FM 3e SM Chap12

S.K.P.
Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai V SEM
SKP Engineering College

Tiruvannamalai – 606611
A Course Material
on
ME6502- HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
By
Mr.A.Jayaveeran ,Mr.K.Venkatesan,Mr.G.Karthikeyan,
Mr.R.Sridharan
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Mechanical Engineering Department 1 Heat And Mass Transfer

S.K.P. Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai V SEM
Quality Certificate
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Subject Code: ME 6502
Subject Name: ME6502- HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
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BeingpreparedbyMr.A.Jayaveeran,Mr.K.Venkatesan,Mr.G.Karthikeyan,
Mr.R.Sridharan and it meets the knowledge requirement of the University curriculum.
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Name: Mr.A.Jayaveeran ,Mr. K.Venkatesan,Mr.G.Karthikeyan,Mr.R.Sridharan
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Mr. K.Venkatesan, Mr.G.Karthikeyan,Mr.R.Sridharan is of the adequate quality. He
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Signature of HD Signature of the Principal
Name: Dr.J.Kuberan Name: Dr.V.Subramania Bharathi
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ME 6502 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
Lecture : 3 hrs/Week Internal Assessment: 20 Marks

Tutorial : 1 hrs/week Final Examination: 80 Marks
Practical : - Credits: 4
Type of course: Required course
Assessment method: Tutorial classes, 2 internal tests, 1 Model examination and
Course end university examination.
PREREQUISITE: Engineering Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the mechanisms of heat transfer under steady and transient
conditions.
 To understand the concepts of heat transfer through extended surfaces.
 To learn the thermal analysis and sizing of heat exchangers and to understand
the basic concepts of mass transfer.
(Use of standard HMT data book permitted)
COURSE OUTCOMES: Upon completion of this course the student will be able to:
CO1 Understand the physical aspect and the mechanisms of conduction, convection and
radiation heat transfer and diffusion and convective mass transfer
CO2 Analyze the thermal problems involving steady state heat conduction in simple
geometries and also develop solutions for transient heat conduction
CO3 Evaluate the heat transfer coefficients for forced and free convection over external
solid boundaries and internal flows
CO4 Evaluate the radiation heat exchange between ideal black bodies and real gray
bodies and justify the use of radiation shield
CO5 Understand the concept of Mass Transfer.
CO-PO MAPPING
CO/PO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 3 2 2
CO2 3 3 2 2 1
CO3 3 2 2 1
CO4 3 2 2 1
CO5 3 2 2 1

SYLLABUS
UNIT I CONDUCTION
11+3
Basic Concepts – Mechanism of Heat Transfer – Conduction, Convection and
Radiation– Fourier Law of Conduction - General Differential equation of Heat
Conduction ––Cartesian and Cylindrical Coordinates – One Dimensional Steady State
Heat Conduction – Conduction through Plane Wall, Cylinders and Spherical systems –
Composite Systems – Conduction with Internal Heat Generation – Extended Surfaces
–Unsteady Heat Conduction – Lumped Analysis – Use of Heislers Chart.
UNIT II CONVECTION 10+3
Basic Concepts –Heat Transfer Coefficients – Boundary Layer Concept – Types of
Convection – Forced Convection – Dimensional Analysis – External Flow – Flow over
Plates, Cylinders and Spheres – Internal Flow – Laminar and Turbulent Flow –
Combined Laminar and Turbulent – Flow over Bank of tubes – Free Convection –
Dimensional Analysis – Flow over Vertical Plate, Horizontal Plate, Inclined Plate,
Cylinders and Spheres.
UNIT III PHASE CHANGE HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS
9+3
Nusselts theory of condensation-pool boiling, flow boiling, correlations in boiling and
condensation. Types of Heat Exchangers – Heat Exchanger Analysis – LMTD Method
and NTU - Effectiveness – Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient – Fouling Factors.
UNIT IV RADIATION 8+3
Basic Concepts, Laws of Radiation – Stefan Boltzmann Law, Kirchhoff‟s Law –Black
Body Radiation –Grey body radiation -Shape Factor Algebra – Electrical Analogy –
Radiation Shields –Introduction to Gas Radiation
UNIT V MASS TRANSFER 7+3
Basic Concepts – Diffusion Mass Transfer – Fick‟s Law of Diffusion – Steady state
Molecular Diffusion – Convective Mass Transfer – Momentum, Heat and Mass
Transfer Analogy – Convective Mass Transfer Correlations.
TOTAL : 60
PERIODS
CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS
 Modern heat exchanger
 Case depth in carburizing techniques problems
LEARNINGRESOURCES:

