Chapter 5

Analysis and Design for Flexure

5.1 Introduction

This chapter considers the analysis and design of reinforced concrete cross-sections sub-
jected to bending moments. Equations are derived for rectangular and T-sections with ten-
sion and compression reinforcement.

In reinforced concrete structures a distinction is made between analysis and design:

Analysis: The material properties, cross section and reinforcement details are known
and the strength of the section must be found.
Design: The forces acting on a section is known and the following must be deter-
mined: material properties for concrete and reinforcement, section dimensions, rein-
forcement areas, etc.

Design is more difficult than analysis because there are usually more unknowns than pos-
sible equations. The designer then has to assume certain variables, for example the mate-
rial properties and section dimensions, and then proceed to find the required
reinforcement. Based on the results of the analysis it may be necessary to adjust the mate-
rial properties or section dimensions and to repeat the calculation.

5.2 Fundamental Principles

Three fundamental principles are applied throughout this chapter for the analysis and de-
sign of reinforced concrete sections in flexure:

• The relationship between flexural stresses and strains is determined from the
stress-strain relationships for concrete and steel (see Chapter 1).
• The strain distribution through the depth of a section is determined by assuming that
plane sections remain plane during bending.
• At each section the flexural stresses must be in equilibrium with the applied loads.

Further assumptions may also be required and are discussed when they are made.

5-1
5-2 Analysis and Design for Flexure

5.3 Stress-strain Relationship for Concrete in Bending

It is expected that the stress-strain behaviour of a cylinder tested in uniaxial compression

will be different from a beam tested in bending. The cylinder is subjected to an almost uni-
form compressive strain while the strain in the beam is distributed triangularly. To deter-
mine the stress-strain relationship in bending, an experimental study was carried out by
Hognestad (1955) where concrete beams were tested to failure and the stress-strain behav-
iour was compared to that of cylinders. The following conclusions were made:

• The shape of the stress distribution in the compression zone of a beam is almost identi-
cal to that of a uniaxially loaded cylinder, except that the maximum stress in the beam is
approximately 85% of the cylinder strength fc¢ (see Fig. 5-1c).
• The maximum strain in the beam at failure ecu can be significantly greater than the max-
imum strain measured in an axially loaded cylinder.

0.85 fc¢
ecu

N.A.

As es Fs

(a) Cross-section (b) Strain (c) Concrete stresses

and steel force

Cube
Compressive stress fc
fcu
Cylinder
fc¢
0.85 fc¢ » 0.67 fcu

Beam

» 0.002 » 0.0035 Strain ec

(d) Stress-strain behaviour of different concrete test specimen

Figure 5-1: Stress-strain relationship for concrete in bending.

Stress-strain Relationship for Reinforcement 5-3

The ultimate design strength in flexure, expressed in terms of the cube stress, is

085 . (08
. f c¢ = 085 . f cu ) = 068
. f cu » 067
. f cu (5.3-1)

where it was assumed that f c¢ = 08

. f cu (5.3-2)
SABS 0100 The short-term stress-strain relationship for concrete in flexure, as recom-
BS 8110
mended by SABS 0100, is shown in Fig. 5-2. The curve is parabolic up to a
strain of ec0. For strains larger than ec0 but less than ecu a constant stress is as-
sumed. Both ec0 and the initial tangent modulus Eci are specified in terms of
the characteristic concrete strength fcu. The ultimate strain of 0.0035 is used
for all grades of concrete.

0 . 67 f cu
γm
Eci f cu
E ci = 5 . 5 GPa
Parabolic γm
Stress curve
f cu
ε c0 = 2 . 4 × 10 −4
γm

fcu in MPa

ec0 ecu = 0.0035

Strain

Figure 5-2: Parabolic-rectangular stress-strain relationship for concrete in flexure rec-

ommended by BS 8110 and SABS 0100.

Substituting the material safety factor for concrete in flexure, the following
value for the ultimate design stress in flexure is often used:

. f cu 067
067 . f cu
= = 0.447 f cu » 0.45 f cu (5.3-3)
gm .
15

Note that the material safety factor gm = 1.5 applies to concrete cast in situ.

5.4 Stress-strain Relationship for Reinforcement

SABS 0100 The stress-strain relationship for the steel reinforcement, as given by
SABS 0100, is shown in Fig. 5-3.

Take note of the following:

• The behaviour in compression differs from that in tension.

5-4 Analysis and Design for Flexure

Stress fs
fy Tension
gm

f yc Es = 200 GPa
e yc = 1
Es
fy Strain es
ey =
g m Es

fy
f yc =
Compression g m + f y / 2000

fy = Characteristic yield strength (in MPa)

Figure 5-3: Short-term stress-strain relationship for reinforcement (SABS 0100).

• The behaviour is taken as linear elastic for stresses less than fy / gm and
greater than fyc. Assuming tensile stresses and strains as positive, the
stress-strain relationship can be expressed as

ìf / g if e s ³ e y
ï y m
f s = íe s E s if e yc < e s < e y (5.4-1)
ï
î f yc if e s £ e yc

where

gm = material safety factor for reinforcement = 1.15

fy
= design yield strength in tension
gm

Table 5-1: Yield stress and strain for reinforcement.

Reinforcement Symbol Tension Compression

type
Yield Yield Yield Yield
strength strain strength strain
fy ey (´10–3) fyc eyc (´10–3)
Mild steel R 250 1.087 196.1 0.980
High yield Y 450 1.957 327.3 1.636
Welded wire FS or FD 485 2.109 348.3 1.741
fabric
Distribution of Strain and Stress at a Section 5-5

fy
ey = yield strain in tension =
g m Es
fy
fyc = design yield strength in compression =
g m + f y / 2000

f yc
eyc = yield strain in compression =
Es

• Typical values for yield stresses and strains are given in Table 5-1 for rein-
forcement commonly used in South Africa.

5.5 Distribution of Strain and Stress at a Section

Once the concrete has cracked in flexure it is assumed that it no longer provides any resis-
tance in tension and that all tensile stresses are resisted by the reinforcement. This assump-
tion is generally conservative and has little influence when determining the ultimate
moment of resistance of a section. However, ignoring the tensile stresses in the uncracked
concrete will cause deflections to be overestimated.

It is also assumed that plane sections before bending remain plane after bending so that the
strain distribution at a section must be linear. Experimental studies have showed that this
assumption holds, even for members close to failure, provided the strains are measured
over a number of cracks.

The plane sections assumption does not hold for deep beams where shear deformations be-
come important. A beam with a span to depth ratio of less than 2 is defined as a deep beam
by SABS 0100.

