Introductory

Engineering
Graphics
Introductory
Engineering
Graphics

Edward E. Osakue

MOMENTUM PRESS, LLC, NEW YORK

Introductory Engineering Graphics

Copyright © Momentum Press®, LLC, 2018.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—­
electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other—except for
brief quotations, not to exceed 400 words, without the prior permission
of the publisher.

First published by Momentum Press®, LLC

222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017
www.momentumpress.net

ISBN-13: 978-1-94708-360-8 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-1-94708-361-5 (e-book)

Momentum Press General Engineering and K-12 Engineering Education

Collection

Cover and interior design by Exeter Premedia Services Private Ltd.,

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 Abstract

Introductory Engineering Graphics concentrates on the main concepts

and principles of technical graphics and provides users with the informa-
tion they need most in an easy and straightforward manner. The ­chapters
and topics are organized in a sequence that makes learning a gradual tran-
sition from one level to another. However, each chapter is presented in
a self-contained manner and may be studied separately. In each chapter,
techniques are presented for implementing the topics treated. Chapter 1
discusses the guidelines for drafting. Chapter 2 presents the principles and
techniques for creating standard multiview drawings. Chapter 3 discusses
auxiliary view creation, whereas ­Chapter 4 focuses on section view cre-
ation. Basic dimensioning is covered in C ­ hapter 5. Isometric pictorials are
presented in Chapter 6. Working drawings are covered in Chapter 7, the
heart of drafting, and practical information is provided for creating them.
The Appendices provide introductory discussions about screw fasteners,
general and geometric tolerancing, and surface quality and symbols.
This book is designed as a material for instruction and study for
students and instructors of engineering, engineering technology, and
­
design technology. It should be useful to technical consultants, design
project managers, computer design drafting (CDD) managers, design
supervisors, design ­engineers, and everyone interested in learning the fun-
damentals of design drafting. The book is written with full cognizance
of current standards of American National Standards Institute/American
Society for Mechanical Engineers (ANSI/ASME). The style is plain, and
discussions are straight to the point. Its principal goal is meeting the needs
of first- and second-year students in engineering, ­engineering technology,
design technology, and related disciplines.

Keywords
auxiliary views, CDD, design, ­dimensioning, graphics, isometric views,
multiview drawings, orthographic projection, section views, shape con-
struction, technical, working drawings
 Contents

List of Figures xi
List of Tab les xix
Preface xxi
1  Guidelines for Drafting 1
1.1  Introduction 1
1.2   Conventions and Standards 2
1.3   Drawing Units 4
1.4   Drawing Media 5
1.5   Sheet Layout 7
1.6  Annotations 10
1.7   Linestyles 14
1.8   Precedence of Linestyles 17
1.9   Applying Linestyles 17
1.10  Chapter Review Questions 18
1.11  Chapter Exercises 19
2  Standard Orthograp hic Drawing Views 21
2.1  Introduction 21
2.2   Projection Types 21
2.3  Orthographic Projection Concepts and Assumptions 23
2.4   Object Planes and Features 24
2.5   Bounding Box Concept 25
2.6  Visualizing an Orthographic View Projection 26
2.7   Drawing Views 27
2.8   Nonunique Views 31
2.9   Required Views and Placement 31
2.10  Constructing Standard Multiviews 33
2.11  Generating Views from Solid Models 37
2.12  Checklist for Multiview Drawings 39
viii  •  Contents

2.13  Chapter Review Questions 39

2.14  Chapter Exercises 40
3   Auxiliary Drawing Views 45
3.1  Introduction 45
3.2   Understanding Auxiliary Views 45
3.3   Visualizing Auxiliary Views 48
3.4   Constructing Auxiliary Views 49
3.5  Generating Auxiliary Views from Solid Models 57
3.6  Combined Standard and Partial Auxiliary Views 61
3.7   Chapter Review Questions 62
3.8   Chapter Exercises 63
4   Section Drawing Views 67
4.1  Introduction 67
4.2   Concept of Sections 67
4.3   Cutting Plane Line Styles 69
4.4   Hatch Patterns 69
4.5  Section View Representation and Placement 71
4.6   Section View Types 72
4.7   Conventional Breaks 81
4.8   Constructing Section Views 81
4.9   Generating Section Views from Solids 83
4.10  Chapter Review Questions 84
4.11  Chapter Exercises 85
5   Basic Dimensioning 89
5.1  Introduction 89
5.2  Engineering Drawing and Size Descriptions 90
5.3   Dimension Elements and Symbols 91
5.4   Dimension Types and Line Spacing 92
5.5  Placing Dimensions on Object Features 94
5.6   Dimensioning Methods 102
5.7   Dimension Style 104
5.8   Manual Dimensioning 105
5.9   CDD Automatic Dimension Placement 108
5.10  Chapter Review Questions 111
5.11  Chapter Exercises 111
6   Isometric Drawings 117
6.1  Introduction 117
6.2   Isometric Projection and Scale 117
6.3   Types of Isometric Drawings 119
 Contents   •   ix

6.4  Constructing Isometric Arcs and Circles 120

6.5  Construction Techniques for Isometric Drawing 123
6.6   Isometric Annotations 129
6.7   Applications of Isometric Views 130
6.8   Dimetric and Trimetric Projections 133
6.9   Chapter Review Questions 134
6.10  Chapter Exercises 134
7   Working Drawings 139
7.1   Introduction 139
7.2   Elements of Working Drawings 140
7.3   Component Detail Drawings 144
7.4   Standard Parts 146
7.5   Assembly Working Drawings 146
7.6   Checking Drawings 150
7.7   Specification Documents 153
7.8   Working Drawing Set 154
7.9   Chapter Review Questions 159
7.10  Chapter Exercises 159
Appendix I: Screw Fasteners 167
A1.1  Screw Features 167
A1.2 Standard Threads and Thread Profiles 167
A1.3  Thread Series 168
A1.4  Thread Classes 168
A1.5  Thread Specification 169
Appendix II: General Tolerancing and Dimensioning 171
A2.1  Symbolic Specification 172
A2.2  Value Specification 172
A2.3  Hole-Basis or Shaft-Basis Fit Systems 173
Appendix III: Geometric Tolerancing and Dimensioning 177
Appendix IV: Surface Texture 181
A4.1  Surface Texture Specification 181
A4.2  Surface Roughness Production 183
Bibliography 185
Ab out the Author 187
Index 189
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1.  Drawing sheet orientations. 7

Figure 1.2.  Sheet layout elements. 8
Figure 1.3.  A simple bill of materials. 9
Figure 1.4.  Vertical characters. 11
Figure 1.5.  Inclined characters. 11
Figure 1.6.  Drawing with tolerances 12
Figure 1.7.  Leader, balloon, and callout. 12
Figure 1.8.   Samples of fonts. 13
Figure 1.9.  
Linestyles. 15
Figure 1.10. Drawing view with different linestyles. 17
Figure 1.11. Use of centerline and center mark. 18
Figure 2.1.  Basic types of projection. (a) Parallel projection.
(b) Perspective projection. 22
Figure 2.2.  Normal faces. 24
Figure 2.3.  Non-normal faces. 24
Figure 2.4.  Planar and oblique faces. 24
Figure 2.5.  Bounding box and principal dimensions. 25
Figure 2.6.  Image box and object. 27
Figure 2.7.  Object views on principal planes. 27
Figure 2.8.  Image box faces and principal planes. 28
Figure 2.9.  Layout of six principal views on flat paper. 28
Figure 2.10. Spatial and planar quadrants. (a) Spatial layout.
(b) Planar layout (Right view). 29
Figure 2.11. First angle projection. 29
Figure 2.12. Third angle projection. 29
xii  •   List of Figures