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Sachdeva R C, “Fundamentals of Engineering Heat and Mass Transfer” New
Age International, 1995.
2. Frank P. Incropera and David P. DeWitt, “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer”, John Wiley and Sons, 1998.
REFERENCES:
1. Yadav R “Heat and Mass Transfer” Central Publishing House, 1995.
2. Ozisik M.N, “Heat Transfer”, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1994.
3. Nag P.K, “ Heat Transfer”, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2002
4. Holman J.P “Heat and Mass Transfer” Tata McGraw-Hill, 2000.
5. Kothandaraman C.P “Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer” New Age
International, New Delhi, 1998
Web Resources:
 IS 2458 : 2001, Vocabulary of Gear Terms – Definitions of heat transfer
 IS 2467 : 2002 (ISO 701: 1998), International Gear Notation –Radiation
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES :
 NPTEL TUTORIALS (Internal Server)

 Theory of machines Books (PDF Formats)
 Online Objective Questions
 Videos Materials if any (You tube)

CONTENTS
S.No Particulars Page
1 Unit – I 7
2 Unit – II 91
3 Unit – III 159
4 Unit – IV 210
5 Unit – V 254

UNIT- I
CONDUCTION
PART-A
GENERAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION-CARTESIAN AND
POLAR COORDINATES:
1. Define heat transfer?[CO1-L1-May/June 2010]
Heat transfer can be defined as the transmission of energy from one region to
another due to temperature difference.
2. What are the modes of heat transfer? Give Examples.
(CO1-L1-May/June2016)
1. Conduction. Example. Your hand touching the hot dish
2. Convection. Example. Boiling water
3. Radiation. Example. A person placing their cold hands over a warm fire.
3. What is conduction? [CO1-L1-May/June 2011)
Heat conduction is a mechanism of heat transfer from a region of high
temperature to a region of low temperature with in a medium (solid, liquid or gases) or
different medium in directly physical contact. In conduction, energy exchange takes
place by the kinematic motion or direct
4. Define Convection. ? [CO1-L1-NOV/DEC2011]
Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid surface
and a fluid medium when they are at different temperatures Convection is possible only
in the presence of fluid medium.
5. Define Radiation. ? [CO1-L1-NOV/DEC]
The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is
known as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.
6. Define Thermal conductivity.
Thermal conductivity is defined as the ability of a substance to conduct heat.

7. Give some examples of heat generation application in heat conduction.

1. Fuel rod – nuclear reactor. 2. Electrical conductor. 3. Chemical and
Combustion process. 4. Drying and setting of concrete.
8. State Fourier’s law of heat conduction. [CO1-L1-May/June 2013, Nov/Dec 2013,

April/May 2011)
The rate of heat conduction is proportion to the area measured normal to the direction
of heat flow and to the temperature gradient in the direction.
Q α –A dT where A- Area in m2
dx dT/dx- Temperature gradient, k/m
Q= -kA dT k- Thermal conductivity, w/mk
dx
9. Discuss the mechanism of heat conduction in solids. (May/June 2009)
In solids, heat is conducted by following the mechanisms
 By lattice vibration
 By transport of free electrons
10. Explain the significance (physical meaning) of Fourier number.

The physical significance of characteristic body dimension to temperature wave
penetration depth in time. It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling
effect of a solid.
11. What are the factors affecting the thermal conductivity?
1. Moisture. 2. Density of material. 3. Pressure. 4. Temperature 5.
Structure of material.
12. Explain the significance of thermal diffusivity.

