrangement works most efficient for

absorbing sound waves at low frequency
• The principle of sound absorption is that sound

waves of the appropriate frequency cause
sympathetic vibrations in the panel which acts
as a diaphragm
• The absorption of sound takes place by virtue of

the dampening of the sympathetic vibration.
• Dampening effect of this system can be

improved by placing a porous material in the
air space
Source: http://slideplayer.com/slide/10726116/

66
Cavity Resonators:
Resonators typically act to

absorb sound in a narrow
frequency range. Resonators
include some perforated
materials and materials that
have openings (holes and slots).
When sound waves enters into
the resonator, due to multiple
reflection inside the resonators
waves are absorbed. The classic
example of a resonator is the
Helmholtz resonator, which has
the shape of a bottle. The size of
the opening, the length of the
neck and the volume of air
trapped in the chamber govern
the resonant frequency .

67
Typically, perforated materials
only absorb the mid-frequency
range unless special care is
taken in designing the facing
to be as acoustically
transparent as possible. Slots
usually have a similar acoustic
response. Long narrow slots
can be used to absorb low
frequencies. The resonators are
suitable for certain frequencies
for which they are designed.
Therefore resonators have to
be designed for specific
purpose for example to
absorb noise from air
conditioner or from pumps etc.

68
Cavity Resonators:
• It essentially consists of a
chamber with a narrow opening
(entrance) in which absorption
takes place by resonance of the
air in the chamber which gives
loss of sound energy
• Such an arrangement can act

effectively over a single selected
frequency.
• Application of cavity resonator is

normally restricted to absorption
from individual machine or in
similar cases

69
Composites type absorbents:
• They consist of perforated panels
mounted on battens so as to leave a
cavity between panels and wall at the
back
• The panels maybe of metal, wood

(plywood) hard broad, plaster board etc.
• The area of holes in the panel should vary

between 10 to 20 % of the total area of
the panel
• When the sound strikes the panel, the

sound waves pass through the holes and
get damped by the resonance of the air
in the cavity. • This type of absorbent is commonly
used, as it is easy to install,
• The effectiveness of this system can be economical and it can
increased by placing a porous material accommodate wide range of
like mineral wood etc. in the cavity. frequencies

70
Distribution of sound absorbing material
Hard surface
The efficiency of a sound

absorbing material depends
upon its distribution and location
with in the given room. If a sound
absorbing material is distributed in
a chessboard pattern as shown in
Fig 1 its efficiency is improved
drastically compared to the Sound absorbing material
uniform coverage pattern of fig 2.
The improved efficiency for the Fig 1 Chess board pattern for efficient absorption of sound
absorption of the sound in check
board pattern is due to the Interfacing Wall
diffraction of sound waves across
the perimeter of the sound
absorbing material. More over
the sound reflected from the hard
surfaces adjacent to chessboard Sound absorbing surface Hard
absorbing surfaces tends to spill surface/room
over the sound absorbing
surfaces and so the absorption of
sound further improves. This kind
of surface can also be used to
make a diffuse sound field
normally required for music
practice rooms, studios etc. Fig 2 Uniformly distributed absorbing material

71
Transmission of sound
Sound waves emerging from a point source inside a hall proceed in a
spherical wave. When it strikes the boundaries of a hall, it undergoes
reflection, absorption and transmission. All these process depends on the
boundaries of the hall (e.g: material, surface structure etc)and the frequency
spectrum of sound waves. The sound transmitted through the wall is
measured in terms of transmission coefficient tc defined as
Intensity of sound transmitted
tC 
total sound intensity falling on to the walls
When a sound is transmitted from the source to the adjacent room
through boundries or adjoining walls, there is a reduction in the intensity of
sound. This is known as the transmission loss. The transmission loss TL is
defined as
1
TL  10log  
 tC 
The larger the transmission loss better will be the sound insulation. The
transmission loss depends on the material and method used for construction
of walls.

72
Factors effecting the architectural acoustics
In an Acoustically good hall the loudness of sound and its clarity at every
point in side the hall is audible. The sound dies out quickly with time to make
room for next syllable. The following factors affect the architectural acoustics:
Reverberation time: reverberation time has to be optimize for a given hall. If

the time is too large then there will be loss of clarity due to overlapping of
successive sound signals and if it is too small then the loudness of the sound will
be less. The optimized time is given by eq 1. Reverberation can be controlled
by
i. keeping the windows and ventilators open.
ii. Using heavy curtains
iii. By using the wooden or carpeted floor.
iv. Making the walls surface rough
Focusing of sound waves: Sound waves on reflection from a curved surface

will get focused at some point just like a lens focuses the light. In the focused
region intensity of sound will be large where as in other regions will have poor
audibility. In order to avoid the non uniform distribution of sound intensity due
to focusing, the curved ceilings/surceases should be avoided.

73
Adequate loudness:
For the good audibility the loudness should be sufficient. The low ceiling helps
the reflected sound to reach the audience with sufficient intensity. To improve
the uniformity of the distribution of intensity of sound waves as well as to
improve the loudness, behind the speaker a parabolic sound reflector as
shown in Fig 3 can be placed such that speaker is at the focus of the
reflector. The reflected sound waves will be parallel and will yield better
uniformity.
Fig 3 Parabolic reflector

74
Absence of echo:
When the gap between the arrival time of direct sound and the reflected
sound is more than 1/7 of a second. If this time is less then 1/7 then the
reflected wave overlaps with the direct wave and improves the intensity of
sound waves. There fore the major source of echo is the sound reflected from
the long ceilings and the distance walls. It can be avoided by covering the
ceilings and walls with the suitable absorbing materials.
Sound insulation from external sources or extraneous noise:

For a good acoustics architecture the sound or noise from outside should not
be audible inside the hall. This can be minimize by having the doors at
appropriate places. The pipes opening should be avoided near the
ventilators and windows. Use of appropriate absorbent material on the outer
side of walls also dampens the outside noise.