Figure 2.13.  U.S. standard views. 30

Figure 2.14.  European standard views. 30
Figure 2.15.  Principal dimensions and drawing layout.
(a) Object principal dimensions. (b) Layout of
standard views. 31
Figure 2.16.  Nonunique side views. 32
Figure 2.17.  Placement and alignment of multiviews. (a) Correct
placement and alignment.(b) Top view not aligned.
(c) Front view not aligned.(d) Right view not aligned. 33
Figure 2.18a. Object. 34
Figure 2.18b. Bounding box. 34
Figure 2.19.  Front view choice, local axes, and view directions.
(a) Front view choice. (b) Axes and view directions. 35
Figure 2.20.  View layout. (a) Top and front views’ boundaries.
(b) Bounding blocks for views. 36
Figure 2.21.  Development of views. (a) Visible features
development. (b) Hidden features development. 36
Figure 2.22.  Completed views. 37
Figure 2.23.  Generated views of a component. 38
Figure 2.24.  Plain multiview drawing. 38
Figure 3.1.   Inclined and oblique faces. (a) Inclined face.
(b) Oblique face. 46
Figure 3.2.   Identifying or creating a TL line. (a) Inclined face.
(b) Oblique face. 47
Figure 3.3.   An auxiliary image box and layout. (a) Image box.
(b) Layout. 48
Figure 3.4.   Types of auxiliary views. (a) Full. (b) Partial. 49
Figure 3.5.   Two principal views. 50
Figure 3.6.   Projection lines for auxiliary view. 50
Figure 3.7.   Draw outline of face. 51
Figure 3.8.   Draw the feature. 52
Figure 3.9.   
Principal views. 53
Figure 3.10.  TL line and projection lines. 54
Figure 3.11.  Reference line and edge view. 54
Figure 3.12.  Projection from edge view. 55
 List of Figures   •   xiii

Figure 3.13. Draw outline of an oblique face. 56

Figure 3.14. Draw feature(s) on an oblique face. 56
Figure 3.15. Principal views. 58
Figure 3.16. Full auxiliary view. 58
Figure 3.17. Standard view. 59
Figure 3.18. Edge view from base view. 60
Figure 3.19. Full auxiliary view for an oblique face. 61
Figure 3.20. Partial auxiliary and standard views. 62
Figure 4.1.  Concept of sections. (a) Standard views.
(b) Mixed views. 68
Figure 4.2.  Cutting plane line styles. (a) Thick centerline.
(b) Thick phantom line. (c) Broken visible line. 69
Figure 4.3.  Hatch pattern layout. 70
Figure 4.4.  Assembly hatch patterns. 70
Figure 4.5.  (a) Material type hatch patterns. (b) Material
type hatch patterns. 71
Figure 4.6.  Section view representation. (a) Right. (b) Wrong. 72
Figure 4.7.  Placement of section views. (a) Top section view.
(b) Front section view. (c) Right section view. 72
Figure 4.8.  Straight section view.  73
Figure 4.9.  Offset section view.  74
Figure 4.10. Removed section views. 74
Figure 4.11. Revolved section views. 75
Figure 4.12. Aligned section views. (a) Component with arms.
(b) Component without arms. 75
Figure 4.13. Half section. 76
Figure 4.14. Broken section. 77
Figure 4.15. Detail section view. 78
Figure 4.16. Auxiliary section view. 78
Figure 4.17. Assembly section view. 79
Figure 4.18. Un-sectioned features. 80
Figure 4.19. Hatching un-sectioned features. 80
Figure 4.20. Un-sectioned parts. 80
Figure 4.21. Break lines for different shapes and materials. 81
xiv  •   List of Figures

Figure 4.22. Constructing a regular section. 82

Figure 4.23. Constructing an aligned section. 83
Figure 4.24. Generating a section from solid model (Section A-A). 84
Figure 5.1.  Dimensional elements and terminators. (a) Elements
of a dimension. (b) Dimension line terminators. 91
Figure 5.2.  Dimensioned component. 93
Figure 5.3.  Types of dimensions.  93
Figure 5.4.  Spacing of dimensions. 94
Figure 5.5.  Arc dimensions.  95
Figure 5.6.  Circle dimensions. 96
Figure 5.7.  Dimensioning diameters. (a) Diameter on profile view.
(b) Section view showing diameter. (c) Multiple
diameters on profile view. 96
Figure 5.8.  Angular dimensions. 97
Figure 5.9.  Hole dimensions. 97
Figure 5.10. Dimensioning slots. (a) Full length. (b) Length
between centers. (c) Slot width. 98
Figure 5.11. Fillets and rounds. 98
Figure 5.12. Fillets and rounds on a component. 98
Figure 5.13. Chamfers. (a) External. (b) Internal. 99
Figure 5.14. Dimensioning counterbore, countersink, and
spotface.100
Figure 5.15. Keyseat and keyway. 100
Figure 5.16. (a) Regular keyseat. (b) Woodruff keyseat.
(c) Sledge runner k­ eyseat. 101
Figure 5.17. Rectangular neck. (a) Depth specified.
(b) Diameter specified. 102
Figure 5.18. Circular neck. (a) Depth specified. (b) Diameter
specified. 102
Figure 5.19. Truncated conical neck. (a) Depth specified.
(b) Diameter s­ pecified. 102
Figure 5.20. Repeated features. (a) Linear array.
(b) Polar array 102
Figure 5.21. Datum dimensioning. 103
 List of Figures   •   xv

Figure 5.22. Chain method. 103

Figure 5.23. Tabular method. 104
Figure 5.24. Engineering diagram of a component.  106
Figure 5.25. Adding horizontal dimensions to diagram. 106
Figure 5.26. Adding vertical dimensions to diagram.  107
Figure 5.27. Adding circle dimensions to diagram. 108
Figure 5.28. Generated views of a component. 109
Figure 5.29. Add centerlines to generated multiviews. 109
Figure 5.30. Adding dimensions to multiview drawing.  110
Figure 5.31. Dimensioned multiview drawing. 111
Figure 6.1.  Isometric projection. (a) Isometric rotations.
(b) Isometric axes in image plane. 118
Figure 6.2.  (a) Types of isometric lines. (b) Isometric scale. 119
Figure 6.3.  Types of isometric drawings. (a) Regular. (b) Reverse.
(c) Long-axis. 120
Figure 6.4.  Isometric arcs. 121
Figure 6.5.  (a) Constructing top isocircle. (b) Constructing top
isocircles ­continued. 121
Figure 6.6.  Constructing a left isocircle. 122
Figure 6.7.  Constructing a right isocircle. 122
Figure 6.8.  Constructing top isocircle. 123
Figure 6.9.  (a) Box method for normal faces. (b) Box method
for normal faces continued. 124
Figure 6.10. (a) Box method for inclined face. (b) Box method
for inclined face continued. 125
Figure 6.11. Box method for oblique face. 125
Figure 6.12. Box method for angles. 126
Figure 6.13. Box method for ellipse on inclined face. 127
Figure 6.14. Box method for irregular curve. 127
Figure 6.15. Centerline method for isometric drawing. 128
Figure 6.16. Isometric annotations. (a) Aligned dimension
placement. (b) Horizontal dimension placement. 130
Figure 6.17. Iso-detail drawings. 131
xvi  •   List of Figures

Figure 6.18. Isometric section views. (a) Straight section.