Consider a beam in Fig. 5-4 where the bending moment is increased until the beam fails.
Four ranges can be identified:

1. For small moments the section is uncracked and the concrete and reinforcement be-
haviour is linear elastic.
2. As the bending moment is increased the concrete will crack, and all tensile stresses
are assumed to be carried by the reinforcement. To ensure linear elastic behaviour, the
section will be designed so that stresses caused by service loads fall within the elastic
ranges of both concrete and reinforcement. At the serviceability limit state the con-
crete stress block will therefore be triangular.
3. Further increases in bending moment will cause the concrete stresses to become
nonlinear and the reinforcement to yield. The behaviour is now plastic and if the mo-
ment is removed, large deformations will remain. Note that the beam does not col-
lapse when the reinforcement starts to yield. The ductile nature of the reinforcement
5-6 Analysis and Design for Flexure

1 23 4 1 2 3 4
j fc
M M N.A.

As Fs

4 3 21

(a) Cross-section (b) Strain (c) Concrete stresses and steel forces

M Concrete fails
Reinforcement yield
3 4 1 = Concrete is uncracked (linear elastic)
2 = Concrete is cracked (approximately linear elastic)
2 Concrete becomes nonlinear
3 = Concrete stresses are nonlinear (plastic)
4 = Concrete fails in compression
Concrete cracks
1

j
(d) Moment-curvature response

Figure 5-4: Distribution of strains and stresses.

allows it to deform while maintaining the tensile force, and therefore, maintaining the
moment of resistance.
4. The concrete fails in compression when the strain at the top fibres reaches ecu =
0.0035. Concrete failing by crushing is a brittle failure followed by a complete loss of
resistance in the concrete. The beam will be unable to carry this moment any further
and collapses. This is what we consider to be an ultimate limit state. The concrete
stress block has the parabolic-rectangular shape shown in Fig. 5-2.

The moment-curvature response in Fig. 5-4d displays a ductile behaviour that is highly de-
sirable. Large deformations serve as warning that the structure is approaching failure. This
behaviour is only possible when the reinforcement yields before the concrete fails (con-
crete strain reaches ecu). If the concrete had to fail before the steel yielded, the failure
would be brittle with little or no warning.

Note how the neutral-axis moves upward as the beam approaches failure. One method of
ensuring the reinforcement yields before the concrete fails is to place a limit on the neutral
axis depth at failure. This method is used by SABS 0100 and is described in the next
section.

The ductile behaviour of reinforced concrete also makes it possible for plastic hinges to
form within the structure. In a statically indeterminate structure the moments can be redis-
tributed within the structure which will lead to a more economical design.
Relationship Between Strains and Neutral Axis Depth 5-7

5.6 Relationship Between Strains and Neutral Axis Depth

The relationship between the strain in the reinforcement and the strain in the concrete at
the top of the section is determined by considering equivalent triangles in the strain distri-
bution (see Fig. 5-5)

e st e æd-x ö
= c so that e st = e cç ÷ (5.6-1)
d-x x è x ø

b ec
d¢

A¢s esc x
d N.A.

As

est

Cross-section Strain

Figure 5-5: Relationship between strain and neutral axis depth.

In a similar manner the strain in the compression reinforcement is given by

æ x - d¢ ö
e sc = e cç ÷ (5.6-2)
è x ø

A further useful relationship exists between the neutral axis depth and the strains

x ec æ ec ö
= so that x = dç
ç ÷
÷ (5.6-3)
d e st + e c è e st + e c ø

5.7 Limits on Neutral Axis Depth

Consider the case where the concrete at the top fibres fail by crushing and the tensile rein-
forcement reaches its yield strength at the same time. The concrete fibres fail when the
strain reaches ecu = 0.0035 while, for fy = 450 MPa, the reinforcement yields at a strain of ey
= 0.001957. From the above equation the neutral axis depth at failure will then be

æ e ö æ 0 .0035 ö
x = dç cu ÷=ç ÷
ç e + e ÷ 0 .001957 + 0 .0035 ÷d
ç (5.7-1)
è y cu ø è ø
= 0 .6414 d
5-8 Analysis and Design for Flexure

However, this failure remains brittle in nature and is therefore undesirable. A reinforced
concrete section should be designed so that the reinforcement yields before the concrete
crushes.
SABS 0100 To ensure the reinforcement yields before the concrete crushes, SABS 0100
places a limit on the depth of the neutral axis

x £ 0 .5 d (5.7-2)

Taking moment redistribution (see section 4.2) into account, the limit on x is

x £ ( b b - 0 . 4) d (5.7-3)

where

æ Moment at the section following redistribution ö

bb = ç ÷£1 (5.7-4)
è Moment at the section before redistribution ø

d = effective depth of the tensile reinforcement

The greater the degree of redistribution required, the smaller the depth allowed for the neu-
tral axis (see Table 5-2). This is to ensure a greater rotation capacity at failure. From
. . Note that lower limits on bb are given
Eqs. (5.7-2) and (5.7-3) it can be seen that b b £ 09
in section 4.1.

Table 5-2: Moment redistribution and limits on neutral axis depth (SABS 0100).

Redistribution bb x/d z/d K¢

(%)
£ 10 0.90 0.50 0.775 0.156
15 0.85 0.45 0.797 0.144
20 0.80 0.40 0.820 0.132
25 0.75 0.35 0.842 0.119

5.8 Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block

The design of reinforced concrete is usually governed by the ultimate limit state. An ele-
ment is designed to resist conditions at failure followed by checks at the serviceability
limit state to ensure criteria for deflection and cracking are being met.

Figure 5-6 shows a beam section failing in bending. The strain in the top fibre has reached
the ultimate strain ecu = 0.0035 with a stress distribution in concrete as shown in Fig. 5-6c.
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 5-9

The resultant of the concrete compression stresses Fcc is determined by integrating the
concrete stresses over the compression zone. The line of action is determined by equating
the moment of the stress distribution to that of the resultant force about a point. This pro-
cess can be simplified for sections of constant width by replacing the para-
bolic-rectangular stress distribution with an equivalent rectangular stress-block. Two
requirements must be met:

• The magnitude of the stress resultant Fcc must be the same for the two distributions. The
area of the equivalent rectangular stress block must therefore be equal to that of the par-
abolic-rectangular stress block.
• The line of action of Fcc must coincide for the two distributions. The centroid of the
rectangular stress block must therefore be at the same height as that of the para-
bolic-rectangular stress block.

0.67 f cu / g m
ecu = 0.0035 » 0.45 f cu 0.45 fcu
b

Fcc Fcc s/2

x s = 0.9 x
d N.A. s
z=d-
2
As Fst Fst

est

(a) Cross-section (b) Strain (c) Parabolic-rectangular (d) Equivalent rectangular

concrete stress block concrete stress block

Figure 5-6: Equivalent rectangular stress block for concrete.