The physical significance of thermal diffusivity is that it tells us how fast heat is
propagated or it diffuses through a material during changes of temperature with time.
13. State Newton’s law of cooling or convection law.
Heat transfer by convection is given by Newton‟s law of cooling
Q = h A (Ts - T)
Where
A – Area exposed to heat transfer in m2 ,
h - heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K
Ts – Temperature of the surface in K,
T - Temperature of the fluid in K.
14. What are the two mechanisms of heat conduction in solids? (Nov/Dec 2011)
(a) Conduction
(b) Convection
15. Write the three dimensional heat transfer Poisson’s and Laplace equations in
Cartesian co-ordinates. (May/June-2012)
When the temperature is not varying with respect to time, then the conduction is
called as steady state conduction.
i.e., =0
Then the general equation becomes Poisson‟s equation as
+ =0
Where = + +

When the conduction is steady state condition, (i.e., ⁄ and there is no heat
generation, the general equation becomes Laplace equation as
=0
Where = + +
17. Write the general 3-D heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinates.(
Apr/May2008)
+ =
18. Write down the general equation for one dimensional steady state heat
transfer in slab or plane wall with and without heat generation.
 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
   
x2 y 2 z 2 K  t
ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION – PLANE AND

COMPOSITE SYSTEMS
19. List down the three types of boundary conditions.

1. Prescribed temperature
2. Prescribed heat flux
3. Convection boundary conditions
20. What is meant by steady state heat conduction?
If the temperature of a body does not vary with time, it is said to be in a steady
state and that type of conduction is known as steady state heat conduction.
21. What is Periodic heat flow and non-periodic heat flow?

In periodic heat flow, the temperature varies on a regular basis.
Examples:

1. Cylinder of an IC engine.
2. Surface of earth during a period of 24 hours.
Non periodic heat flow
In non-periodic heat flow, the temperature at any point within the system
Varies non linearly with time.
Examples:
1. Heating of an ingot in a furnace.
2. Cooling of bars.
22. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a slab or plane wall.
Toverall
Heat transfer Q Where  T = T 1 – T2
R
L
R - Thermal resistance of slab
KA
L = Thickness of slab, K = Thermal conductivity of slab, A = Area
23. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a hollow cylinder.
Toverall
Heat transfer Q Where,  T = T1 – T2
R
1 r 
R in  2 
2 LK  r1 
Thermal resistance of slab
L – Length of cylinder, K – Thermal conductivity, r2 – Outer radius , r1 – inner radius
24. Write down the equation for heat transfer through composite pipes or
cylinder.

r  r 
In  2  In  1  L2
Toverall
  1  2 
1 1 r r 1
Heat transfer Q  Where  T = Ta– Tb, R .
R , 2 L ha r1 K1 K2 hb r3
25. Define overall heat transfer co-efficient.

The overall heat transfer is defined as amount of transmitted per unit area per
unit time per degree temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side of the
metal. it is denoted by 'U'. Heat transfer, Q = UA T.
26. A 3 mm wire of thermal conductivity 19 W/mK at a steady heat generation of

500 MW/m³. Determine the centre temperature if the outside temperature is
maintained at 25 . h=4500W/m²K (May/June 2012)
Given:
Radius of wire, R = 3mm = 3× 10-3 m
Thermal conductivity, k = 19 W/mK
Heat generation = 500 MW/m3
Outside temperature = 25 =298 K
To Find
Centre temperature
Solution
= +
= 25 +
= 191.66

Tr=0 = Tw + (0.0032- 0) =250.87
CONDUCTION WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION

27. What is heat generation in solids? Give examples. (April/May 2011)
In many practical cases, there is a heat generation within the system.
Examples:
(a) Electric coils

(b) Resistance heater
(c) Nuclear reactor.
In electric coil and resistance Heater, heat is generated due to electric

current flowing in the wire.
28. What is sensitivity of a thermocouple? (Nov/Dec 2007)
The time required by a thermocouple to reach 63.2% of the value of initial

temperature difference is called its sensitivity.
29. What are the factors affect thermal conductivity?

1. Material structure. 2. Moisture content. 3. Density of material. 4. Pressure and
temperature.
30. What is meant by Newtonian heating or cooling process?
The process in which the internal resistance is assumed as negligible in
comparison with its surface resistance is known as Newtonian heating or cooling
process.
31. Will the thermal contact resistance be greater for smooth or rough plain
surfaces? Why?(Nov/Dec-2015)
Rough surfaces have higher thermal contact resistance. Air is trapped

between rough surface and offer more resistance.