75
ACOUSTICAL TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS
WHY MEASURE?
Under many circumstances, the

interaction of speakers with the acoustical
environment can completely negate the
very best electrical engineering. Therefore
it becomes obvious, that to fully engineer
the sound system the characteristics of
space where it will be used must be
considered.
WHAT TO MEASURE?
For getting good listening conditions, basic
tests are to be done. There are four basic
conditions that need to be measured and
subjected to control. These are:
1) Quietness
2) Proper reverberation
3) Useful and adequate loudness
4) Proper distribution

76
QUIETNESS:
A sound system is planned in the first place because either the program
material needs help in overcoming the noise present, or the distances
involved make acoustical gain necessary. Usually system planning must
take both these into consideration. We need to know two things about the
noise present: its total sound pressure level (SPL) 7 its distribution by
frequency.
PROPER REVEBERATION:
Sound must "hang on" long enough to allow to sound natural, and yet not
long enough to allow one word to blur the next word during the normal
speech. It is often desirable to have low frequencies to reverberate longer
than higher frequencies in the same space. Here also two factors should
be considered: How long it takes sound to decay it the room & how the
decay time varies with frequencies.

77
USEFUL AND ADEQATE LOUDNESS:
Useful & adequate loudness must be achieved if the audience is to

here. Failure to achieve useful loudness can be attributed to:
(1) No uniform frequency response,
(2) High distortion of the signal,
(3) Improper polar response characteristics,
(4) Incorrect high /low cutoff frequencies,
(5) Improper equalizations.
PROPER DISTRIBUTION:
The entire audience in a listening area needs to hear clearly. Good

listening in one seat must not be at the expense of marginal listening
elsewhere. No seat should be located in the dead spot. Graphic level
recorder, random noise generator, and tunable 1/3-octave filter have
made it possible to quickly & economically search the entire audience
area for changes in acoustical level.

78
SPECIFIC MEASUREMENTS:
Basic environmental and system parameters that can be measured during

an acoustical survey are:
1) Ambient noise level
2) Reverberation times of the environment
3) Distribution of sound (All at 1/3 octave band interval)
At the listeners’ seat:

1) Frequency response
2) Total harmonic distortion
3) The relative direct to reflected sound differences of amplitude and time.

79
INSTRUMENTATION FOR ACOUSTICAL TESTS:
A list of equipment comprising a typical acoustical measuring chain can be compiled as:
1) A sound level meter with interchangeable microphones, weighing scales, &

recorder output battery operated & capable of meeting ASA standards: It is a very
sensitive audio- frequency voltmeter with a calibrated attenuator. It measures sound
pressure level using formula:
SPL = 20 log10 p/0.0002
Where, SPL is the sound pressure level in dB, p is measured pressure in dynes per
sq.cm. Although it gives an accurate reading in decibels, it does not give pressure
distribution.
2) A calibrated condenser microphone system: General characteristics of these

are:
Ruggedness, low internal noise, sensitivity, wide dynamic range, smooth frequency
response, extended frequency response, low distortion. All the qualities do not exist in
same microphone. General compromise is to use calibrated ceramic microphone.

80
3) A constant percentage bandwidth wave analyzer: A wave analyzer, connected to the
output of sound level meter, indicates in detail the frequency distribution of any signal.
These are of three basic types: constant bandwidth, band rejection filter, and constant
percentage bandwidth. Once the frequency is known,
wavelength is calculated by:
W = V/F
Where, W is wavelength in feet,

V is velocity of sound in feet per second,
F is frequency in cycles per second.
4) A high-speed graphic level recorder: In case of reverberation time

measurements, automatic recording is mandatory. Servo operated ac-recording
voltmeters suitable for acoustic work is called graphic level recorders. This can be
operated in either forward or reverse direction, thus allowing a resonance in space
to be approached from either direction frequency wise.
5) A calibrated x-y oscilloscope: Amplitude, frequency, and time can be measured with
more than adequate accuracy using a combination of sound level meter, a wave
analyzer, and a graphic level recorder. With the addition of a calibrated oscilloscope and
an oscilloscope camera, signal waveforms can be seen and phenomena recorded that
are of too short a duration to be written down accurately by a graphic level recorder.

81
6) An oscilloscope camera.
7) A sound level calibrator: It is to calibrate the entire chain of instruments this is used.
Once the chain of appliances is set, a known acoustical signal must be applied to bring
all readings into agreement. Sound level calibrator does this.
8) A tape recorder: In many instances it is desirable to store data for later

evaluation or to record transient signals for repetitive analysis. Recorder is used for this
purpose.
9) All of the following are the sound sources used:

• A random noise generator.
• A pink noise filter.
• A beat frequency oscillator.
• An audio burst keyer.
10) Power amplifiers & speakers: All signal sources require electronic amplification
and conversion to acoustical energy. This is done by the amplifiers & speakers.
11) A barometer.
12) A sling psychometre.

82
Basic requirements for good acoustics
A building or the hall designed for the large audience should take care of
certain features so the audible sound is exact replica of the source. Any hall
having the good acoustics should have following features:
1. The quality of the speech and the music remains unchanged in each and
every portion of the Hall.
2. The sound produced must be sufficiently loud.
3. There shouldn’t be any echo.
4. The reverberation should be proper.
5. There should not be any focusing of sound in any part of the hall.
6. The walls should be sound proof to avoid the external noise in the hall.