It was found that these two required can be met, in an approximate but conservative
manner, if the equivalent rectangular stress block has an intensity of 0.45 fcu and a depth s
of 0.9 x. It should be clear that the simplification to the stress block will greatly simplify
design and analysis

5.9 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections

5.9.1 Design

Consider a beam in bending at the ultimate limit state as shown in Fig. 5-6. The ultimate
moment at the section, caused by the design loads acting on the structure, is known and the
area of reinforcement must be determined.
5-10 Analysis and Design for Flexure

The stresses in the concrete and reinforcement at ultimate will have internal resultants Fcc
and Fst respectively. Making use of equilibrium, the moment caused by the internal stress
resultants is set equal to ultimate moment caused by the design loads

M = Fcc z = Fst z (5.9-1)

0 .67
Fcc = Stress ´ Area = f ´bs
where 1.5 cu (5.9-2)
» 0 . 45 f cu b s

s
The internal lever-arm z is given by z = d- (5.9-3)
2

so that s = 2 ( d - z) (5.9-4)

Substituting Eq. (5.9-2) into (5.9-1) yields

M = 0 . 45 f cu b s z (5.9-5)

Substituting Eq. (5.9-4) into the above yields

M = 0 .9 f cu b ( d - z) z (5.9-6)

The only unknown in this equation is z which can be solved by finding the roots to the qua-
dratic equation. However, for design purposes it will be useful to have z in a dimensionless
2
from and the above equation is divided by d

M
z2 -d z+ =0
0 .9 b f cu
æ z ö2 z M
ç ÷ - + =0
è d ø d 0 .9 b d 2 f cu

æ z ö2 z K
The third term is simplified to ç ÷ - + =0 (5.9-7)
è d ø d 0 .9

M
where K= (5.9-8)
b d 2 f cu

The roots to Eq. (5.9-7) are

K K
1± 1- 4 ´1´ 1± 2 0 .25 -
z 0 .9 0 .9 K
= = = 0 .5 ± 0 .25 -
d 2 2 0 .9
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 5-11

Since z must be greater than 0.5 d, the correct root for the lever-arm ratio la is

z K
la = = 0 .5 + 0 .25 - (5.9-9)
d 0 .9

The required area of reinforcement As is determined by assuming the stress in the

reinforcement is equal to the yield stress fy (this assumption will be checked later). The re-
sultant force in the reinforcement is then

fy fy
Fst = f s As = As = As » 0 .87 f y As (5.9-10)
gm 1.15

Substituting the above into Eq. (5.9-1) and solving the area steel

M = Fst z = (0 .87 f y As ) z

M
As = (5.9-11)
0 .87 f y z

SABS 0100 The above equation, together with Eqs. (5.9-8) and (5.9-9), are given by
SABS 0100 for the design of singly reinforced sections.

The behaviour of Eq. (5.9-9) is illustrated graphically in Fig. 5-7. From the graph it can be
seen that the lever-arm z reduces as the moment increases. This behaviour can be ex-
plained as follows: As the moment M increases, a greater force in the concrete is required,
and therefore the depth of the stress block s increases. From Eq. (5.9-3) it can be seen that
as s increases, z decreases, and hence the observed behaviour.

0.95

0.90 Compression reinforcement

is required for values of K
greater than this. Percentages
z 25%
la = indicate limits for moment
d 0.85 redistribution
20%
15%
£10%
0.80

0.775
0 0.05 0.10 0.15
0.156
M
K=
b d 2 f cu

Figure 5-7: Lever-arm ratio as a function of applied moment M.

5-12 Analysis and Design for Flexure

SABS 0100 The following limits are placed on the lever-arm ratio:

0 . 775 d £ z £ 0. 95 d (5.9-12)

Lower limit: z ³ 0.775 d

To ensure the reinforcement yields before the concrete crushes, SABS 0100 placed a limit
on the depth of the neutral axis (see Eq. (5.7-2))

x £ 0 .5 d

or s = 0 .9 x (5.9-13)
£ 0 . 45 d

From Eq. (5.9-4) s = 2 ( d - z) £ 0 . 45 d

( d - z) £ 0 .225 d
z ³ d - 0 .225 d
z ³ 0 . 775 d (5.9-14)

For this given limit in lever-arm, the limit maximum moment can be determined by substi-
tuting the above into Eq. (5.9-5)

0 .67
M= f bs z
1.5 cu
0 .67
= f b (0.45 d)(0 . 775 d) (5.9-15)
1.5 cu
= 0 .156 b d 2 f cu

Alternatively, the limit in terms of K, Eq. (5.9-8), is

M
K= = 0 .156 (5.9-16)
b d 2 f cu

In conclusion: If for a given moment K > 0.156, then x > d/2 and the tension reinforcement
may not yield at failure, resulting in brittle failure. If the section dimensions cannot be in-
creased, compression reinforcement must provided.

Upper limit: z £ 0.95 d

From Fig. 5-7 it can be seen that lever-arm z increases as the moment decreases. From
Eq. (5.9-4) it can be seen that the depth of the stress block s will decrease as z increases.
This means that for very small moments the strength depends on the strength of a thin layer
of concrete in the very top of the beam. Bleed water migrating to the top causes this con-
Singly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 5-13

crete to have a higher water/cement ratio than the rest of the concrete in the beam. Neither
is this concrete as well compacted as the concrete lower down in the beam. A limit of 0.1d
is therefore placed on the depth the stress block s. From Eq. (5.9-4)

s = 2 ( d - z) ³ 0 .1 d
( d - z) ³ 0 .05 d
z £ d - 0 .05 d
z £ 0 .95 d (5.9-17)

Example 5.1

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex1_SA.

5.9.2 Analysis

Consider the singly reinforced concrete section shown in Fig. 5-8. The area of reinforce-
ment As is known and the moment of resistance of the section must be determined. Hori-
zontal equilibrium yields:

Fcc = Fst
0 . 45 f cu b s = 0 .87 f y As
0 .87 f y As
so that s= (5.9-18)
0 . 45 f cu b

s
and x= (5.9-19)
0 .9

b ecu = 0.0035 0.45 fcu

Fcc s/2
s = 0.9 x
d N.A. s
z=d-
2
As Fst

est
(c) Concrete stresses and
(a) Cross-section (b) Strain resultant forces

Figure 5-8: Singly reinforced concrete section.

The moment of resistance of the section is determined by taking moments about the rein-
forcement
5-14 Analysis and Design for Flexure

æ sö
M = Fst z = 0 .87 f y Asç d - ÷
è 2ø
so that (5.9-20)
æ 0 .87 f y As ö
= 0 .87 f y Asç
çd - ÷
÷
è 0 .9 f cu b ø

In this analysis it was assumed that the reinforcement yields at ultimate. A test must be car-
ried out to determine if this is the case. If the reinforcement does not yield at ultimate the
force in the reinforcement in Eqs. (5.9-18) and (5.9-20) must be replaced with

Fst = f s As = e s E s As (5.9-21)

Example 5.2

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex2_SA.