(b) Half section. (c) Broken section. (d) Offset section. 132
Figure 6.19. Assembly isometric views. (a) Outline. (b) Exploded. 132
Figure 6.20. Examples of isoplanes in other axonometric
projections. (a) Dimetric. (b) Trimetric. 133
Figure 7.1.  An iso-insert in an ortho-detail drawing. 141
Figure 7.2.  Standard projection symbols. (a) First angle.
(b) Third angle. 144
Figure 7.3.  Standard orthographic projections. (a) Isometric.
(b) First angle projection layout. (c) Third angle
projection layout. 144
Figure 7.4.  Mixed views detail drawing. 145
Figure 7.5.  Isometric assembly drawings. (a) Outline isometric.
(b) Exploded isometric. (c) Half section isometric. 148
Figure 7.6.  Exploded isometric assembly with BOM. 149
Figure 7.7.  Section assembly drawings. (a) Outline ortho-view
of assembly. (b) Front ortho-view section. 150
Figure 7.8.  Exploded assembly drawing. 155
Figure 7.9.  Shaft detail drawing. 155
Figure 7.10. Flange detail drawing. 156
Figure 7.11. Pulley detail drawing. 156
Figure 7.12. Gear detail drawing. 157
Figure 7.13. Retainer detail drawing. 157
Figure 7.14. Sleeve detail drawing. 158
Figure 7.15. Schedule of purchase parts. 158
Figure P7.1. Component drawings of Figure P7.1. 161
Figure P7.2. Component drawings for Figure P7.2a. 163
Figure P7.3.  Component drawings for Figure P7.3a. 165
Figure A1.1. Thread nomenclature. (a) External thread.
(b) Internal thread. 168
Figure A1.2. Metric thread specifications. 169
Figure A1.3. English thread specifications. 170
Figure A2.1. Unilateral tolerance specification. 173
Figure A2.2. Bilateral tolerance specification. 173
Figure A2.3. Limits specification. 173
 List of Figures   •   xvii

Figure A3.1. Examples of GD&T. 179

Figure A4.1. Elements of surface texture. 182
Figure A4.2. Full specification of surface texture. 182
Figure A4.3. Basic specification of surface texture symbol. 182
Figure A4.4. Application example. 183
 List of Tables

Table 1.1.   Some ANSI/ASME Y14 standards 3

Table 1.2.   Some ISO drawing standards 3
Table 1.3.   Drawing units 4
Table 1.4.   Standard paper sizes 6
Table 2.1.   Principal views and dimensions 31
Table 5.1.  Common dimensioning symbols 92
Table 5.2.  Values of dimensions 103
Table 5.3.  Some dimension style attributes (AutoCAD
application)104
Table A1.1. Metric thread classes 168
Table A1.2. English thread classes 169
Table A1.3. Interpreting metric thread specification 169
Table A1.4. Interpreting English thread specification 170
Table A2.1. Preferred fits (ANSI B4.2) 174
Table A3.1. GD&T symbols 178
Table A4.1. Typical surface roughness height for some
manufacturing processes 184
 Preface

The technical educational environment has changed dramatically in the

last few decades. Instructors and students in design technology, engi-
neering technology, engineering, and related disciplines are faced with
limited study time, but with increasing information for training in tech-
nical graphics. Contact hours for lectures and laboratories in technical
graphics have been shrinking, but product design continues to grow in
complexities, and the time to market continues to shrink! New design
tools that are largely computer based come into the workplace at aston-
ishing speed. There are more materials to cover, but in fewer contact
hours. These challenges need serious considerations, and this book is
written to address them.
Instructors are free to use any CDD package of their choice to imple-
ment the concepts and principles discussed in each chapter. They may first
give a lecture on the chapter and ask the students to answer the chapter
review questions. A quiz on the chapter can be created and administered
by the instructor before the chapter exercises are attempted. An alternative
approach is to assign a chapter as a reading assignment with the students
required to answer the chapter review questions before the lecture. A quiz
can then be administered after the lecture. These approaches should help
the students to understand the “rules” before playing the “game,” that is
doing the exercises.
Introductory Engineering Graphics is highly condensed so as to
­maximize the use of production materials. I hope students and teachers,
the primary audience, will find the book a valuable resource and enjoy
using it. I am deeply grateful to Momentum Press’s dedicated team of
reviewers for their professional critique and invaluable suggestions. Many
thanks to the hundreds of students who have taken my drafting courses for
their suggestions and critiques over the years. Please feel free to inform
xxii  •  Preface

me of any error found and comment(s) for improvement will be highly

appreciated. All communications should, please, be channeled through
the publisher.
Edward E. Osakue
April, 2018.
 CHAPTER 1

Guidelines for Drafting

1.1 Introduction

Drafting is the process of creating technical drawings consisting of two-­

dimensional (2D) images and annotations, and the term draughting is used
to describe the language of drafting in this book. Draughting defines the
terminology, symbology, conventions, and standards used in drafting. It is
the universal technical language that is used for clearly and accurately
describing the form, size, finish, and color of a graphic design model for
construction or recording. Draughting guidelines deal with standards and
conventions in drawing media, lettering, linestyes, projection standards,
plot scales, dimensioning rules, sectioning rules, and so on. In this chapter,
we will concentrate mainly on drawing media, lettering, and linestyles,
while others will be discussed in the appropriate chapters.
The 2D images in drafting are constructed from lines and curves,
while annotations are composed from characters. 2D technical drawings
may be created using axonometric and perspective principles. Axonomet-
ric drawings are 2D drawings obtained by applying orthogonal projection
principles to three-dimensional (3D) objects and include orthographic,
isometric, dimetric, and trimetric drawings. Pictorial drawings such as
isometric and perspective drawings mimic 3D objects in appearance, but
are made of 2D entities by composition. Most technical drawings are of
the orthographic and isometric types, which are the focus of this book.
Some standards and conventions apply to both lines and characters in
drafting, and they must be learned and used correctly. Therefore, draft-
ing skills involve learning to correctly apply the rules of draughting in
creating acceptable or industry standard technical drawings. Proficiency
in drafting involves being able to create high-quality technical drawings,
therefore, becoming proficient in drafting must be a commitment executed
with determined effort.
2  •   Introductory Engineering Graphics

1.2  Conventions and Standards

Draughting principles, conventions, rules, and standards help to minimize

misinterpretations of drawing contents and eliminate errors in the commu-
nication of technical ideas. Conventions are commonly accepted practices,
methods, or rules used in technical drawings. Standards are sets of rules
established through voluntary agreements that govern the representation
of technical drawings. Standards ensure clear communication of technical
ideas. The design drafter must study and understand these conventions and
standards and learn to apply them correctly in practice. For example, good
technical drawings are achieved by following some principles such as:

1. Keeping all lines black, crisp, and consistent.

2. Using different linestyles.
3. Ensuring clarity in linestyle differences such as in thickness or
line weight.
4. Ensuring dashes have consistent spacing with definite endpoints.
5. Keeping guide or construction lines very thin.
6. Ensuring that corners are sharp and without overlap in drawing
views.
7. Placing dimension with thoughtfulness and adequate spacing.
8. Making notes simple and concise.
9. Making drawing readability a high priority.
10. Ensuring a pleasing drawing layout.