32. A temperature difference of 500 is applied across a fire-clay brick, 10cm

thick having a thermal conductivity of 1 W/mK. Find the heat transfer rate per unit
area. (Apr/May2008)
As per Fourier‟s law of heat conduction
= 5000 W/m
EXTENDED SURFACES
33. What is the purpose of attaching fins to a surface? What are the different
types of fin profiles? (Nov/Dec 2011)
The main purpose of attaching fins is to increase the heat transfer rate.
The fin profiles are
 Concave profile
 Convex profile
 Parabolic profile
34. State the applications of fins.
The main applications of fins are
1. Cooling of electronic components

2. Cooling of motor cycle engines.
3. Cooling of transformers
4. Cooling of small capacity compressors.
35. Define fins (or) extended surfaces. (May/June 2015)

It is possible to increase the heat transfer rate by increasing the surface of heat
transfer. The surfaces used for increasing heat transfer are called extended surfaces or
sometimes known as fins.
36. Define fin efficiency and fin effectiveness. (May/June 2013, Nov/Dec 2010,
2015)
= Efficiency of fin =
Efficiency of fin is defined as ratio of actual heat transfer from fin to the max
possible Heat transfer from fin.
ɛ = Effectiveness of fin (or) Area weighted fin efficiency
Effectiveness of fin is defined as the ratio of heat transfer with fin to the heat
transfer without fin on the same cross sectional area.
37. What is the main advantage of parabolic fins? (Nov/Dec 2007)
A fin of parabolic profile is very effective in the sense that it dissipates the
maximum amount of heat at minimum material cost.
UNSTEADY HEAT CONDUCTION

38. What is critical radius of insulation (or) critical thickness? [Nov/Dec-2014]
(May/June 2016)
Critical radius = rc , Critical thickness tc= rc – r1
Addition of insulating material on a surface does not reduce the amount of heat
transfer rate always. In fact under certain circumstances it actually increases the heat
loss up to certain thickness of insulation. The radius of insulation for which the heat
transfer is maximum is called critical radius of insulation, and the corresponding
thickness is called critical thickness.
39. What is meant by Transient heat conduction or unsteady state conduction?

If the temperature of a body varies with time, it is said to be in a transient state

and that type of conduction is known as transient heat conduction or unsteady state
conduction.
LUMPED ANALYSIS
40. What is lumped system analysis? When is it used? (May/June 2013, April/May
2011, Nov/Dec 2010,May/June 2016)
When Bi ≤ 0.1, we use lumped capacity analysis. That is, the internal resistance is
negligible when compared to surface resistance. Lumped capacity type of analysis
assumes a uniform temperature distribution throughout the solid body since internal
conduction resistance is very less when compared with surface convection resistance.
Lumped capacity analysis yield good results for many practical cases
41. In what medium, the lumped system analysis is more likely to be applicable?
Aluminium or wood? Why? (Nov/Dec 2011)
Lumped system analysis is more likely applicable to Aluminium because for

Aluminium the internal resistance is negligible as compared with wood.
42. Biot number is the ratio between .......... and.......... (Apr/May 2008).
Biot number is the ratio between internal (conduction) resistance and surface
(convection) resistance
43. Mention the importance of Biot number. (Nov/Dec 2007)
Biot number is a non-dimensional number used to test the validity of lumped heat
capacity approach.
44. What is meant by Lumped heat analysis?(May/June 2016)

In a Newtonian heating or cooling process the temperature throughout the solid
is considered to be uniform at a given time. Such an analysis is called Lumped heat
capacity analysis.
SEMI INFINITE AND INFINITE SOLIDS:

45. What is meant by Semi-infinite solids?

In a semi-infinite solid, at any instant of time, there is always a point where the
effect of heating or cooling at one of its boundaries is not felt at all. At this point the
temperature remains unchanged. In semi-infinite solids, the biot number value is ∞.
46. What is meant by infinite solid?
A solid which extends itself infinitely in all directions of space is known as infinite
solid. In infinite solids, the biot number value is in between 0.1 and100.
USE OF HEISLER’S CHARTS