5.10 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Sections

5.10.1 Design

In section 5.9.1 it was shown that the depth of the neutral-axis increases as the applied ulti-
mate moment increases. A limit of x £ 0.5 d was imposed to ensure a ductile failure. If the
magnitude of the applied moment shows that x > 0.5 d, it may be possible to withstand this
moment by adding compression reinforcement. The role of the compression reinforce-
ment is to assist the concrete in compression, so that a smaller area of concrete in compres-
sion is required, therefore reducing the depth of the stress block s and the hence x.

Consider the doubly reinforced beam shown in Fig. 5-9. It would be economical to use the
greatest possible depth for concrete in compression and hence we select

x=d /2 (5.10-1)

so that s = 0 .9 x = 0 . 45 d (5.10-2)

æ sö æ 0 . 45 d ö
and z =ç d - ÷=ç d - ÷= 0 . 775 d (5.10-3)
è 2ø è 2 ø

From the selection of the neutral axis dept h in Eq. (5.10-1) it should be clear that the ten-
sile reinforcement will be yielding at failure. In the derivation of the subsequent equations
it will be assumed that the compression reinforcement is also yielding at failure.

The forces at a section are

Fst = 0 .87 f y As (5.10-4)

Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 5-15

0 . 67
f cu » 0 . 45 f cu
b ecu = 0.0035 1. 5
d¢
Fsc
s/2
A¢s x esc s = 0.9 x
Fcc
d N.A.
z

As Fst

est
(c) Concrete stresses and
(a) Cross-section (b) Strain resultant forces

Figure 5-9: Doubly reinforced concrete section.

0 .67 0 .67
Fcc = f cu b s = f b (0 . 45 d)
1.5 1.5 cu (5.10-5)
= 0 .201 f cu b d

Fsc = f yc A¢s (5.10-6)

Taking moments about the tension reinforcement As

M = Fcc z + Fsc ( d - d¢)

= 0 .201 b d f cu (0 . 775 d) + f yc A¢s ( d - d¢) (5.10-7)
= 0 .156 b d 2 f cu + f yc A¢s ( d - d¢)

M - 0 .156 b d 2 f cu
from which it follows that A¢s = (5.10-8)
f yc ( d - d¢)

Consider horizontal equilibrium of forces

Fst = Fcc + Fsc

(5.10-9)
0 .87 f y As = 0 .201 f cu b d + f yc A¢s

0 .201 b d f cu f yc
As = + A¢
0 .87 f y 0 .87 f y s
so that
0 .201 b d f cu 0 . 775 d f yc
= ´ + A¢
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y
0 .156 b d 2 f cu f yc
As = + A¢ (5.10-10)
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y s

Making the following substitutions K ¢ = 0 .156 (5.10-11)

5-16 Analysis and Design for Flexure

M
and K= (5.10-12)
b d 2 f cu

Equations (5.10-8) and (5.10-10) become

( K - K ¢) b d 2 f cu
A¢s = (5.10-13)
f yc ( d - d¢)

K ¢ b d 2 f cu f yc
As = + A¢ (5.10-14)
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y s

SABS 0100 Equations (5.10-13) and (5.10-14) are provided by SABS for doubly rein-
forced concrete sections. It is important to note that these equations only apply
if the compression reinforcement yield at ultimate. When this is not the case
the design equations must be adjusted as discussed in the next section.

5.10.2 Non-yielding compression reinforcement

The most economical use compression reinforcement will result if it yields at ultimate.
However, circumstances may prevent this from happening. Fortunately, non-yielding
compression reinforcement will not lead to the brittle behaviour associated with
non-yielding tensile reinforcement.

The strain in the compression reinforcement is determined by considering equivalent tri-

angles in the strain distribution (see Fig. 5-10b)

e sc e
= cu
x - d¢ x

e sc x - d¢ d¢
= = 1-
e cu x x
d¢ e
= 1- sc (5.10-15)
x e cu

By replacing the compression strain with the yield strain e yc = f yc / E s in the above

d¢ f yc
= 1- (5.10-16)
x E s e cu

A more useful relationship can be obtained by replacing x = d / 2 in the above

d¢ 1æ f yc ö
= ç
ç1 - ÷
÷ (5.10-17)
d 2è E s e cu ø
Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Sections 5-17

b ecu = 0.0035
d¢

A¢s x esc

d N.A.

As

est

(a) Cross-section (b) Strain

Figure 5-10: Strain in compression reinforcement.

The depth of the compression reinforcement relative to the depth of the tension reinforce-
ment determines whether the compression reinforcement will be yielding at ultimate.
Placing the compression reinforcement shallower than the limit set by this equation will
ensure that the reinforcement yield at ultimate and the equations in the preceding section
apply. Values from Eqs. (5.10-15) and (5.10-17) are given in Table 5-3 for typical rein-
forcement yield strengths.

Table 5-3: Conditions whereby compression reinforcement yield.

Yield strength Yield strain Compression reinforcement

in yields when
compression
Tension Compression d¢ / x £ d¢ / d £ *
(´10–6)
fy (MPa) fyc (MPa)
250 196.1 0.980 0.7199 0.3599
450 327.3 1.636 0.5325 0.2662
485 348.3 1.741 0.5024 0.2512
* Only for £ 10% moment redistribution, i.e. x = d / 2

For conditions where the compression reinforcement is not yielding at ultimate, the strain
in and stress in the compression reinforcement is respectively determined from

æ x - d¢ ö
e sc =ç ÷e £ e yc (5.10-18)
è x ø cu

f sc = E s e sc (5.10-19)

Equations (5.10-13) and (5.10-14) are then adjusted by replacing fyc by fsc from above
5-18 Analysis and Design for Flexure

( K - K ¢) b d 2 f cu
A¢s = (5.10-20)
f sc ( d - d¢)

K ¢ b d 2 f cu f sc
As = + A¢ (5.10-21)
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y s

Example 5.3

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex3_SA.

5.10.3 Analysis

When conducting an analysis to determine the moment of resistance for given reinforce-
ment areas, the depth of the neutral axis cannot be fixed beforehand as with a design. There
is therefore no guarantee that the tensile reinforcement is yielding at failure and such as-
sumptions must be checked.

Example 5.4

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex4_SA.

5.11 Design Charts

Design charts can be very useful to check a design or to obtain preliminary dimensions for
a design. However, it is of the utmost importance that the user should firstly be familiar
with the theory and assumptions used to generate the chart, and secondly, known how to
use the chart correctly.