Principles one to six are largely built into computer design draft-
ing (CDD) software or packages. This means the CDD operator need
not worry about them, except know what linestyle to use for different
­features of objects and assign appropriate line weight or thickness. How-
ever, principles 7 to 10 must be mastered and consistently applied. These
have bearings on accuracy, legibility, neatness, and visual pleasantness
of drawings.
There are national and international organizations that develop
and manage the development of standards. Examples are the ­American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standardiza-
tion Organization (ISO). ANSI is a federation of government, private
companies, professional, technical, trade, labor, and consumer organiza-
tions that serve as a clearinghouse for nationally coordinated voluntary
standards. The standards may deal with dimensions, rating, test meth-
ods, safety and performance specifications for equipment, products and
components, symbols and terminology, and so on. Major c­ ontributors
 Guidelines for Drafting   •  3

Table 1.1.  Some ANSI/ASME Y14 standards

Item Section
Size and format Y14.1
Lettering and linestyles Y14.2
Projections Y14.3
Pictorial drawings Y14.4
Dimensioning and tolerancing Y14.5M
Screw threads Y14.6
Gears, splines, and serrations Y14.7
Mechanical assemblies Y14.14

to ANSI standards include American Society of Mechanical Engi-

neers (ASME), Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE),
­American Society for Testing Metals (ASTM), and so on. Drafting stan-
dards are specified in ANSI Y14 documents, which give only the charac-
ter of the graphic language. It is to contain 27 or more separate sections
when completed. ANSI/ASME Y14.2, Y14.3, and Y14.5M are popular
draughting standards in the United States and sample sections of the
standard are given Table 1.1.
ISO is a nongovernmental worldwide body that coordinates stan-
dards development process in virtually every area of human activities.
It is located in Switzerland and was founded in 1947. Membership
includes over 150 countries, with each country represented by one
national standards institution. ANSI is the U.S. representative to ISO.
ANSI standards are usually similar but not identical to ISO standards.
The design drafter must be diligent in adhering to the standards that
are relevant to a particular work. Table 1.2 gives some ISO drawing
standards documents.

Table 1.2.  Some ISO drawing standards

Item Section
Technical drawings: sizes and layout of drawing ISO 5457
sheets
Technical drawings: general principles of ISO 128
­presentation
Technical drawings: methods of indicating surface ISO 1302
texture
General tolerances ISO 2768
4  •   Introductory Engineering Graphics

1.3 Drawing Units

All engineering drawings must carry a unit of measure. This is required so

that the drawing sizes can be correctly interpreted. Because graphics have
linear and angular attributes, the units of length and angles are indispens-
able in drafting and design.

1.3.1  Units of Length

The SI unit of length is the meter. The English or U.S. customary unit of
length is the foot (ft). Table 1.3 shows the length denominations for SI and
English units. English units are still in use in North America, especially in
the United States.
The SI linear unit for drafting is the millimeter. Mechanical draw-
ings are dimensioned in millimeter (mm). Architectural drawings may be
dimensioned in millimeter (mm) and meter (m). Meter and kilometer (km)
are used for civil dimensioning. Only decimals are used in metric dimen-
sioning; fractions are not allowed. For numbers less than 1.0, which must
be expressed as decimals, a zero before the decimal marker is preferred.
For example, 0.234 is preferred to .234. The period symbol is the decimal
marker in this example. In Europe and some other countries, “,” is used
as decimal marker, i.e. 0,234 means the same as 0.234 in North America.
In English units, mechanical drawings are dimensioned in decimal inches,
architectural drawings are commonly dimensioned in feet (‘), and fractional
inches and civil drawings are dimensioned in decimal feet and inches. In North
America, drawings in metric units carry a general note such as “all dimensions
are in millimeter, unless otherwise stated” or the label “METRIC.”

Table 1.3.  Drawing units

SI: meter (m) Customary: Inch (in)-foot (ft)
1 m = 1,000 mm = 103 mm 1 in = 16 lines
1 m = 100 cm = 102 cm 1 ft = 12 inches
1 km = 1,000 m = 103 m 1 in = 25.4 mm

1.3.2  Units of Angle

Angle refers to the relative orientation of lines on a plane or the relative

orientation of planes in space and is measured in degrees (°) or radians.
There are 360 degrees in a circle; 60 minutes in a degree; and 60 seconds
 Guidelines for Drafting   •  5

in a minute. The radian is the SI unit of angular measure. One radian is

approximately 57.3°. However, the degree is the unit of angular measure
in technical drawings.

1.4 Drawing Media

Drawing media are physical materials that can retain graphic and textual
information for a reasonable time period when placed on their surfaces.
They are used to produce hard or paper copies of models and drawings.
Certain characteristics make these media suitable for drawings and include
smoothness, eraseability, dimensional stability, transparency, durabil-
ity, and cost. Smoothness describes the ease of the media to accept lines
and letters without excessive effort. Eraseability describes the ease of the
media to allow lines and letters to be erased and cleaned-up. Ghosting
is a term used to describe the mark left after lines are erased. The more
visible they are, the poorer the eraseability. Dimensional stability refers
to the ability of the media to retain size in varying weather conditions.
Transparency allows drawings on one side of the media to be visible on
the other side. This used to be an important characteristic in traditional
drafting, but photocopying technology and plotter capabilities today make
this requirement a noncritical factor. Durability refers to the ability of the
media to resist normal usage wear and tear. Wear and tear is ever present
because wrinkles develop with usage that render drawings difficult to read
or reproduce. Drawing media include bond stationary, vellum, mylar, grid
papers, and tracing papers.
Bond stationary or plain paper is good for all types of technical draw-
ing. They are made from wood pulp of higher quality than newsprint. How-
ever, they have low durability. There are different grades of plain paper in
the market. The better ones are whiter and smoother. Plain papers should be
preferably used for sketches, exploratory design drawings, and check prints.
Vellum is the most popular drafting paper. It is specially designed to
accept pencil marks and ink. It has good smoothness and transparency, but
susceptible to humidity and other weather conditions. This makes it not to
be very stable dimensionally. Some brands have better eraseability.
Mylar is a plastic type (polyester) drafting material that has excellent
dimensional stability, eraseability, durability, and transparency. It takes
ink easily, but it is expensive and requires special polyester lead for draw-
ing on it. It is, thus, used for very high-quality jobs or when cost is not
a factor. Mylar may have single or double working (mat) surfaces. The
single mat surface is more common.
6  •   Introductory Engineering Graphics

Tracing paper is a translucent medium that is good when the need

to reduce manual repetitive work is considerable. It can also be used to
obtain a final sketch if the original sketch was drawn on a grid paper. The
grid background is not traced in this case. Tracing is a fast and accurate
method of reproducing an existing drawing manually.
Grid papers are especially helpful for good alignment and propor-
tioning of features on drawings when sketching. Advantage should be
taken of them whenever available. The square grid is used for sketch-
ing orthographic views, and isometric grid is used for sketching isometric
views. These grid papers are very common.

1.4.1  Drawing Sheet or Paper Sizes

Paper or sheet sizes have been standardized by ANSI and ISO. Standard
drafting papers are available in sheet or roll form. Table 1.4 summarizes
the standard paper or sheet sizes for English (ANSI) and metric (ISO)
applications with metric as preferred units. The sizes are the overall
dimensions of the sheets without allowance for margins. Roll sheets come
in different widths and lengths with the width usually equal to one of the
standard sheet dimensions as shown in Table 1.4. Metric roll sizes vary
from 297 to 420 mm in width. Large metric sheet sizes are cut from metric
rolls. Roll sizes in English unit vary in width from 18” to 48”, and the
usual length of a roll is 100’ long. In English unit, large sheet sizes F, G,
H, J, and K are cut from rolls. In most situations, the paper size is specified
by the company or stated in a given problem.