47. What is the significance of Heisler charts transient heat
conduction?(May/June 2016)
 In Heisler chart the solution for temperature distribution and heat flow in plane
wall, long cylinder and sphere with finite internal and surface resistance are
presented. Heisler are nothing but a analytical solution in the form of graphs.
 Heisler‟s charts are used to solve problems – Transient heat conduction in solids
with finite conduction and convective resistances. i.e 0 < Bi < 100.
48. What is super insulation and give its application.
Super insulation is a process which is used to keep the cryogenic liquids at very
low temperature. The super insulation consists of multiple layers of highly reflective
material separated by insulating spacers. The entire system is evacuated to minimize
air conduction.

Part –B
GENERAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION– CARTESIAN AND

POLAR COORDINATES
1. Obtain an expression for the general heat conduction equation in Cartesian
coordinates. [Nov/Dec 2006] (Nov/Dec-2015).
Consider a small rectangular element of sides dx, dy and dz as shown in fig(a)

The energy balance of this rectangular element obtained from first law of
thermodynamics
{Net heat conducted into element from all + {heat generated = {heat stored in the
coordinates direction} within the element} the element} –(1)
Net heat conducted into the element from all the coordinate directions.

Let Qx be the heat flux in a direction of face ABCD and Q x+dx be the heat flux in the
direction of EFGH
The rate of heat flow in to the element in X direction through the face ABCD is
QX=QXdydz=-kx ( t/ x) dy dx
Where, k-thermal conductivity,(w/ k)
T/x –temperature gradient
The rate of heat flow out of the element in x-direction through the face EFGH is ,
QX+dx =QX+ ( (QX)) dx ------(2)
=-Kx dy.dz + [-KX dy.dz].dx
=-Kx dy.dz – [ Kx ]dx.dy.dz------(3)
Sub eqn in 2-3,
Qx-Qx+dx =-Kx dy .dz –[-Kx dy.dz – [Kx ]dx.dy.dz ]
=- Kx dy.dz+ Kx dy.dz+ [Kx ]dx.dy
= [Kx ]dx.dy.dz------(4)
Similarly,
QY-QY+dy= [Ky ]dx.dy.dz------(5)
QZ-QZ+dz= [Kz ] dx.dy.dz-------(6)
Adding 4,5,and 6
Net heat conducted = [Kx ]dx.dy.dz + [Ky ]dx.dy.dz + [Kz ] dx.dy.dz
= [Kx ]+ [Ky ]+ [Kz ] dx.dy.dz
Net heat conducted into element from all the coordinate directions.
=[ [Kx [Ky ]+ [Kz ]]dx.dy.dz-------(7)

Heat stored in the element.

We know that ,
{Heat stored in the element }= {mass of the element} x{specific heat of element}x {rise in
temperature of element}
= mxcpx
=ϱ dx.dy.dz X cpX [mass =density*volume]
Heat stored in the element =ϱ cp ----- (8)
Heat stored within the element

Heat generated within in the element is given by,
Q=q dx.dy.dz------- (9)
Sub eqn 7,8,and9 in 1
Eqn (1) = [Kx ]dx.dy.dz + [Ky ]dx.dy.dz + [Kz ] dx.dy.dz+ q
dx.dy.dz =ϱcp
= [Kx [Ky ]+ [Kz ]+q =ϱcp
Considering the material is isotropic .so,Kx=Kz=Ky=k =constant
=[ 2T/ x2+ 2T/ y2+ 2T/ z2]K+q = ϱcp 2

T/ x2+ 2T/ y2+ 2T/ z2+q/K = ϱcp
2
T/ x2+ 2T/ y2+ 2T/ z2+q/K=1/α. --------- (10)
It is a general three dimensional heat conduction eqn in Cartesian coordinates.

Where, =thermal diffusivity =K/pcp m3/s
Thermal diffusivity is nothing but how fast heat is diffused through a material during of
temperature with time.
Note:
Case 1: no heat sources.