83
AUDITORIUM DESIGN AND ACOUSTICS

84
BRIEF HISTORY:
The auditorium, as a place for listening, developed from the classical open-air theaters, but
there is little evidence that the Greeks and Romans gave particular consideration to
acoustical principles when they selected natural sites and built open-air theaters.
The first reference to architectural acoustics in recorded history is made by Vitruvius (first
century B.C.). In his book, he describes sounding waves as being used in certain open air
theaters, but no evidence exists that the few vases found near the theaters were used for
acoustical purposes. After the fall of Romans, the only type of auditorium built during the
Middle Ages was church hall. Middle of sixteenth century, strolling professional actors in
England used the round, square, or octagonal courtyards of inns as playhouses. In
subsequent centuries, a remarkable number of theaters were built. In seventeenth century,
the horseshoe shaped opera house with a large stage area and stage house, and with ring
of boxes, or tiers, on top of each other, stacked to the ceiling. But in all these no specific
steps were taken. The first scientific work was in Athanasius Kircher's, appeared in
seventeenth century. Before the twentieth century, only one auditorium was acoustically
treated.
It was not till twentieth century, that Professor W.C. Sabin, did his pioneer work on room
acoustical design. He first designed the coefficient of sound absorption and arrived at a
simple relation between the volume of a room, the amount of sound absorbing material in
it, and its reverberation time.

85
DESIGN: FROM THE STANDARDS:
OUTLINE OF ACOUSTICAL REQUIREMENTS:

a) There should be adequate loudness in every part of the auditorium
particularly the remote seats.
b) The sound energy should be uniformly distributed in the room.
c) The audience and the most efficient presentation of the program by the
performers should provide optimum reverberation characteristics in the
auditorium to allow the most favorable reception of the program material.
d) The room should be free of such acoustical defects as echoes, long

delayed reflections, flutter echoes, sound concentrations, distortion, sound
shadow, and room resonance.
e) Noises and vibrations which would interfere with listening or performing

should be excluded or reasonably reduced in every part of the room.

86
ADEQUATE LOUDNESS:
The problem of providing adequate loudness, particularly in medium and large
sized auditoriums, results from the energy losses of the traveling sound waves and
from excessive absorption by the audience and room contents. Sound energy
losses can be reduced and adequate loudness can be provided in the following
ways:
a. The auditorium should be shaped so that the audience is as close to sound

source as possible.
b. Sound source should be raised high.
c. The floor where audience is seated should be properly racked. It should not
be more than 1in 8.
d. The sound source should be closely and abundantly surrounded with large
sound reflective surfaces. Initial time delay gap between direct and first
reflective sound should be relatively short, possibly not more than 30
milliseconds.
e. Parallelism between opposite sound reflective boundary surfaces, particularly

close to the sound source, should be avoided.

87
DIFFUSION OF SOUND:
Two important points must be considered in the effort to provide diffusion in a
room : the surface irregularities elements (coffered ceilings, serrated enclosures,
protruding boxes sculptured surface decorations, deep window reveals, etc)
must be abundantly applied and should be relatively large.
CONTROL OF REVERBERATION:
In the acoustical design of an auditorium, once the optimum RT at the mid

frequency range has been selected and the RT vs. frequency relationship below
500Hz decided upon, the reverberation control consists of establishing the total
amount of room absorption to be applied by acoustical finishes, occupants,
room contents, etc., in order to produce the selected value of RT. In almost every
auditorium the audience provides most of the absorption. Therefore to have
good hearing conditions even in audience absence, the seats should be
upholstered, with underneath side of them also absorptive. Sound absorbing
materials should be all along the boundary surfaces. The acoustical treatment
should go first on the rear wall, then on those portions of the sidewalls, which are
farthest from the source or along the perimeter of the ceiling.

88
ELIMINATION OF ROOM ACOUSTICAL DEFECTS:
a) Echo: Echo occurs if a minimum interval of 1/25 sec to 1/10 sec

elapses between the perception of the direct and reflected sounds
originating from the same source. Since the speed of sound is about
344 m/sec, the critical time intervals specified above corresponds to
path difference of min. 24 m for speech or 34 m for music between
direct and reflected sound. A sound reflective rear wall, opposite the
sound source, is a potential echo-producing surface in the auditorium
unless it is treated or is under deep balcony.
b) Flutter echo: Flutter echo consists of a rapid succession of noticeable

small echoes and is observed when a short burst of sound, such as a
clap or shot, is produced between parallel surfaces. Elimination of
parallelism between opposite reflecting surfaces is one way to avoid
flutter echoes.

89
c) Sound concentration: Sound concentrations, sometimes referred to
as hot spots are caused by sound reflections from concave surfaces.
If large concave surfaces cannot be avoided or acoustical
treatment is not feasible, these concave surfaces should be laid out
in such a manner that they focus in space outside or above the
audience area.
d) Coupled spaces: If an auditorium is connected to an adjacent

reverberant space by means of open doorways, the two rooms will
form open spaces. The undesirable effect of coupled spaces can be
overcome by adequate acoustical separation between the coupled
spaces, by providing approximately the same RT in both spaces or by
reducing the RT of both.
e) Sound shadow: The phenomenon of sound shadow is noticeable

under the balcony that protrudes too far into the air space of an
auditorium. Such spaces, with the depth exceeding twice the height,
should be avoided.

90
ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES FOR AUDITORIUM
An auditorium is a centre for performing arts. They enclose large area in

which echoes are prominent. So far clear hearing, proper acoustical
conditions should be provided in the auditorium. The design of various
types of auditorium has become complex in the present day
architectural practice. This is because in addition to various
requirements, some time conflict aesthetic, functional, technical, artistic
and economic requirement. An audience can be unexpectedly large
or only half full only. Various types of performances make it difficult to
provide optimum comfort, safe, pleasant environment and considerably
is affected by purely architectural consideration like room shape,
dimension, volume, boundary, layout surface, seating arrangement,
capacity, surface treatment, materials for interior decoration.