Table 1.4.  Standard paper sizes

Metric sizes (mm) English sizes (inches)
A4 210 × 297 A 8.5 × 11
A3 297 × 420 B 11 × 17
A2 420 × 594 C 17 × 22
A1 594 × 841 D 22 × 34
A0 841 × 1189 E 34 × 44

1.4.2 Sheet Orientation

Standard drawing sheet may be oriented with the long-side horizontal and
the short-side vertical as shown in Figure 1.1a. This type of orientation
is known as landscape and is generally preferred for sheet sizes B, C, D,
and E in English unit or sheet sizes A3, A2, A1, and A0 in metric unit.
 Guidelines for Drafting   •  7

  (a) Landscape (b) Portrait

Figure 1.1.  Drawing sheet orientations.

Occasionally, portrait orientation, as shown in Figure 1.1b, is used, but is

largely limited to A-size sheet in English unit and A4-size sheet in metric
unit. In this layout, the short length of the sheet is horizontal and the long
side is vertical.

1.5 Sheet Layout

Drafting paper layout refers to the arrangement of information on the

paper. Figure 1.2 shows the general layout of a template drawing sheet.
Broadly, the information in a drawing sheet may be classified into two
groups of technical and administrative. The technical information consists
of drawing views and annotations. Annotation depends on the amount of
details desired in a drawing and may include dimensions and tolerances,
notes, and bill of materials in assembly drawings. The technical informa-
tion usually takes the greater portion of the drawing sheet. Administrative
information on a standard drawing sheet includes title block and revision
block information. A margin is provided at the four edges (top, bottom,
left, and right) of the sheet and is defined by the border line (not shown
in Figure 1.2) that is drawn at some distance from the edge. They provide
spaces for filing and handling the sheet. Based on ANSI recommenda-
tions, top, bottom, and right-side margins are in the range of 12.5 mm
(1/2”) to 25 mm (1”), depending on the paper size. The left-side margin is
often between 12.5 mm (1/2”) to 40 mm (1–1/2”) to allow for binding of
sheets. Drawing views depend on the type of documentation required, and
annotation content will vary accordingly.
8  •   Introductory Engineering Graphics

1.5.1 Zoning

Zoning is a technique used in large paper sizes to aid in quickly locat-

ing information on a drawing. It involves assigning spaced numbers
on the top and bottom margins of a sheet and spaced letters on the left
and right margins as shown in Figure 1.2. This creates a grid system on
the drafting paper that is similar to that used for reading information
on maps. A zone is defined by the intersection of a letter segment and
a number segment. As a zone is a very small section of the drawing
paper, locating a piece of information in it is fast. The hatched block in
Figure 1.2 is for zone B3.

Revision
block area
Views, dimensions, and notes area

Title block area

Figure 1.2.  Sheet layout elements.

1.5.2 Title Block

By ANSI standard, a title block should be located on the lower-right

­corner of the drawing sheet. Though different title block designs are used
by companies, the information contained in them is fairly general. Most
information in a title block includes:

1. Company: name, address, phone number.

2. Project/Client: project number and title or client’s name and
address.
3. Drawing: name or title or number.
4. Personnel: designer, drafter, checker, approver.
5. Scale: ratio of design and drawing sizes.
6. Date: completion date of drawing or project.
7. Sheet: size and number (page) of sheets in drawing set.
8. Revisions block: a block for revision notes.
 Guidelines for Drafting   •  9

9. General tolerance: tolerance applied to a size when unspecified.

10. Projection type symbol: first or third angle.

1.5.3  Bill of Materials (BOM)

An assembly drawing should have a bill of materials (BOM) or parts

list. It is usually a table list of the parts or components in an assembly.
­Figure 1.3 shows a sample of a simple BOM. By ANSI standard, it should
be located on the lower-right corner of the drawing sheet. Important infor-
mation in BOM is part name, item number, part material, quantity, part
number, or catalog number for standard parts. The item number is the
number assigned to a component in a particular assembly drawing, a form
of local identification and can change with different assembly drawings.
The part number is a fixed number assigned to that specific component, a
form of company or global identification and should not change for dif-
ferent drawings. Other information like weight and stock size may also be
included in the parts list.

Bill of materials
Item # Name Oty
1 Shaft 1
2 Gear 1
3 Flange 1
4 Sleeve 1
5 Retainer 1
6 Wood ruff key 1
7 Pulley 1
8 P & W key 1
9 Bearing 2
10 Hex. slotted nut 1
11 Hex. jain nut 1
12 Cotter pin 1
13 Seal 1
14 Hex. cap screw 4
Figure 1.3.  A simple bill of materials.

1.5.4 Revision Block

A revision block is of the same format as a BOM, but tracks changes

made on a component or assembly drawing. It is often located on the top
10  •   Introductory Engineering Graphics

right-hand corner of the drawing sheet ad indicated in Figure 1.2. Changes

on working drawings (prototype and production design drawings) must
be approved, so each company usually has a documentation process in
place that must be strictly followed. Preliminary design drawings may
be changed without following this process, but with the approval of the
engineer or designer. Some of the information items in a revision block
may include date, change reason, requester, previous and new sizes, and
approved by.

1.6 Annotations

The textual information and symbols added to models and drawing views
for complete documentation of design are commonly called annotations.
When annotation is done manually, it is called lettering, which used to be a
tedious and time-consuming task. But, things are quite different now with
computers; they have greatly increased the speed and quality of lettering.
Text information consists of groups of characters that express meaning,
which could be words, phrases, and or sentences. In technical graphics, the
aim is to communicate clearly and legibly so as to avoid misinterpretation
of intent and purpose. The factors that can greatly affect legibility are:

1. Font
2. Character size (text height)
3. Character spacing
4. Word spacing
5. Line spacing (leading)

1.6.1 Lettering Conventions

Characters have different model designs known as fonts. A font is a set or

family of character design with specific attributes that determine the print
appearance of the characters. The attributes hold the information about the
character set. Simpler font styles are easier to read; therefore, open clean-
cut characters are the best for drafting. ANSI standard font for lettering in
technical graphics is single-stroke Gothic font. Each character in this font
is made up of a single straight or curved line element. This makes it easy
to draw the characters and make them clear to read. There are uppercase,
lowercase, and inclined Gothic letters. However, the vertical Gothic letters
have become industry standard. Figure 1.4a shows vertical uppercase let-
ters, Figure 1.4b shows numbers, and Figure 1.4c shows lowercase letters
 Guidelines for Drafting   •  11

A B C D E F G H I JK L M N
O P Q R S T U VWX Y Z
(a)
a b c d e f g h ijkl m n
o p qrs t u v wx y z 68º
(b) A B CDEFGH IJ
0123567 89 a b c d e fg h ij
(c) 0 1 23 4 56 7 8 9
Figure 1.4.  Vertical characters. Figure 1.5.  Inclined characters.