In the absences of internal heat generation ,eqn (10)reduces to

2
T/ x2+ 2T/ y2+ 2T/ z2=1/α. -------- (11)
This equation is known as diffusion eqn (or)Fourier eqn

Case2: steady state conditions
In steady state condition, the temperature does not change with time .so =0.
The eqn conduction eqn (10) reduces to

2
T/ x2+ 2T/ y2+ 2T/ z2+q/K =0----------- (12)
This known as poisons eqn In absence of internal heat generation, eqn (12)
2
becomes T/ x2+ 2T/ y2+ 2T/ z2=0 or 2
T=0
This eqn is known as Laplace eqn
Case 3: one dimensional steady state heat condition
If the temperature varies only in x-direction, the eqn (10)
2
Reduces to T/ x2+ q/K=0 --------- (14)
In absence of internal heat generation, eqn(14)
2
Becomes T/ x2=0 ------ (15)
Case4: Two dimensional steady state heat condition
If the temperature varies only in the x and y directions, the eqn (10)
2
Becomes T/ x2+ 2T/ y2+q/K=0 --------- (16)
In the absence of internal heat generation, eqn(16)
2
Reduces to T/ x2+ 2T/ y2=0----- (17)
Case5: unsteady state, one dimensional, without internal heat generation
In unsteady state, the temperature changes with time,i.e 0. So, the
general conduction eqn (10) reduces to 2
T/ x2=1/α. ----- (18)

2. Derive the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinate system

(May/June 2014)
The general heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates derived in the

previous section in used for solid with rectangular boundaries like square, cube, slab
etc. But the Cartesian coordinate system is not applicable for the solid like cylinder,
cone, spheres etc. for cylindrical solids, a cylindrical coordinate system is used.
Consider a small cylindrical element of side dr, d  and dz as shown in fig
The volume of the element dv  rd dr dz
Let us assume that thermal conductivity k, specific heat Cp and density ρ are constant.

The energy balance of this cylinder element is obtained from first law of thermo
dynamics.
 Net heat conducted into  Heat generated 

    Heat stored 
element the coordinate    within    1
    in the element 
 directions   the element 
Net heat conducted into element from the all coordinate directions
Heat entering in the element through ( r, ) plane in the time d
T
Qz  k (r d dr) d
z
Heat leaving in the element through ( r, ) plane in the time d

Q z  dz  Q z   Q z  dz
z
Net heat conducted into the element through (r, ) plane in time d
 Qz  Qz  dz

  Qz  dz
z
   T  
  k  rd dr    d  dz
z   z  
  2T 
 k  2   dr rd dz  d
 z 
Heat entering in the element through ( ,z ) plane in the time d
T
Qr  k (r d dz) d
r
Heat leaving in the element through ( r, ) plane in the time d


Qr  dr  Qr   Qr  dr
r
Net heat conducted into the element through ( ,z) plane in time d
 Qr  Qr  dr

  Qr  dr
r
   T  
  k  rd dz    d  dr
r   r  
  T 
 k  dr rd dz  r  d
r  r 
  2T 1 T 
 k  dr rd dz   2   d
 r r r 
{ }
Heat entering in the element through ( z,r ) plane in the time d
T
Q  k (dr dz) d
r
Heat leaving in the element through ( z,r ) plane in the time d

Q  d  Q 
r
 Q  rd
Net heat conducted into the element through ( ,z) plane in time d

 Q  Q  d


r 
 Q  rd
   T  
   k  dr dz    d  rd
r    r   
  1 T 
 k  dr d dz    d
  r  
  2T 1 
 k  dr rd dz   2 2  d
  r 
Net heat conducted into element from the all coordinate directions
  2T    2T 1 T    2T 1 
 k  2   dr rd dz  d + k  dr rd dz   2   d + k  dr rd dz   2 2  d
 z   r r r    r 
  2T 1 T 1  2T  2T 
 k  dr rd dz  d  2      2
 r r r r 2  2 z 2 
Heat generated within the element
Total heat generated within the element is given by


Q = q(dr rd dz)d   3
Heat stored in the element
The increase in internal energy of the element is equal to the net heat stored in
the element.
Increase in internal energy
= Net heat stored in the element
T
=   dr rd dz  C p  d   4 