91
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
1. SITE: Select a quiet exposure far away from highway, flight paths or
noisy industries.
2. Space use: Multipurpose uses include lectures, dramas, instrumental

recitals and symphonic music. Consequently, a full frequency-
response sound reinforcing system will be required.
3. Interior location: Use corridors, storage rooms and other buffer

spaces to isolate the auditorium from noise, avoid location adjacent
to rehearsal rooms (e.g.: do not locate HVAC equipment under the
stage), carpentry shops and other noisy spaces. Enclosing
construction should be based on the principles for e.g. all doors to
the auditorium should be solid, heavy and gasket around their entire
perimeters to be air tight when closed. Treat corridors and lobbies
with generous amounts of sound absorbing materials to control noise
build up. Dead spaces tend to include occupants to speak at lower
voice levels.

92
4. Volume: Volume per seat should be 200-240 ft3 per person, which
can be achieved with a room volume less than 500,000 ft3. The
preliminary shape can be based on visual or seating consideration
above. However, to emphasize lateral reflection, plans that are
rectangular, roughly square, or only slightly fanned are preferred.
Arrange seating to provide the audience with good sight line (e.g.
moderately sloped seating layout at > 70) and to minimize distance
to the performing area.
5. Reverberation: The reverberation time should be 1.4-1.9 sec at

midnight frequencies (i.e. Average of reverberation at 500 Hz and
1000Hz) 1.3 at 125Hz and 0.8rt at 4000Hz. A high frequency, too
much reverberation usually means “harsh” or “rasping” listening
conditions. At low frequency, too much reverberation usually
sounds “boomy” whereas too little sound, “shrill”.

93
The following general guideline can be used to select finishes,
materials and furnishings.
a. PLAN: The diagrams indicate some of the geometrical implications of the source
spread focus balance. Because the widely diverging walls of a fan plan auditorium send
the reflected sound energy towards the rear corners of the space, the apparent source
is virtually limited to the actual width of the performing group. Typical rear wall
geometries in the fan plan further prevent the development of the strong discrete
reflections that are necessary in the 50 to 150 millisecond time period if proper running
reverberance as well as a desirable sense of envelopment is to be provided.
In the multiple use auditorium, where one would desire both focus for individual
performers and breadth of source for large musical group, the provisions of adjustable
reflective, absorptive elements is necessary to modify the sound distribution. This
adjustability is fully compatible with and closely related to that which would provide to
alter the clarity running reverberance balance. Basically the adjustments required to
add focus consists of narrowing the width (and height) of the performance area by
means of carefully oriented reflective surfaces. These surfaces should either replace or
shield the reflective surfaces which produce the source broadening reflection. Where
reflection control cannot be provided, deleterious reflections may be controlled by
adjustable sound absorbing devices (draperies, banners reversible, panels, etc.)
Acceptable modifications of the classical rectangular plan are possible if the designer
bears in mind the need for detail consideration of the relation between performance
area and the front wall and ceiling.

94
95
96
97
98
b. Ceiling: Use sound reflective materials such as concrete, thick wood
or thick gypsum board. However if required for control of
reverberation, the perimeter along both sides and rear can be sound
absorbing (about 1/3 to1/2 of the ceiling area covered in a horse
shoe pattern) or use a check board pattern consisting of alternate
areas of sound absorbing and reflecting materials. The preferred
ceiling height and shape depend on the intended use of room. A ray
diagram analysis indicates that the hard, sound reflecting flat ceiling
shown below provides useful sound reflection which covers the entire
seating area in lecture room. Useful for sound reflection for speech
for those who comes from the same direction as the source and
delay by less than 30 m. However, by carefully reorienting the ceiling,
the extent of useful ceiling reflection can be increased so that the
middle rear seats actually receive reflection from both ceiling panels.
c. Side walls: Use sound reflecting and diffusing surface with as many
irregularities as possible (e.g. sunken panels, splays, and undulations)
for variable sound absorption, hang large amount of fabric curtain or
banners along the rear portion of side walls or in cubic volume above
suspended sound reflecting panels.
99
d. Rear wall: Use diffusing surface with large-scale irregularities or, if this is
not possible, treat with carefully placed deep sound absorbing finish
to control echoes.
e. Floor: Carpet all aisles, except in front of the stage, to aid in football
impact noise control. Do not use carpet in seating areas.
f. Seating: Use fabric- upholstered seats (never leatherette, thin metal,

or plastic). Absorptive seating will help provide “stable” reverberation
conditions, so the reverberation will be nearly the same when the
auditorium is full as when it is partially occupied. Use seating that does
not selectively absorb sound at low frequencies. Continental seating
layouts have greater spacing between rows than conventional
seating with center aisles. However, continental seating in large
auditoriums can present a vast uninterrupted sea of absorptive
people to performers on stage.

100
6. Ray Diagrams: Use ray-diagrams analysis to properly orient the ceiling
and side walls, especially near the proscenium. Ceiling and wall
surfaces should provide useful sound reflections (i.e. early reflections
with<28 ft path difference from direct sound) and diffusion. Avoid
vaults, domes, and other concave shapes.
7. Background Noise: Background noise should be low so it will not

cover up or mask performances. The HVAC system should be
designed so its noise will not exceed the preferred noise criteria.
Control air velocities at room registers and grilles, and use internal
sound-absorbing duct linings and/or mufflers to prevent duct- borne
noise transmission in both the supply and return air distribution systems.