and proportion, and ho is the symbol for text or character height in the
figure. Characters in annotations may be inclined from the horizontal at an
angle defined by 5/2 (rise over run), approximately 68 degrees per ANSI
as shown in Figure 1.5.
An important attribute of a font is the text height or font size. Text
height is measured in linear unit of mm (inch). The ANSI recommended
text height is 3 mm (1/8”). The width of characters varies depending on
the specific font. Some characters are narrow like I and others wide like W.
The ratio of a character height to the width is described as width factor or
aspect ratio. Common aspect ratios for characters are 5/6, 1, and 4/3. The
spacing between words should be approximately equal and a minimum of
1/16” (1.5 mm) is recommended. A full character height for word spacing
is preferred. The spacing between lines should be at least half the text
height, but preferably a full text height. Sentences should be separated by
at least one text height; however, if space allows, two text heights should
be used.
Annotation information may be divided into two categories of
technical and administrative information. Administrative information
includes revision notes and title block. Revision notes are used for doc-
ument control and record-keeping of changes in design. The title block
contains vital information about the company and the drawing. Techni-
cal information includes BOM, dimensions, notes, and specifications.
Dimensions are the size values of objects, and tolerances are permissible
variations on object sizes. The sizes and tolerances shown on drawing
views must be the functional or design sizes and tolerances as specified
by the engineer or designer. In Figure 1.6, the diameter size of 20 mm has
a tolerance of 0.05 mm. Annotation symbols are commonly used for geo-
metric tolerancing and dimensioning (GD&T). Notes are explanatory or
required information needed on models and drawings for proper interpre-
tation. There are two types of notes found in drawings: general and local
notes. General notes apply to the whole drawing and may be placed in
12  •   Introductory Engineering Graphics

Metric 36.87º ± 0.25º

+0.05
ø20 0

50

30
25±0.05

32.5±0.05
65

Figure 1.6.  Drawing with tolerances

ø 25.75 M10×1.5

Leader line Callout

2
M6×1
Callout
Balloon

Figure 1.7.  Leader, balloon, and callout.

the title block or at the bottom of a drawing view area. Local notes apply
only to a ­portion or specific features in a drawing and are placed close to
the feature referenced. A leader line can link a local note to a feature or
portion of a drawing; callouts and balloons are special formats of placing
local notes. Figure 1.7 shows examples of a leader, balloon, and callout.
Balloons are local notes placed inside a shape (circle, diamond, etc.).
Callouts are local notes placed without a shape. Notes should be made
simple and concise. Specifications are technical requirements and are
usually about material type, processing, and finishing. They often appear
as general notes or are put together as separate documents. Leader lines
are thin continuous lines used to direct information to specific features
in a drawing. A leader line has an arrow head, an inclined segment, and
a horizontal segment as a tail. The inclined segment connects the arrow
head with the horizontal segment.
Annotation in CDD is much easier than lettering. CDD letters are
neat, consistent, stylish, and can be created with speed and accuracy.
 Guidelines for Drafting   •  13

Many fonts are available in the CDD software, so there is a tendency to

use several fonts in CDD lettering. However, this should be limited, per-
haps to two or three. Figure 1.8 shows a sample of fonts. In architectural
drawings, Country blueprint and City Blueprint are popular fonts, while
Simplex font is popular in mechanical drafting. Placing text in CDD draw-
ings requires decisions on text height and inclination angle at the least.
The inclination angle of text is 90° by default, but this could be changed.
The recommended inclination angle is about 68°. The position of the text
is often selected by clicking with a mouse. Text alignment or justifica-
tion is important in CDD lettering because it affects document appearance
and readability. Text can be aligned to the left (left justified), aligned to
the center (center justified), or aligned to the right (right justified). Texts
that are aligned on both left and right edges are referred to as fully justi-
fied. In technical notes, text should be left justified. Character, word, and
line spacing have been discussed earlier and in CDD packages; they have
default settings that may be changed if desired. Fonts can be formatted by
applying different treatments like bold, italic, and underline. These are
called special effects. They add aesthetics and emphasis to annotations.
The plot height of a character is the actual size on a printed sheet and
may be small print, normal print, or large print. Normal print is the recom-
mended ANSI text height of 3 mm (0.125”). Normal print is used within
the drawing views area and works fine for average-sized sheets such as A4
(A-size) and A3 (B-size). Dimensions, notes, and specifications should be
printed in normal print or standard height. Small prints are smaller than
the normal prints and are used when space is limited. They may vary in
height from 1.5 to 2.5 mm. It is often used in revision blocks and part lists
or BOM. Plot height in large prints can vary from 5 to 10 mm (0.188” to
0.375”). They are used for headers, view names, titles, labels, and numbers
in title blocks. For large-sized sheets, text height of 0.175 to 0.25” (5–6
mm) is common, but may be as high as 0.375 (10 mm). Text height for
zone letters and numbers is usually larger than those for dimensions or tol-
erances. Uncrowded text (high aspect ratio) is easy to read, but needs more
space than crowded text (small aspect ratio). Some companies may prefer

Font name Lowercase Uppercase

Arial Lettering LETTERING
Century Gothic Lettering LETTERING
Helvetica Lettering LETTERING
Impact Lettering LETTERING
Simplex Lettering LETTERING

Figure 1.8.  Samples of fonts.

14  •   Introductory Engineering Graphics

crowded text to uncrowded; however, clean and easy-to-read annotations

should be the goal. It is good practice to find out what the convention is in
your company and stick to it! The design drafter must choose a plot size
that is legible and comfortable to read when hard copies are made. Small
plot sizes tend to be hard on the eyes and should normally be avoided.
In CDD situations, there are two aspects of text height: plot size and
screen size. The plot size is the actual text height value on a printed or plot-
ted document. ANSI-recommended plot size for small sized drawings is
3 mm (0.125”). The screen text size in CDD is the text display size on the
monitor screen of the computer. This may be different from the plot size if
a drawing is not full scale in the default workspace of a CDD package. In
this case, a screen scale factor must be applied to the desired plot size for
comfortable reading or viewing on the screen. The screen text height is the
plot size times the screen scale factor in reduction scaling where the image
plot size is smaller than the image design size. The screen text size is the
plot size divided by the screen scale factor in enlargement scaling where
the image plot size is larger than the image design size. Reduction s­ caling
is common in macro-technology products while enlargement ­scaling is
common in micro- or nano-technology products. The ANSI standard plot
or print text height of 3 mm (1/8”) works well with A4-size (metric) or
A-size (English) sheet. For other sheet sizes, some adjustment in text
height may be necessary for comfortable reading of prints.

1.7 Linestyles

Linestyle describes the visual appearance of lines on papers and monitor

screens. Drafting uses different linestyles and symbols to describe object
models, especially in describing details of 3D graphics in 2D space. Good
line quality is essential for accurate communication of drawings. CDD
linestyles are crisp, consistent, clear, and different line thickness (or line-
weight) and colors can be assigned to them. Their dashes have consistent
spacing and constant width. Figure 1.9 shows some linestyles.
There are two fundamental linestyles, namely, continuous (solid) and
broken lines. Continuous lines have no gaps but broken lines do. Contin-
uous line variants include visible (object), construction, extension, and
border lines. These lines are distinguished by thickness or width. ANSI
recommends two line weights of thick and thin, with the thick being twice
the line weight of the thin. Thick lines have width greater than 0.3 mm
and thin lines have width of 0.3 mm or less. Visible and border lines are
thick, while guidelines, construction, and extension lines are thin. Broken
lines have visible gaps between consecutive line segments. The length of
 Guidelines for Drafting   •  15

Thick line (0.6 mm)

Thin line (0.3 mm)

Visible line

Hidden line

Center line

Cutting plane lines

Dimension line
Extension line
158.31
Dimension line terminator

Short brake

Long brake

Phantom line

Section (hatch) line

Stitch (dot) line

Figure 1.9. Linestyles.