Substitution equation (2,3,4) in (1)
  2T 1 T 1  2T  2T  
k  dr rd dz  d  2    + q(dr rd dz)d =
 r r r r 2  2 z 2 
T
  dr rd dz  C p  d

Divided by  dr rd dz  d
  2T 1 T 1  2T  2T   T
k 2   2 2  2  + q = C p
 r r r r  z  

  2T 1 T 1  2T  2T  q  C p T
 r 2  r r  r 2  2  z 2  + k = k 
 
It is a general three dimensional heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinates


  2T 1 T 1  2T  2T  q 1 T
 r 2  r r  r 2  2  z 2  + k =  
 
If the flow is steady, one dimensional and no heat generation equation become:
  2T 1 T 
 r 2  r r  =0
 
ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION – PLANE AND

COMPOSITE SYSTEMS
3. A wall is constructed of several layers. The first layer consists of masonry

brick 20 cm. thick of thermal conductivity 0.66 W/mK, the second layer consists
of 3 cm thick mortar of thermal conductivity 0.6 W/mK, the third layer consists of
8 cm thick lime stone of thermal conductivity 0.58 W/mK and the outer layer
consists of 1.2 cm thick plaster of thermal conductivity 0.6 W/mK. The heat
transfer coefficient on the interior and exterior of the wall are 5.6 W/m 2K and 11

W/m2K respectively. Interior room temperature is 22C and outside air

temperature is -5C.
Calculate
a) Overall heat transfer coefficient

b) Overall thermal resistance
c) The rate of heat transfer
d) The temperature at the junction between the mortar and the limestone.
Given Data
Thickness of masonry L1 = 20cm = 0.20 m
Thermal conductivity K1 = 0.66 W/mK
Thickness of mortar L2 = 3cm = 0.03 m
Thermal conductivity of mortar K2 = 0.6 W/mK
Thickness of limestone L3 = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Thickness of Plaster L4 = 1.2 cm = 0.012 m
Interior heat transfer coefficient ha = 5.6 W/m2K
Exterior heat transfer co-efficient hb = 11 W/m2K
Interior room temperature Ta = 22C + 273 = 295 K
Outside air temperature Tb = -5C + 273 = 268 K.
Solution:
Heat flow through composite wall is given by
Toverall
Q [From equation (13)] (or) [HMT Data book page No. 34]
R

Where,  T = Ta– Tb
1 L L L L 1
R  1  2  3  4 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A K 4 A hb A
Ta  Tb
Q
1 L L L L 1
 1  2  3  4 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A K 4 A hb A
295  268
Q/ A 
1 0.20 0.03 0.08 0.012 1
    
5.6 0.66 0.6 0.58 0.6 11
Heat transfer per unit area Q/A = 34.56 W/m2
We know, Heat transfer Q = UA (Ta – Tb) [From equation (14)]
Where U – overall heat transfer co-efficient
Q
U 
A  (Ta  Tb )
34.56
U 
295  268
Overall heat transfer co - efficient U = 1.28 W/m2 K
We know
Overall Thermal resistance (R)
1 L L L L 1
R  1  2  3  4 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K3 A K 4 A hb A
For unit Area

1 L1 L2 L3 L4 1
R     
ha K1 K 2 K 3 K 4 hb
1 0.20 0.03 0.08 0.012 1
=     
56 0.66 0.6 0.58 0.6 11
R 0.78 K / W
Interface temperature between mortar and the limestone T 3
Interface temperatures relation
Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4 T4  T5 T5  Tb
Q     
Ra R1 R2 R3 R4 Rb
Ta  T1
Q
Ra
295-T1  1 
Q=  Ra  
1/ ha A  ha A 
295  T1
Q/ A
1/ ha
295  T1
 34.56 
1/ 5.6
 T1  288.8 K
T1  T2
Q
R1
288.8  T2  L1 
Q  R1  
L1  k1 A 
K1 A