101
8. Stage Enclosure and Orchestra Pit: Shape to provide good distribution
of strong early reflections and diffusion. The reverberation time of the
stage house should be approximately equal to that of the auditorium.
Reverberation will be longer when surfaces surrounding the stage are
shaped to inter reflect or scatter sound rather than to reflect sound
toward the absorptive audience. The orchestra pit, sized at about 14
to 16 ft2 per musician, should have a removable sound absorbing
curtain (or panels) along its rear wall to allow the conductor to control
loudness in the pit.
9. Balcony: Use balconies to reduce the distance to the farthest row of

seats and/or to increase seating capacity. Keep the overhang
shallow (i.e.; depth less than twice the opening height) , slope the
soffit, and treat the face with sound diffusing elements(or sound –
absorbing material) to prevent echoes.

102
10. Sound-Reinforcing System: Provide a central space just above and
slightly in front of the proscenium opening to accommodate a cluster
of loudspeakers. Be sure the audience has line of sight to the high
frequency horns of the cluster. Locate the control console for the
sound system at a central location in the audience seating area. A
far less effective alternative location is the rear of the auditorium in a
separate room which can be opened to allow the operator to
attempt to hear the sound being controlled.
Source: Architectural Acoustics by M. David Egan

103
FACTORS AFFECTING ACCOUSTICS OF A BUILDING
REVERBERATION TIME
• If a hall is to be acoustically satisfactory , it is essential that it should have the right
reverberation time.
• The reverberation time should be neither too long nor too short .
• A very short reverberation time makes a room ‘dead’ .On the other hand , a long
reverberation time renders speech unintelligible.
• The optimum value for reverberation time depends on the purpose for which a hall is
designed.

104
FACTORS AFFECTING ACCOUSTICS OF A BUILDING

105
REMEDIES
• The reverberation time can be controlled by the suitable choice of building materials and
furnishing materials.
• Since open windows allow the sound energy to flow out of the hall , there should be a
limited number of windows . They may be opened or closed to obtain optimum
reverberation time.
• Cardboard sheets, perforated sheets, felt , heavy curtains , thick carpets, etc. are used to
increase wall and floor surface absorption . Therefore, the walls are to be provided with
absorptive materials to the required extent and at suitable places.
• Heavy fold curtains may be used to increase the absorption.
• Covering the floor with carpet also increase the absorption.
• Audience also contribute to absorption of sound . The absorption coefficient of an

individual is about 0.45 sabines.
• In order to compensate for an increase in the reverberation time due to an unexpected

decrease in audience strength , upholstered seats are to be provided in the hall.
• Absorption due to an upholstered chair is equivalent to that of an individual.

106
ADEQUATE LOUDNESS
• Sufficient loudness at every point on the hall is important factor for
satisfactory hearing.
• Excessive absorption in the hall or lack of reflecting surfaces near the
sound source may lead to decrease in the loudness of the sound.
REMEDIES
• A hard reflecting surface positioned near the sound source improve the
loudness.
• Low ceilings are also of help in reflecting the sound energy towards the
audience.
• Adjusting the absorptive material in the hall will improve the situation.
• When the hall is large and audience are more , loud speakers are to be
installed to obtain the desired level
• of loudness.

107
FOCUSSING
• Reflecting concave surfaces cause

concentration of reflected sound ,
creating a sound of larger intensity
at the focal point . These spots are
known as sound foci.
• Such concentrations of sound

intensity at some points lead to
deficiency of reflected sound at
other points. • Further , if they are highly
reflecting parallel surfaces in the
• The spots of sound deficiency are hall , the reflected and direct
known as dead spots . The sound sound waves may form standing
intensity will be low at dead spots waves which leads to uneven
and inadequate hearing. distribution of sound in the hall.

108
FOCUSSING
REMEDIES
• The sound foci and dead spots

may be eliminated if curvilinear
interiors are avoided . I f such
surfaces are present , they
should be covered by highly
absorptive materials.
• Suitable sound diffusers are to

be installed in the hall to cause
even distribution of sound in
the hall.
• A paraboloidal reflecting
surface arranged with the
speaker at its focus is helpful in
directing a uniform reflected
beam of sound in the hall.

109
ECHOES
In audio signal processing and acoustics, Echo is a

reflection of sound that arrives at the listener with a
delay after the direct sound. The delay is proportional
to the distance of the reflecting surface from the
source and the listener.
Typical examples are the echo produced by the bottom of a

well, by a building, or by the walls of an enclosed room and an
empty room. A true echo is a single reflection of the sound
source.
Acoustic phenomenon
Acoustic waves are reflected by walls or other hard

surfaces, such as mountains and privacy fences. The
reason of reflection may be explained as a
discontinuity in the propagation medium. This can be
heard when the reflection returns with sufficient
magnitude and delay to be perceived distinctly. When
sound, or the echo itself, is reflected multiple times
from multiple surfaces, the echo is characterized as a
reverberation.

110
• The human ear cannot distinguish echo from the original
direct sound if the delay is less than 1/10 of a second. REMEDIES
The velocity of sound in dry air is approximately 343 m/s
at a temperature of 25 °C. Therefore, the reflecting •This defect is
object must be more than 17.2m from the sound source avoided by selecting
for echo to be perceived by a person located at the proper shape for the
source. When a sound produces an echo in two auditorium.
seconds, the reflecting object is 343m away. In nature,
canyon walls or rock cliffs facing water are the most •Use of splayed side
common natural settings for hearing echoes. The walls instead of
strength of echo is frequently measured in dB sound parallel walls greatly
pressure level (SPL) relative to the directly transmitted reduces the problem
wave. Echoes may be desirable (as in sonar) or and enhance the
undesirable (as in telephone systems). acoustical quality of
the hall
•Echoes may be
avoided by covering
the opposite walls
and high ceiling with
absorptive material.
The least distance from the obstacle to hear an echo is 17 m.