dash lines can vary from 3 to 10 mm (1/8”–3/8”), and the gap can vary
from 1.5 to 3 mm (1/16”–1/8”). Thickness of lines and length of dashes
mentioned here are best for an A-size sheet.
Visible (object) lines are thick continuous (solid) lines that repre-
sent visible edges or outlines of object. Straight edges are formed where
two planes intersect. Curved edges arise from curved faces and surfaces.
­Visible lines should be crisp and black with thickness of 0.40, 0.50, or
0.60 mm, depending on sheet size, but ANSI-recommended thickness of
visible line is 0.60 mm.
Hidden lines are thin dashed lines representing edges that are within
the object or behind some features, and so are not directly seen from a
view direction. The edges are known to be physically present in an object.
Hidden lines generally have dash length of 3 mm (1/8”) and a gap of
1 mm (1/32”), but can vary with sheet size or drawings. The gap is about
16  •   Introductory Engineering Graphics

a ­quarter of the dash length. Hidden lines should start or end at visible or
other hidden lines. No gap is allowed between hidden and visible lines.
Centerlines are thin broken lines of alternating long and short strokes
separated by a gap. A centerline is used to show and locate centers of cir-
cles and arcs and to represent lines of symmetry and paths of motion in
objects. Centerlines should cross visible lines with 3 mm or more beyond
them. The gap and short stroke are of equal length. The short stroke is
about a quarter of the long stroke, which is about 10 mm long.
Dimension lines are continuous thin lines used to indicate the value
of a dimension. A dimension line has three elements: the dimension value,
the terminator, and the stem. The stem is the thin line that ends with the
terminators at both ends. The terminator may be arrows (usually filled),
slashes, or filled circles. The dimension value may be placed on top of the
stem or at a broken portion of the stem.
Extension lines are a pair of continuous thin lines used to establish the
extent of a dimension. The extension line references a point on a feature
with a small gap (1.5 mm minimum) between the point and the beginning
of the extension line. They are used in conjunction with dimension lines
and slightly extend beyond the dimension lines about 3 mm. Extension
and dimension lines are always perpendicular.
Phantom lines are thin dashed lines used to identify alternative posi-
tions of moving paths, adjacent positions of related paths, or repetitive
details. A phantom line consists of a long dash, two short dashes, and gaps
between the dashes. Gaps are about 3 mm long but can vary.
Cutting plane lines are used to indicate the position and direction of
view for cutting planes placed on an object model to create section views.
They are also used to indicate auxiliary view plane and direction. Cutting
plane lines are either thick phantom or hidden lines with arrow heads that
are normal to the main lines. The arrows point in the view directions. The
long dash is about five times the short dash. The short dash and gap are of
equal length. Gaps are about 3 mm long but can vary.
Section (hatch) lines are thin inclined lines used to identify a solid
material cut through by a section plane. They form a pattern on the section
affected. Section assembly drawings often have components of different
materials in the section plane. The deferent materials are distinguished by
using different angles for section lines in the section. Section line angles
normally vary between 15° and 75°.
Break lines can be either thin or thick. Long breaks are thin, while
short breaks are thick. They are used to show that some portion of an
object is left out. A short break line is used for small areas of interest and
allows greater details to be shown. Long break lines are used when space
 Guidelines for Drafting   •  17

needs to be saved in representing very long objects. Usually, the middle

portion of the object is broken off or the portion without additional infor-
mation is left out.
Stitch lines consist of a series of dots and are also called dot lines.
They may be used as projection lines or guidelines in grid papers used for
freehand sketching.

1.8  Precedence of Linestyles

When lines of different styles overlap or coincide in a view, some take

precedence. Generally, lines of thicker weight take precedence over others
of thinner weight. Visible lines take precedence over all other linestyles.
The following order of precedence is generally accepted: visible, hidden,
cutting plane, centerline, break line, dimension and extension lines, and
hatch line. If more than one linestyles coincide in a view, then the rule of
precedence must be applied.

1.9  Applying Linestyles

Figure 1.10 shows a drawing view with several linestyles used in its rep-
resentation. The visible, hidden, and centerline styles are perhaps the most
frequently used in drawings. Though CDD has highly simplified linestyle

Phantom line (motion path)

Center line
A A

Cutting plane line

Visible line

Hidden line

Phantom line Short break line

(object line)
Section (hatch) line

Extension line
58, 45
Section A-A
Dimension line

Figure 1.10.  Drawing view with different linestyles.

18  •   Introductory Engineering Graphics

Center line extends

beyond visible line

Center marks

Figure 1.11.  Use of centerline and center mark.

c­ reation and placements, attention should be paid to the placement of center-

lines. This is because when the length of the horizontal and vertical centerlines
are unequal over a circle or arc, the center mark for the circle or arc will appear
unequal. This does not give a neat appearance in a drawing. One way to fix
this is to draw the centerlines across the circle or arc diameters. Then, scale the
centerlines with a scale factor slightly more than 1.0, say 1.25, 1.3, 1.4, or 1.5.
Figure 1.11 shows the use of centerlines and center marks. Note
that centerlines must not terminate on visible lines. They should extend
beyond visible lines at least 3 mm. The center marks may be used in place
of centerlines in circles or arcs of small radii or when overcrowding of
line types may be a problem. This is due to concern about drawing clarity
and readability, a top priority in graphic communication. Conventions
and standards must be applied to ensure unambiguous communication.
Center marks are easy and fast to apply to drawings in CDD systems.
Linestyle mistakes used to be quite common with board drafting.
However, CDD has largely eliminated these because the coding of the
CDD software can implement consistent and accurate line weight, line
crossing, and display. But, in freehand and instrument sketches, efforts
must be made to avoid these errors.

1.10  Chapter Review Questions

1. Define the terms draughting and drafting as used in this textbook.

2. Define the terms conventions and standards.
 Guidelines for Drafting   •  19

3. State the principles for creating good technical drawings.

4. What are the meanings of the acronyms ANSI and ISO?
5. What ANSI standard deals with drafting?
6. Which section of ANSI drafting standard is concerned with dimen-
sioning and tolerancing?
7. What measurement units are found or used in drafting?
8. List the first three standard paper sizes in metric system.
9. List the first three standard paper sizes in English system.
10. What are the size specifications of A- and A4 sheets?
11. What information is often shown in a title block?
12. Define zoning as used in drawing sheets.
13. What is annotation? Describe lettering.
14. What are the two fundamental types of linestyles?
15. List three examples of each fundamental type of linestyles.
16. What are the types of line thickness mentioned in this chapter?
17. Distinguish between visible and hidden linestyles. When are they
used in drawings?
18. When are phantom lines used in drawings?
19. Where are centerlines used in drawings?
20. Can centerlines end at visible lines?
21. When can you replace centerlines with center marks?

1.11  Chapter Exercises

Exercise 1

(a) Sketch the following linestyes:

1. Visible line
2. Hidden line
3. Centerline
4. Phantom line

(b) Sketch two circles: one big and the other small. Show centerlines
on the big circle and center marks on the small circle.