A design chart for flexure is generated by considering the doubly reinforced concrete sec-
tion shown in Fig. 5-11. Moments of the internal forces about the neutral axis are set equal
to the externally applied load M

0 .67
M= f (0 .9 x) b (x - 0 . 45 x) + f sc A¢s ( x - d¢) + f st As ( d - x)
1.5 cu
M æ x ö2 A¢ æ x d¢ ö A æ xö
= 0 . 2211 f ç ÷ + f sc s ç - ÷+ f st s ç1- ÷ (5.11-1)
bd2
cu
èdø b dè d d ø b dè d ø

Horizontal equilibrium of the internal forces yields

0 .67
f st As = f (0 .9 x) b+ f sc A¢s
1.5 cu
Design Charts 5-19

0 . 67
f cu » 0 . 45 f cu
b ecu = 0.0035 1. 5
d¢ s/2 = 0.45 x
Fsc
A¢s x esc s = 0.9 x
Fcc (x – 0.45 x) (x – d ¢ )
d N.A.

(d – x)
As Fst

est
(c) Concrete stresses and
(a) Cross-section (b) Strain resultant forces

Figure 5-11: Doubly reinforced concrete section taking moments about neutral axis.

As x A¢
f st = 0 . 402 f cu + f sc s (5.11-2)
bd d bd

The process of generating the design chart is as follows:

d¢
1. Values are selected for fcu, fy and that apply to the particular chart.
d
A¢s
2. A value is selected for
bd
As x
3. A value is selected for and is solved from Eq. (5.11-2).
bd d
M
4. Calculate from Eq. (5.11-1).
bd2

5. Steps 3 and 4 yield one ordinate on the chart. Repeat steps 3 and 4 to
A¢
obtain a line for the selected value of s
bd
A¢s
6. Repeat steps 2-5 to obtain different lines for different
bd

M x
A typical design chart for flexure is shown in Fig. 5-12. For given values of 2
and the
bd d
As A¢
user can find values for and s , from which the required areas of reinforcement can be
bd bd
determined. The following should be noted from the chart:
5-20 Analysis and Design for Flexure

A¢s
15 bd
14 SABS 0100: 1992 0.040
b 0.3.4 0.030
13 d¢ f cu = 30 MPa =
d 0
x/
12 f y = 450 MPa 0.5
A¢s
11 d d¢ 0.020
= 01
.
d
10 As 0.015
x/d = 0.3
9 0.4
0.5 0.010
M 8
(MPa)
bd 2 7 0.005
6
0
5
4
Suitable for design
3
2
1
0
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
As
bd

Figure 5-12: Design chart for flexure.

• The relationship between moment M and area of reinforcement (As and As¢) is nonlin-
ear. For example: Doubling the moment may require more than double the amount of
reinforcement.
• The required area of reinforcement falls within a diagonal band (shaded area in
x
Fig. 5-12) where the right-hand boundary is determined by the value for . Using rein-
d
forcement to right of this area will not yield a ductile failure and is not permitted by
SABS 0100.

Example 5.5

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex5_SA.

5.12 Moment redistribution and the design equations

The design equations derived in section 5.10.1 were based on the assumption that x = d/2.
In this section the general design equations, as presented by SABS 0100, are derived in-
corporating the limits set on x to allow for moment redistribution. Selecting the maximum
value for x from Eq. (5.7-3)
Moment redistribution and the design equations 5-21

x = ( b b - 0 . 4) d (5.12-1)

The depth of the stress block and internal lever-arm is then respectively

s = 0 .9 x = 0 .9 ( b b - 0 . 4) d (5.12-2)

æ sö 0 .9
and z =ç d - ÷= d - ( b b - 0 . 4) d (5.12-3)
è 2ø 2

The moment of resistance of the concrete section (without compression reinforcement) is

given by (see Fig. 5-13)

æ 0 .67 ö
M c = Fcc z =ç
ç f cu b s ÷
÷z
è 1.5 ø (5.12-4)
0 .67 é 0 .9 ù
= f cu b[0 .9 ( b b - 0 . 4) d]ê d - ( b b - 0 . 4) d ú
1.5 ë 2 û

Mc
so that = 0 . 402 ( b b - 0 . 4) - 0 .18 ( b b - 0 . 4) 2 (5.12-5)
b d 2 f cu

0 . 67
f cu » 0 . 45 f cu
b ecu = 0.0035 1. 5
d¢
Fsc
s/2
A¢s x= esc s = 0.9 x
(bb – 0.4)d Fcc
d N.A.
z

As Fst

est
(c) Concrete stresses and
(a) Cross-section (b) Strain resultant forces

Figure 5-13: Doubly reinforced concrete section.

The above equation is set equal to K¢, so that

Mc
K¢ = 2
= 0 . 402 ( b b - 0 . 4) - 0 .18 ( b b - 0 . 4) 2 (5.12-6)
b d f cu

Rearranging the above yields Mc

M c = K ¢ b d 2 f cu (5.12-7)
5-22 Analysis and Design for Flexure

This is the maximum moment the concrete section can resist without exceeding the neu-
tral-axis limit. For moments larger than Mc a greater depth of stress block is required, and
hence a greater neutral-axis depth. However, by providing reinforcement in the compres-
sion zone, the steel can carry larger stresses than the concrete without having to increase
the depth of the concrete stress block. Therefore, the compressive stresses caused by mo-
ments in excess of Mc will be carried by the compression reinforcement

M = M c + f yc A¢s ( d - d¢) (5.12-8)

The required area of compression reinforcement is then

M -M c
A¢s = (5.12-9)
f yc ( d - d¢)

M
Recalling from Eq. (5.9-16) that K= (5.12-10)
b d 2 f cu

Substituting the above and Eq. (5.12-7) into (5.12-9) yields

( K - K ¢) b d 2 f cu
A¢s = (5.12-11)
f yc ( d - d¢)

From the above equation (and Eq. (5.12-9)) it can be seen that when K > K ¢ (or M > Mc),
compression reinforcement will be required.

The required area of tension reinforcement is determined by considering horizontal equi-

librium of forces

Mc
Fst = Fcc + Fsc = + Fsc
z
K ¢ b d 2 f cu
0 .87 f y As = + f yc A¢s
z
K ¢ b d 2 f cu f yc
As = + A¢ (5.12-12)
0 .87 f y z 0 .87 f y s

SABS 0100 Equations (5.12-11) and (5.12-12) are given by SABS 0100 for the design of
rectangular beams. In both these equations it is assumed the compression rein-
forcement yields at ultimate. If this is not the case, fyc should be replaced by fsc
where

f sc = E s e sc < f yc (5.12-13)

æ x - d¢ ö
where e sc =ç ÷e < e yc (5.12-14)
è x ø cu
Moment redistribution and the design equations 5-23

As alternative to calculating esc, Eq. (5.10-16) can be used to determine if the compression
reenforcement will be yielding:

d¢ f yc
= 1- (5.12-15)
x E s e cu

Substituting Eq. (5.12-1) into the above

d¢ æ f yc ö
=ç
ç1- ÷
÷( b - 0 . 4) (5.12-16)
d è E s e cu ø b

Results from this equation are presented in Table 5-4 for different degrees of moment re-
distribution.