111
ECHELON EFFECT
• If a hall has a flight

of steps , with equal
width, the sound
waves reflected
from them will
consist of echoes REMEDIES
with regular phase
difference . • It may be
remedied by
• These echoes having steps
combine to of unequal
produce a musical width.
note which will be
heard along with • The steps may
the direct sound . be covered
This is called with proper
echelon effect. sound
absorbing
• It makes the original materials , for
sound unintelligible example with
or confusing. a carpet.

112
RESONANCE
•Sound waves are capable of

setting physical vibration in
surrounding objects , such as
window panes ,
walls , enclosed air , etc.
•The vibrating objects in turn

produce sound waves .
•The frequency of the forced

vibration may match some
frequency of the sound
produced and hence result REMEDIES
in resonance phenomenon.
•The vibrations of bodies may be
•Due to the resonance certain suitably damped to eliminate
tones of the original music may resonance due to them by proper
get reinforced that may result in maintenance and selection .
distortion of the original sound.

113
ACOUSTIC DESIGN CHARACTERICS:

114
INTIMACY
“Intimacy” refers to the feeling that listeners
have of being physically close to the
performing group.
Intimacy is achieved whenever the first
reflected sound reaches the listener less
than about 20 ms after the direct sound.
TEXTURE
Good texture when at least 5 reflection

arrive within 60 ms of direct sound.
BLEND AND ENSEMBLE
Ability to hear entire performing group

on the stage (ensemble) and in
audience (blend).

115
CASE STUDY-1
BHARATIYA VIDYA BHAWAN, JAIPUR:
This auditorium is located adjacent to JLN Marg, Jaipur. It is a part of an

educational complex and is used for seminars, conventions, lectures, cultural
programs, etc.
The basic layout of the auditorium is fan shaped. The capacity of the auditorium
is about 750 people. The stage can be accessed through 4 doors-2 at the rear
end and 2 at the side walls. The width of each step is 1500 mm.
CALCULATIONS:
Capacity of Auditorium: 750 persons

Floor Area of Auditorium: 650 sq.m.
Height of auditorium = 7.5 m
Volume of auditorium = 4875 cu.m.

116
Reverberation time without Materials used:
acoustical materials:
• On side walls: wooden panelling
T= 0.16V/A • On rear wall: non woven fabric
Where, V= volume (carpet)
A= total absorbing power • On floor: carpet
• On floor below seats: concrete
Calculation of A: • On ceiling: Gypsum Board
• On seats: upholstery
1. For wall (painted): 675 x 0.017= 11.47
Area= (510+180-15) sq. m.
S1= 0.017
2. For floor (concrete): 650 x 0.01= 6.5

Area= 650 sq. m.
S2= 0.01
3. For ceiling (concrete): 650 x 0.01= 6.5

Area= 650 sq. m.
S3= 0.01
T= 0.16 x 4875/ 24.47= 31.8 sec

117
Reverberation time with acoustical materials:
Calculation of A:
1. For side walls (wooden panelling): = 510 x 0.17 = 86.7

Area= (34.5 x 7.5 x 2) – (2 x 1.5 x 2.5) =517.5 - 7.5= 510 sq.m.
S1= 0.17
For rear wall (non woven carpet): = 180 x 0.63 = 113.4
Area= (25 x 7.5) – (2 x 1.5 x 2.5) =187.5 - 7.5= 180 sq.m.
S1= 0.63
2. For floor (carpet): 462.5 x 0.1= 46.25

Area= (650 – 187.5) = 462.5 sq. m.
S2= 0.1
For floor (concrete): 187.5 x 0.01= 1.875
Area= 750 x 0.5 x 0.5= 187.5 sq. m.
S2= 0.01
3. For ceiling (gypsum board): 650 x 0.05= 32.5

Area= 650 sq. m.
S3= 0.05
4. Occupied seats (375 in no.): 375 x 0.5= 187.5

S4= 0.5/ seat
Unoccupied seats (375 in no.): 375 x 0.7= 262.5 Maharana Pratap Auditorium:
S5= 0.7/ seat Basic Layout
T= 0.16 x 4875/ 730.725=1.06 sec

118
PANELLING ON SIDE WALLS
MAHARANA PRATAP AUDITORIUM ROOF ACCORDING TO ACOUSTICS
WALL, SEATING AND ROOF

UPHOLSTERED SEATS TREATMENT ON REAR WALL
ACCORDING TO ACOUSTICS

119
CASE STUDY-2
TRIVENI KALA SANGAM, DELHI:
This auditorium is located on Tansen Marg, New Delhi. It is a part of a

complex for teaching of visual and performing arts.
The basic layout of the auditorium is rectangular. It’s mainly used for
cultural performances. The capacity of the auditorium is about 180
people. The green rooms are located in the basement which can
be accessed from the back stage. The access to the auditorium is
through 2 doors at the rear. The stage height is about 1150 mm and
the distance between the stage and first row is about 2400mm.
Each step is 900 mm wide.