Exercise 2

Use freehand sketching to reproduce Figure 1.10 and Figure 1.11, indicat-
ing the linestyles.
 Index
A generating for inclined faces,
Actual size, 90
Aligned section views, 75
American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), 2
American Society for Testing
Metals (ASTM), 3
Annotations
in drafting, 10–14
isometric, 129–130
ANSI. See American National
Standards Institute
Arcs and circles
dimensioning, 95–96
isometric drawings, 120–123
Assembly drawing checklist, 151
Assembly section views, 79
Assembly working drawings
BOM, 147
iso-assembly drawings, 148–149
ortho-assembly drawings,
149–150
overview of, 146–147
types of, 148
ASTM. See American Society for
Testing Metals
Auxiliary drawing views
combined standard and partial,
61–62
constructing on inclined faces,
50–52
constructing on oblique faces,
52–56
full and partial, 48–49
57–58
generating for oblique faces,
59–61
overview of, 45
understanding of, 45–47
view image box, 48
visualizing, 48–49
Auxiliary section views, 77–78
Auxiliary view image box, 48
Axonometric projections, 22
B
Basic surface texture specification,
183
Bill of materials (BOM), 9
BOM. See Bill of materials
Bond stationary, 5
Bounding box concept, 25–26
Box technique, 123–124
Break lines, 16–17
Broken section views, 76
C
Centerlines, 16
Centerline technique, 128–129
Chamfer dimensioning, 98–99
Checking drawings
assembly drawing checklist, 151
detail drawing checklist,
152–153
overview of, 150–151
Component detail drawings,
144–146
190  •   Index
Conventional break lines, 81
Counterbore, 99
Countersink, 99
Cutting plane lines, 16
Cutting plane line styles, 69
D Durability, 5
Design size, 90
Detail drawing checklist, 152–153
Detail section views, 77
Dimensional stability, 5
Dimensioning
angles, 96
arcs and circles, 95–96
CDD automatic dimension
placement, 108–111
chamfer, 98–99
counterbore, countersink, and
spotface, 99
definition of, 89
elements and symbols, 91–92
fillet and round, 97–98
holes, 96–97
keyseats and keyways, 99–101
manual, 105–108
methods of, 102–104
necks and undercuts, 101
placing, 94–102
repeated features, 101–102
slots, 97
style, 104–105
types and line spacing, 92–94
Dimension lines, 16
Dimensions and tolerances, 142
Dimetric projections, 133–134
Drafting, 1
Draughting, 1
Drawing media
drawing sheet or paper sizes, 6
overview of, 5–6
sheet orientation, 6–7
Drawing sheet, 6
Drawing units
of angle, 4–5
of length, 4
Drawing views, 140–141
principal dimensions and layout,
30–31
principal views, 27–28
projection standards, 28–30
standard views, 30
E
Engineering diagrams, 89
Engineering drawings
definition of, 89
dimensions in, 90
Eraseability, 5
Extension lines, 16
F
Fillet and round, dimensioning,
97–98
Full auxiliary view, 48–49
Full section views, 72
Full surface texture specification,
182
G
GD&T. See Geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing
General surface texture
specification, 183
Geometric dimensioning and
tolerancing (GD&T), 177–179
Ghosting, 5
Grid papers, 6
H
Half section views, 76
Hatch patterns, 69–71
Hidden lines, 15–16
Hole-basis fit system, 173–174
I
IEEE. See Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers
Inclined faces
constructing, 50–52
 Index   •   191

generating for auxiliary drawing Linestyles

views, 57–58 applying, 17–18
isometric drawings, 124–125 precedence of, 17
Institute of Electrical and types of, 14–17
Electronic Engineers (IEEE), 3
International Standardization M
Organization (ISO), 2 Manual dimensioning, 105–108
Irregular curves, isometric Multiview drawing
drawings, 127 checklist for, 39
ISO. See International standard, 33–37
Standardization Organization Mylar, 5
Iso-assembly drawings, 148–149
Iso-detail drawings, 130–131 N
Isometric annotations, 129–130 Necessary views, 145–146
Isometric assembly views, Necks and undercuts, 101
132–133 Nonunique views, 31
Isometric drawings
annotations, 129–130 O
applications of, 130–133 Object planes, 24–25
box technique, 123–124 Oblique faces
centerline technique, 128–129 constructing, 52–56
constructing arcs and circles, generating for auxiliary drawing
120–123 views, 59–61
definition of, 117 isometric drawings, 125
dimetric and trimetric Offset section views, 73
projections, 133–134 Ortho-assembly drawings,
exploded views, 131–132 149–150
object with angled faces, Orthographic projection
125–126 assumptions, 24
object with ellipse on inclined concepts, 23
faces, 126–127 definition, 23
object with inclined faces, Orthographic view projection,
124–125 26–27
object with irregular curves, 127
object with normal faces, 124 P
object with oblique faces, 125 Paper sizes, 6
projection and scale, 117–119 Parallel projection, 22
types of, 119–120 Partial auxiliary view, 48–49
Partial section views, 76
K Perspective projection, 22
Keyseats and keyways, 99–101 Phantom lines, 16
Pictorial drawings, 1
L Plot size, 90
Lettering conventions, 10–14 Principal dimensions and layout,
Line spacing, 92–94 30–31
192  •   Index
Principal views, 27–28
Print size, 90
Projection
definition of, 21–22
orthographic, 23–24
types of, 22–23
Projection standards, 28–30,
143–144
R revision block, 9–10
Removed section views, 74
Required views and placement,
31–33
Revision block, 9–10, 144
Revolved section views, 74–75
S 57–61
Scale factor, 142
Screw fasteners
features, 167
standard threads, 167–168
thread class, 168–169
thread profiles, 167–168
thread series, 168
thread specification, 169–170
Section drawing views
aligned, 75
assembly, 79
auxiliary, 77–78
broken, 76
concepts of, 67–68
constructing, 81–83
conventional break lines, 81
cutting plane line styles, 69
detail, 77
full section views, 72
generating from solids, 83–84
half, 76
hatch patterns, 69–71
offset, 73
partial, 76
removed, 74
representation and placement,
71–72
revolved, 74–75
special, 77
straight, 73
types of, 72–80
un-sectioned, 79–80
Section lines, 16
Shaft-basis fit system, 173–174
Sheet layout
bill of materials, 9
overview of, 7
title block, 8–9
zoning, 8
Sheet orientation, 6–7
Smoothness, 5
Solid models
generating auxiliary views,
generating orthographic views,
37–39
Special section views, 77
Specification documents, 153–154
Spotface, 99
Standard multiview drawing,
33–37, 39
Standard parts, 146
Standard threads, 167–168
Standard views, 30
Stitch lines, 17
Straight section views, 73
Surface quality, 142–143
Surface roughness, 183–184
Surface texture, 181
Surface texture specification
basic specification, 183
full specification, 182
general specification, 183
overview of, 181–182
Symbolic specification, 172
T
Technical drawings
2D, 1
requirements for, 2
Thread class, 168–169
Thread profiles, 167–168
 Index   •   193

Thread series, 168 checking, 150–153

Thread specification, 169–170 component detail drawings,
Title block, 8–9, 141 144–146
Tracing papers, 6 definition of, 139
Trimetric projections, 133–134 dimensions and tolerances, 142
2D technical drawings, 1 drawing views, 140–141
elements of, 140–144
U projection standard, 143–144
Units of angle, 4–5 revision block, 144
Units of length, 4 scale factor, 142
Un-sectioned section views, set of, 154–158
79–80 specification documents,
153–154
V standard parts, 146
Value specification, 172–173 surface quality, 142–143
Vellum, 5 title block, 141
Visible (object) lines, 15 zoning, 143

W Z
Working drawings Zone, 8
assembly, 146–150 Zoning, 8, 143