Table 5-4: Conditions whereby compression reinforcement yield, allowing for redis-
tribution of moments.

Yield strength Yield strain Compression reinforcement yields

in when d¢ / d £
compression
Tension Compression bb = bb = bb = bb =
eyc (´10–3)
fy fyc 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75
(MPa) (MPa)
250 196.1 0.980 0.3599 0.3239 0.2880 0.2520
450 327.3 1.636 0.2662 0.2396 0.2130 0.1864
485 348.3 1.741 0.2512 0.2261 0.2010 0.1759

The internal lever-arm can be determined from Eq. (5.12-3), or by solving z from

æ 0 .67 ö æ 0 .67 ö
M c = Fcc z =ç
ç f cu b s ÷
÷z =ç
ç f cu b[2 ( d - z)]÷
÷z
è 1.5 ø è 1.5 ø
é K¢ ù
z = dê0 .5 + 0 .25 - ú (5.12-9)
ë 0 .9 û

The above equation can also be obtained from Eq. (5.9-9) by replacing K with K¢.

Example 5.6

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex6_SA.

5-24 Analysis and Design for Flexure

5.13 Flanged beams

When considering flanged beams, such as T- and L-beams, the depth of the neutral axis
plays an important role in analysis and design. If the neutral axis falls entirely within the
flange (see Fig. 5-14), the beam is effectively a rectangular section for which the preced-
ing equations apply if the width b is replaced by bf. This is because all concrete below the
neutral axis is considered cracked so that the shape of this area is therefore irrelevant.

bf ecu 0.45 fcu

Fcc = 0.45 fcu bf s

hf x s = 0.9 x
N.A.

d Flange z
Web
As
Fst = fs As
est

Cross-section Strain Stresses and forces

Figure 5-14: T-section with stress block in flange.

5.13.1 Analysis

Neutral axis within the flange

The following example illustrates the analysis if the neutral axis falls within the flange.

Example 5.7

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex7_SA.

Neutral axis within the web

When the neutral axis falls within the web (see Fig. 5-15) the stress block is likely to fall
partly within the web. Strictly speaking, the simplified rectangular stress block cannot be
used for the stresses in the flanges, however, the error made by doing so is usually small.
The depth of the stress block is determined as before from s = 0.9 x. Resultant forces are
determined by subdividing the stresses into areas for which the cross-section width is con-
stant.

The forces in the flange and web will then respectively be

Fcf = 0 . 45 f cu b f h f (5.13-1)
Flanged beams 5-25

bf ecu 0.45 fcu

Fcf = 0.45 fcu bf hf

hf
x s = 0.9 x Fcw = 0.45 fcu bw sw
N.A.
d sw z1
z2
As
Fst = fs As
bw est

Cross-section Strain Stresses and forces

Figure 5-15: T-section with neutral axis within the web.

Fcw = 0 . 45 f cu bw s w (5.13-2)

where sw is the portion of the web that is in compression and is the unknown to be deter-
mined. Horizontal equilibrium of the internal forces yields an equation from which sw can
be solved.

Fcf + Fcw = Fst

0 . 45 f cu b f h f + 0 . 45 f cu bw s w = 0 .87 f y As

0 .87 f y As - 0 . 45 f cu b f h f
sw = (5.13-3)
0 . 45 f cu bw

The internal lever-arm for each force will be

z1 = d - h f / 2 (5.13-4)

z2 = d - h f - sw / 2 (5.13-5)

Taking moments about the tension reinforcement

M = Fcf z1 + Fcw z 2
æ hf ö æ sw ö (5.13-6)
= 0 . 45 f cu b f h f ç
çd - ÷
÷+ 0 . 45 f cu bw s wç d - h f - ÷
è 2 ø è 2ø

Example 5.8

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex8_SA.

5-26 Analysis and Design for Flexure

5.13.2 Design

The design of a T-section where the neutral axis falls within the web is based on the same
approach as in the preceding analysis. Equation (5.13-6) yields a quadratic equation from
which sw can be solved. The required area of reinforcement is then determined from hori-
zontal equilibrium

Fst = Fcf + Fcw

0 .87 f y As = 0 . 45 f cu b f h f + 0 . 45 f cu bw s w

0 . 45 f cu b f h f + 0 . 45 f cu bw s w
As = (5.13-7)
0 .87 f y

Example 5.9

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex9_SA.

5.13.3 Simplified design

During an analysis the depth of the neutral axis cannot be controlled and is determined by
the existing reinforcement. In design, however, the designer could select a neutral axis
depth x and then find the reinforcement required to yield the selected x. This approach is
conservative but not necessarily economical.

bf ecu 0.45 fcu

Fc2 = 0.45 fcu (bf – bw) hf
hf s /2 hf /2
2 1 2 s = 0.9 x
x
N.A.
d Fc1 = 0.45 fcu bw s (d – hf /2)

As
Fst = fs As
bw est

Cross-section Strain Stresses and forces

Figure 5-16: Approximate design for T-section.

The compression zone in the concrete is divided as shown in Fig. 5-16 to yield the same
equations as given by SABS 0100. A value is selected for x, in this case

d
x= (5.13-8)
2
Elastic Analysis and Design 5-27

d
so that s = 0 .9 x = 0 .9 = 0 . 45 d (5.13-9)
2

The compression force in the web is

Fc1 = 0 . 45 f cu bw s = 0 . 45 f cu bw (0 . 45 d) (5.13-10)
= 0 .20 f cu bw d

The required area of tension reinforcement is determined by taking moments about Fc2

æ hf ö æs hf ö
M = Fst ç
ç d - ÷
÷ c1ç
- F ç - ÷ ÷
è 2 ø è2 2 ø (5.13-11)
æ hf ö æs hf ö
çd - ÷
= 0 .87 f y Asç ÷- 0 .2 f cu bw dç
ç - ÷
÷
è 2 ø è2 2 ø
M + 0 .1 f cu bw d (0 . 45 d - h f )
so that As = (5.13-12)
0 .87 f y ( d - 0 .5 h f )

Example 5.10

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex10_SA.

5.14 Elastic Analysis and Design

From Fig. 5-4 it can be seen that for small moments the section will behave elastically with
the stresses linearly distributed through the depth of the section. Section dimensions and
reinforcement ratios will typically be designed so that stresses remain within the elastic
range when service loads are applied. An elastic analysis is therefore carried out at the ser-
viceability limit state. It is important to note that the section can be either cracked or un-
cracked in the elastic analysis. Once a section has cracked its subsequent behaviour during
loading or unloading will clearly be determined by the cracked section properties. The dis-
cussion will commence with the cracked section and later return to the uncracked section.