120
CALCULATIONS:
Capacity of Auditorium: 180 persons Calculation of A:
Floor Area of Auditorium: 208 sq.m. 1. For wall (painted): 305 x 0.017= 5.185
Area= 315- (2 x 2 x 2.5)= 305 sq. m.
Height of auditorium = 7 m S1= 0.017
Volume of auditorium = 1456 cu.m. 2. For floor (concrete): 208 x 0.01= 2.08
Area= 208 sq. m.
Reverberation time without S2= 0.01
acoustical materials:
T= 0.16V/A 3. For ceiling (concrete): 208 x 0.01= 2.08
Area= 208 sq. m.
Where, V= volume S3= 0.01
A= total absorbing power T= 0.16 x 1456/ 9.34= 24.94 sec

121
Reverberation time with acoustical materials:
Materials used:
Calculation of A:
• On walls: wooden paneling
1. For wall (wooden panelling): 305 x 0.17= 51.85 • On floor: carpet
Area= 305 sq. m. • On ceiling: plastered
S1= 0.17 • On seats: upholstery
• On stage: wooden flooring
2. For floor (carpet): 208 x 0.1= 20.8
Area= 208 sq. m.
S2= 0.1
3. For ceiling (plaster): 208 x 0.07= 14.56

Area= 208 sq. m.
S3= 0.07
4. Occupied seats (90 in no.): 90 x 0.5= 45

S4= 0.5/ seat
5. Unoccupied seats (90 in no.): 90 x 0.7= 63

S5= 0.7/ seat
T= 0.16 x 1456/ 195.2=1.19 sec

122
UPHOLSTERED SEATS
WOODEN PANELLING ON THE WALLS
CARPET ON THE FLOOR

123
PLAN AUDITORIUM- TRIVENI KALA SANGAM, DELHI

124
CASE STUDY-3
PLAN

125
SECTION
Calculations
This absorbing power is divided
capacity of auditorium-580 persons
among-ceiling, flooring, wall(sides and rear).
area of auditorium-450 sq.m
for flooring (carpet)-a =450x0.1 =45
vol. occupied /person-5 cu.m.
for ceiling (plaster)-a =450x0.07 =31.5
for wall-sides (wooden panelling)(50%)-a
=>Vol. of auditorium = 5x580 =2900cu.m
= (90x0.1)-(7.5x .04) =8.97
ht. of auditorium = vol./area
rear (wooden panelling)-(144x0.1)-(1X .04)
= 2900/450=6.4m
=14.36
for seats (75% occupied)-a = 400x0.7=280
Considering reverberation time of 1.2sec
total a = 379.78
According to sabin's formula
t=0.16v/a , where t=reverbaration time
a= total absorbing power
v=vol. => (0.16x2900)/a=1.2
a =386.6

126
CONCLUSION
As indicated by the case studies above, the acoustics plays a crucial role in an
auditorium and it is imperative to make a space acoustically efficient so that the
spectators or participants enjoy the sound and it is not irksome to them. The
acoustic efficiency of a space must be considered while designing a space itself
and such spaces like coupled spaces, etc which add to acoustical defects
should be avoided as far as possible. Thereafter suitable material application
and treatments should be done to obtain optimum level of reverberation. While
doing so, one must consider the following aspects:
• Interior Acoustical Defects

• Exterior sound isolation
• Acoustical characteristics of materials
• Sound Amplification

127
Design Application
In your Studio design Problem, you may incorporate the below

mentioned requirements in a Convention Center.
The proposal would consist of mainly:
1. Convention & Exhibition Center: Would broadly include the

auditorium, meeting rooms, and divisible exhibition space.
2. Hotel Complex: The hotel complex would be a deluxe room

facility, four star categories or above, that would include
recreational facilities, health facilities, Spa, etc
3. Retail/ Entertainment Space: A commercial space will be there

comprising of retail area with lifestyle shopping, food courts, etc.

128
TENTATIVE REQUIREMENTS:
• ADMINISTRATION: • AUDITORIUM: • RESIDENTIAL COMPONENT:

_ Reception _ Foyer _ Reception
_ Lobby _ Seating Area _ Lobby
_ Waiting Area _ Stage Area _ Rooms
_ Director Office _ Backstage Area _ Suites
_ General Staff _ Projection Room _ Dining
_ Manager _ Green Rooms (Male/Female) _ Kitchen
_ Assistant Manager _ Banquet Facilities _ Pantry
_ Accounts Department _ Facilities _ Store
_ Estate Department _ Common facilities
_ Meeting Room • VIP AREAS:
_ Information Counter _ Foyer • RECREATIONAL AREA
_ Cafe _ Lounge _ Gymnasium
_ Staff Dining _ VIP lounge formal/ informal _ Swimming pool
_ Kitchen _ VIP dining _ Health club
_ Pantry _ Facilities _ Shopping Arcade
_ Store _ Recreation Centre
_ Facilities • CONFERENCE HALLS /
SEMINAR ROOMS: • MULTIPURPOSE HALL / BANQUET HALL
_ Foyer • EXHIBITION AREA
_ Conference Rooms • OPEN AIR THEATRE
_ Pantry Area • RESTAURANT / FOOD COURT
_ Facilities • PARKING AREA

129
As indicated in the case studies, the acoustics of the auditorium plays a crucial role while
designing such a space. The research work and analysis done in this report would help you
to incorporate suitable acoustic measures in the auditorium to be proposed for your
Design Studio project, that is,
A CONVENTION CENTER.
The key points to be considered and applied while designing an acoustically

efficient space are listed below:
• To avoid echoes, the reflective surfaces like especially the rear wall should be
acoustically treated.
• Flutter echo in parallel walls should be prevented by providing sound absorbing

material on the walls which are closer to the source of the sound.
• Coupled defect caused by connected spaces should be avoided by proper

acoustic separation or by providing appropriate acoustic material to achieve the
same reverberation in both the spaces.
• Sound amplification system should be used if the volume is greater than 425
cu.m. and the distance between the source and the listener is greater than 12 m.
The attenuation of sound in an auditorium varies with the absorption, volume,
directivity and reinforcement of sound provided. Therefore the distances over
which the speech can be heard will depend on the design of the hall or auditorium
and the extent to which the sounds are reinforced and masked.

130
• The voice during speech, etc. produces largely directional sounds with significant
reduction in sound power outside an arc of 135°. So the seating should fall within
this angle.
• At 90° to the side of the speaker, sound power reduces by 1-2 dB at mid
frequencies and by 6 dB at higher ones. At 180° when the speaker faces away from
the audience, sound shadowing effect becomes prominent and these losses
increase up to three times.
• The ceiling is the main reflecting surface in such a space and sound absorbing
material should not be used on it. Generally the central area of the ceiling plays a
vital role in sound projection over a major portion of the audience so it may be
deliberately profiled to improve projection. For this purpose if needed angle
reflectors may be provided and the soffit of the balcony should also be designed
accordingly to give local reinforcement in these distant parts.
• The side walls adjacent to the source should preferably be angled to reflect
sound towards the audience. The angles subtended by the sound rays at the side
wall surfaces should be reduced to avoid sound concentration, etc. by using
serrated walls or reverse splayed panels, for example.
• Concave wall surfaces or domes result in sound focusing so such surfaces should
preferably be made absorbent.

131
• Suitable ray diagrams should be made to identify the pattern of sound waves and
to ensure application of suitable absorbing material to reduce the defects and
hence attain an optimum sound level for each set of audience seated in the
auditorium. Only sound reflections that is early reflections with <28 ft. path
difference from sound source are useful and contribute to a positive interference
of sound.
• The optimum reverberation time for an auditorium is 1.4 to 1.9 at mid

frequencies (500-1000 Hz), 1.3 at 125 Hz and 0.8 at higher frequencies (4000 Hz).
So to achieve the same materials with suitable absorption coefficients should be
used. At times a portion of the ceiling area may also be sound absorbing to control
reverberation.
_ For low frequency sound absorption materials like wood paneling, gypsum
boards, etc. can be used.
_ For medium frequency absorption, porous materials or thin materials with air
gaps are useful.
_ For high frequency absorption, heavy cotton panels with air gaps, glass wool, etc,
and thick carpet on floor can be used.

132
• The volume per seat should be 200 to 240 cu. ft. or 5.6 to 6 cu. m.
• Use irregular sound reflecting surfaces like sunken panels, splays and undulations
to enhance useful reflections.
• Carpet all aisles except the front of the stage. Do not carpet the seating areas.
• Use fabric upholstered seats.
• Use balconies to reduce the distance to the farthest row of seats and /or to
increase seating capacity. Keep the overhang shallow (i.e.; depth less than twice
the opening height), slope the soffit, and treat the face with sound diffusing
elements (or sound –absorbing material) to prevent echo.

133
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
BOOKS:
• ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS BY • NOISE CONTROL MANUAL BY SOUND SMART

M.DAVID EGAN
• NOISE CONTROL MANUAL BY CERATIN TEED
• MASTER HANDBOOK OF ACOUSTICS BY
EVEREST, F. ALTON • HANDBOOK OF ACOUSTICAL MEASUREMENTS
AND NOISE CONTROL BY CYRIL M.
• TIME SAVER STANDARD FOR HARRIS
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN DATA BY JOSEPH
DE CHIARA AND JOHN HANCOCK • NOISE CONTROL IN BUILDINGS BY CYRIL M.
CALLENDER HARRIS
• ACOUSTICS BY LEO L. BERANEKS • ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS BY LISA EGNER
• CONFERENCE, CONVENTION AND WEB SITES:

EXHIBITION FACILITIES BY FRED LAWSON
• WWW. WIKIPEDIA.COM
E-BOOKS: • WWW.ACOUSTICS.COM
• AUDITORIUM ACOUSTICS BY ARTHUR • WWW.SOUNDPROOFINGTIPS.COM
NOXON • WWW.TECHNOACOUSTICS.COM
• AUDITORIUM ACOUSTICS - CHALLENGES • WWW.TRADEINDIA.COM
AND SOLUTIONS BY M. RUSTAD • WWW.SOUNDZERO.COM
• WWW.ACOUSTIC FIRST.COM

134

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1

The first application of modern scientific methods

Architectural acoustics can be about achieving

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

The goal of architectural acoustic is to make the environment

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

In physics, sound is a vibration that typically propagates as an audible wave of

The sensation of sound is a result of vibrations in the air caused by pressure

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Sound is propagated in air, much like blowing up a large

For sound to be generated and heard it must have a

For purposes of this discussion, we will assume that we

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

On the basis of frequency sound waves are classified

- INFRA SOUND [f<20Hz]

CLASSIFICATION OF AUDIBLE SOUND:

•The Sound which produces •The sound that produces a jarring

•Sounds Of Sitar, Violin, Flute •Sound Of Road

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Longitudinal sound waves are waves of

The energy carried by an oscillating sound wave

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Sound intensity, denoted I, is

The average sound intensity

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

The most common approach to sound intensity measurement is

Decibels measure the ratio of a given intensity I to the threshold

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

• Where I = sound intensity

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Later on we relate dB to the phon and the sone(related to loudness). But

The difference in decibels between the two is defined to be

10 log (P2/P1) dB where the log is to base 10.

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 10 = 10 dB

If the second had a million times the power of the

10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 1,000,000 = 60 dB.

This example shows one feature of decibel scales

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

• The phon is a non-standard noise unit that is designed to reflect perceived

• By definition, the number of phon of a sound is the dB SPL of a sound at

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

In acoustics, loudness is the subjective perception of sound pressure. The study of

Phons 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

A-weighting network: Generally, the sensitivity of human hearing is restricted

C-weighted network: The C-weighted network provides unweighted

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Our ears do not perceive all

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

In order to make the measurement, calculation, and perception of sound more

(FIGURE 7) Shows sound levels of recognizable sound in decibels with a

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)

the previous higher level. It is less 10,000,000,

a single number value in the same FAINT Quiet Conversation

Architectural Acoustics (AR 6.3 AA)