5.14.1 Elastic analysis of a cracked section

Consider the cracked section shown in Fig. 5-17. It is important to note the following:

• During an analysis the section dimensions and reinforcement ratios will be known and
it is usually the stresses resulting from service loads that are required. Alternatively,
limits may be placed on the stresses and it is then it is required to determine maximum
service loads.
• Stresses and strains in the concrete are distributed linearly.
5-28 Analysis and Design for Flexure

b ecc fcc

Fcc
x 2
x
d N.A. 3

As Fst

est fst

(a) Cross-section (b) Strain (c) Stresses (d) Resultant forces

Figure 5-17: Elastic analysis of a cracked section.

• The concrete strain in the top of the section ecc is not equal to the ultimate strain ecu.
• Equations relating forces and stresses derived from elastic theory

s=M y / I (5.14-1)

do not apply here because the section is not of a uniform material but made up of
concrete and steel. The analysis is therefore carried by applying first principles.

The neutral axis depth is found by considering horizontal equilibrium of forces:

S F = 0: Fcc = Fst (5.14-2)

1
f b x = f st As
2 cc

For all materials within their elastic ranges it follows from the stress-strain relationship
that

f cc = e cc E c (5.14-3)

f st = e st E s (5.14-4)

Substitution of the above into Eq. (5.14-2)

1
e E b x = e st E s As (5.14-5)
2 cc c

From the plane sections assumption the following relationship exists between the strain in
the reinforcement and the strain in the concrete at the top of the section

æ x ö
e cc =ç ÷e (5.14-6)
è d - x ø st
Elastic Analysis and Design 5-29

Substitution of the above into Eq. (5.14-5) yields

1æ x ö
ç ÷e E b x = e st E s As
2è d - x ø st c
æ E s öæ As ö
x 2 = 2ç
ç ÷ ÷ç
ç ÷ ÷d ( d - x) (5.14-7)
è c øè b d ø
E

Es
Set n = modular ratio = (5.14-8)
Ec
As
r = reinforcement ratio = (5.14-9)
bd

From Eq. (5.14-7) x 2 = 2 n r d ( d - x) (5.14-10)

x +2 n r d x -2 n r d = 0
2 2

æ x ö2 æxö
ç ÷ + 2 n rç ÷- 2 n r =0 (5.14-11)
èdø èdø

x -2 n r± (2 n r) 2 + 4´ 2 n r
of which the roots are = (5.14-12)
d 2

x
Selecting the positive root = (n r) 2 + 2 n r - n r (5.14-13)
d

All terms on the right-hand side of the above equation will be known so that x can be deter-
mined. The stresses are subsequently determined by taking moments about the compres-
sion and tension forces respectively

S M Fcc = 0: M = Fst z = f st As ( d - x / 3)

M
f st = (5.14-14)
As ( d - x / 3)

1
S M Fst = 0: M = Fcc z = f x b ( d - x / 3)
2 cc
2M
f cc = (5.14-15)
x b ( d - x / 3)

If either of the stresses fst or fcc are known, the other can be determined from horizontal
equilibrium with Eq. (5.14-2).
5-30 Analysis and Design for Flexure

Example 5.11

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex11_SA.

5.14.2 Elastic design of a cracked section

If limits are specified for the material stresses, the reinforcement can be designed so that
these limits will not be exceeded for a given moment. The relationship between strains are
obtained from Fig. 5-17b

x e cc
= (5.14-16)
d e cc + e st

Applying the linear stress-strain relationship for materials

x 1 1 1
= = = (5.14-17)
d e f E f
1+ st 1+ st c 1+ st
e cc E st f cc n f cc

Taking moments about the compression force

S M Fcc = 0: M = Fst z = f st As ( d - x / 3)

M
As = (5.14-18)
f st ( d - x / 3)

5.15 Elastic Analysis Using the Transformed Section

The method presented in the preceding section is difficult to apply to composite sections
with complex section shapes. The transformed section method changes the cross section to
account for differences in material properties, in this case, modulus of elasticity. The
transformed section then consists of a one material for which standard elastic theory, such
as Eq. (5.14-1), can be used.

5.15.1 Cracked rectangular section

Consider the cracked concrete section in Fig. 5-18. The aim is to replace the steel rein-
forcement As with an equivalent area of concrete Aec so that a linear elastic analysis will
produce the same results as the method in section 5.14. In other words: The composite sec-
tion in Fig. 5-18a is to be replaced by a section consisting of concrete only, shown in
Fig. 5-18b.
Elastic Analysis Using the Transformed Section 5-31

b b ecc fcc

Fcc
2
x x
3
d N.A.

As Fst = Fec

Aec fec
est = eec
(d) Concrete stresses and
(a) Cross-section (b) Transformed section (c) Strain resultant forces

Figure 5-18: Cracked transformed rectangular section.

To satisfy compatibility, the strain in the reinforcement must be equal to the strain in the
surrounding concrete at the level of the reinforcement (measured over a substantial gauge
length)

e st = e ec (5.15-1)

To satisfy equilibrium, the force in the equivalent concrete must be equal to the force in the
reinforcement

Fst = Fec (5.15-2)

As f st = Aec f ec

Assuming all materials are within their elastic ranges the stress-strain relationships are

f st = e st E s (5.15-3, 4)
f ec = e ec E c

The above equations together with Eq. (5.15-1) are substituted into Eq. (5.15-2)

As (e st E s ) = Aec (e ec E c )
E
Aec = s As = n As (5.15-5)
Ec

The above equation implies that the equivalent area of concrete Aec to replace As is simply
As multiplied by the modular ratio n. Considering horizontal equilibrium of forces (Eq.
(5.15-2)) the following relationship exist between stresses

Aec n As
f st = f ec = f = n f ec (5.15-6)
As As ec
5-32 Analysis and Design for Flexure

This equation implies that the stress in the reinforcement is equal to the stress in the equiv-
alent concrete multiplied by the modular ratio.

The advantage of the transformed section is that the position of the neutral axis can be now
be determined as in a conventional elastic analysis. Equating the first moment of area
about the neutral axis to zero

x
( b x) = n As ( d - x )
2 (5.15-7)
A
x 2 = 2 n s d (d - x) = 2 n r d (d - x)
bd

This equation is the same as Eq. (5.14-10) for which the solution is given by Eq. (5.14-13)

x
= (n r) 2 + 2 n r - n r (5.15-8)
d

The cracked transformed second moment of area is given by

1
I cr = b x 3 + n As ( d - x ) 2 (5.15-9)
3

The stresses are determined from Eq. (5.14-1)

Mx
f cc = (5.15-10)
I cr

M (d - x)
f ec = (5.15-11)
I cr

é M (d - x)ù
f st = n f ec = nê ú (5.15-12)
ë I cr û

Example 5.12

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex12_SA.

Elastic Analysis Using the Transformed Section 5-33

5.15.2 Cracked T-section

The transformed section can also by applied to T-sections as in Fig. 5-19.

bf bf

hf hf
x
d N.A.
bw
As

n As
(a) Cross-section (b) Transformed section

bf bf

hf hf
x x

bw bw

(c) Division of compression area (d) Division of compression area

for determining x for determining Icr

Figure 5-19: Cracked transformed T-section.

The neutral axis depth x is determined by considering the first moment of area about the
neutral axis (see Fig. 5-19c)

æ hf ö
( b f - bw ) h f ççx - ÷ x
÷+ bw x = n As ( d - x) (5.15-13)
è 2 ø 2

The cracked transformed second moment of area is given by (see Fig. 5-19d)

æ hf ö2 1
÷ + bw ( x - h f ) + n As ( d - x ) (5.15-14)
1 3
I cr = b f h 3f + b f h f ç
çx - ÷ 2
12 è 2 ø 3

As before, the stresses are determined from Eqs. (5.15-10) to (5.15-12).

5-34 Analysis and Design for Flexure

5.15.3 Compression reinforcement

The compression reinforcement will usually be surrounded by uncracked concrete in com-

pression. The transformed section is shown in Fig. 5-20 where the area of concrete re-
placed by reinforcement has been taken into account. The neutral axis depth x is
determined by considering the first moment of area about the neutral axis

x
b x + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) = n As ( d - x) (5.15-15)
2

b b (n – 1) A¢s
d¢
– A¢s n A¢s

A¢s x
d
+ N.A.
=
b
As n As n As

(a) Cross-section (b) Transformed section

Figure 5-20: Cracked transformed rectangular section with compression

reinforcement.

The cracked transformed second moment of area is given by

1
I cr = b x 3 + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) + n As ( d - x ) 2
2
(5.15-16)
3

The stresses fcc and fst are determined from Eqs. (5.15-10) to (5.15-12) with the stress in the
compression reinforcement

M ( x - d¢)
f sc = n (5.15-17)
I cr

Equation (5.15-15) can be approximated b assuming the term (n – 1) » n

x2
b + n A¢s ( x - d¢) = n As ( d - x)
2 (5.15-18)
x2
b +( A¢s + As ) n x - ( A¢s d¢+ As d) n= 0
2

Dividing by b d2 yields
Elastic Analysis Using the Transformed Section 5-35

1æ x ö æ A¢s As ö æ x ö é A¢ æ d¢ ö A ù
2
ç ÷ +ç ç + ÷ ÷nç ÷-ê s ç ÷+ s ún= 0
2è d ø è b d b d ø è d ø ë b dè d ø b d û (5.15-19)
1æ x ö æ x ö æ d¢ ö
2
ç ÷ +( r¢+ r) nç ÷-ç r¢ + r÷n= 0
2è d ø èdø è d ø

where r = As / ( b d )
r¢ = A¢s / ( b d )
The solution to Eq. (5.15-19) is then as follows

x æ d¢ ö
=-( r¢+ r) n + ( r¢+ r) 2 n 2 + 2ç r¢ + r÷n (5.15-20)
d è d ø

5.15.4 Uncracked section

Figure 5-21 shows an uncracked transformed section where the area of concrete replaced
by tension reinforcement has been taken into account by multiplying the area of reinforce-
ment by (n – 1). The neutral axis depth x is determined by considering the first moment of
area about the neutral axis

x ( h - x)
b x + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) = b ( h - x) ( n -1) As ( d - x) (5.15-21)
2 2

b b (n – 1) A¢s
d¢
– A¢s n A¢s

A¢s x
d
+ N.A.
=
As n As

– As
(n – 1) As
(a) Cross-section (b) Transformed section

Figure 5-21: Uncracked transformed rectangular section with compression reinforce-

ment.

The uncracked transformed second moment of area is given by

1 1
I co = b x 3 + b ( h - x) + ( n -1) A¢s ( x - d¢) + ( n -1) As ( d - x ) 2
3 2
3 3
(5.15-22)
5-36 Analysis and Design for Flexure

The stresses fcc and fst are determined from Eqs. (5.15-10) to (5.15-12) with fsc from
Eq. (5.15-17).

Example 5.13

See Mathcad document Flx_Ex13_SA.

5.16 Demonstration Problems

Problem 5.1

Determine for each of the cross-sections shown in Fig. 5-22 the required area of reinforce-
ment for the given design moments. The characteristic material strengths are

Concrete: fcu = 30 MPa

Steel: fy = 450 MPa

Provide suitable reinforcement (bar size and quantity) and conduct an analysis to ensure
that the provided reinforcement will be adequate.

250 250
40 500

A¢s 150

670 670 450

As

As As
250

(a) (b) (c)

M = 400 kN.m M = 600 kN.m M = 200 kN.m

Figure 5-22: Cross-sections and moments for Problem 5.1.

Problem 5.2

Consider the cross-section in Fig. 5-22c and determine the required area of reinforcement
if the moment increases to 400 kN.m, by using

(a) the design equations provided by SABS 0100 (i.e. assuming x = d/2).
(b) basic principles.
Demonstration Problems 5-37

Problem 5.3

(a) The section shown in Fig. 5-23 is to be designed for a moment of 400 kN.m. Find val-
ues for b and As so that the strain in the reinforcement at ultimate is 0.004. The charac-
teristic material strengths are
Concrete: fcu = 30 MPa
Steel: fy = 450 MPa
(b) Repeat (a) of this problem for a reinforcement strain of 0.008 and compare the results
to those ontained in (a).

670

As

Figure 5-23: Cross-section for Problem 5.3.

Problem 5.4

Find the ultimate moment of resistance as well as the strain in the reinforcement at ulti-
mate for each of the sections shown in Fig. 5-24. The characteristic material strengths are

Concrete: fcu = 30 MPa

Steel: fy = 450 MPa

400 400
50
As = 5 Y32 = 4020 mm2
A¢s A¢s = 3 Y25 = 1470 mm2

600 600

As As

(a) (b)

Figure 5-24: Cross-sections and reinforcement for Problem 5.4.

5-38 Analysis and Design for Flexure

Problem 5.5

Find the ultimate moment of resistance for the section shown in Fig. 5-25. The characteris-
tic material strengths are

Concrete: fcu = 30 MPa

Steel: fy = 450 MPa

350
45

150 1 2 Y20
2 2 Y16
500
600

3 2 Y32
4 2 Y32

Figure 5-25: Cross-section and reinforcement for Problem 5.5.

Problem 5.6

The section shown in Fig. 5-26 is subjected to a moment of 150 kN.m at the serviceability
limit state. Find the steel stresses and the maximum concrete stresses by using:

(a) cracked transformed section properties,

(b) basic principles (elastic).

400
50
Reinforcement:
A¢s = 943 mm2
A¢s
As = 3220 mm2
600
Modulus of elasticity:
concrete (short-term) Ec = 26 GPa
As
reinforcement Es = 200 GPa

Figure 5-26: Cross-section and reinforcement for Problem 5.6.