288.8  T2
Q/ A
L1
K1
288.8  T2
 34.56 
0.20
0.66
 T2  278.3 K
T2  T3
Q =
R2
278.3  T3  L2 
Q  R2  
L2  K2 A 
K2 A
278.3  T3
Q/ A
L2
K2
278.3  T3
 34.56 
0.03
0.6
 T3  276.5 K
Temperature between Mortar and limestone (T 3 is 276.5 K)
4. A furnace wall made up of 7.5 cm of fire plate and 0.65 cm of mild steel plate.
Inside surface exposed to hot gas at 650C and outside air temperature 27C. The
convective heat transfer co-efficient for inner side is 60 W/m2K.The convective
heat transfer co-efficient for outer side is 8W/m2K. Calculate the heat lost per
square meter area of the furnace wall and also find outside surface temperature.
Given Data
Thickness of fire plate L1 = 7.5 cm = 0.075 m
Thickness of mild steel L2 = 0.65 cm = 0.0065 m
Inside hot gas temperature Ta = 650C + 273 = 923 K

Outside air temperature Tb = 27C + 273 = 300K
Convective heat transfer co-efficient for
Inner side ha = 60W/m2K
Convective heat transfer co-efficient for
Outer side hb = 8 W/m2K.
Solution:
(i) Heat lost per square meter area (Q/A)

Thermal conductivity for fire plate
K1 = 1035  10-3 W/mK [From HMT data book page No.11]
Thermal conductivity for mild steel plate
K2 = 53.6W/mK [From HMT data book page No.1]
Toverall
Heat flow Q  ,
R
Where  T = Ta– Tb

1 L L L 1
R  1  2  3 
ha A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A hb A
Ta  Tb [The term L3 is not given so neglect that term]
 Q=
1 L L L 1
 1  2  3 
Ta  Tb
 Q=
1 L L L 1
 1  2  3 
The term L 3 is not given so neglect that term]
Ta  Tb
Q=
1 L L 1
 1  2 
ha A K1 A K 2 A hb A
923  300
Q/ A 
1 0.075 0.0065 1
  
60 1.035 53.6 8
Q / A  2907.79 W / m 2
(ii) Outside surface temperature T 3
We know that, Interface temperatures relation
Ta  Tb Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  Tb
Q     ......( A)
R Ra R1 R2 Rb
T3  Tb
( A)  Q 
Rb
where
1
Rb 
hb A
T3  Tb
Q
1
hb A

T3  Tb
 Q/A =
1
hb
T3  300
 2907.79 
1
8
T3  663.473 K
5. A steel tube (K = 43.26 W/mK) of 5.08 cm inner diameter and 7.62 cm outer
diameter is covered with 2.5 cm layer of insulation (K = 0.208 W/mK) the inside
surface of the tube receivers heat from a hot gas at the temperature of 316C with
heat transfer co-efficient of 28 W/m2K. While the outer surface exposed to the
ambient air at 30C with heat transfer co-efficient of 17 W/m2K. Calculate heat loss
for 3 m length of the tube. [May-June-2009]
Given
Steel tube thermal conductivity K1 = 43.26 W/mK

Inner diameter of steel d1 = 5.08 cm = 0.0508 m
Inner radius r1 = 0.0254 m
Outer diameter of steel d2 = 7.62 cm = 0.0762 m
Outer radius r2 = 0.0381 m
Radius r3 = r2 + thickness of insulation
Radius r3 = 0.0381 + 0.025 m r3 = 0.0631 m
Thermal conductivity of insulation K2 = 0.208 W/mK
Hot gas temperature Ta = 316C + 273 = 589 K
Ambient air temperature Tb = 30C + 273 = 303 K
Heat transfer co-efficient at inner side ha = 28 W/m2K
Heat transfer co-efficient at outer side hb = 17 W/m2K
Length L = 3 m
Solution:

Toverall
Heat flow Q  [From equation No.(19) or HMT data book Page No.35]
R
Where  T = Ta– Tb
1  1 1  r  1  r3  1  r4  1 
R   In  2   In    In    
2 L  h a r1 K1  r1  K 2  r2  K 3  r3  hb r4 
Ta  Tb
Q =
1  1 1  r  1  r3  1  r4  1 
  In  2   In    In    
2 L  h a r1 K1  r1  K 2  r2  K 3  r3  hb r4 
[The terms K3 and r4 are not given, so neglect that terms]
Ta  Tb
Q =
1  1 1 r  1 r  1 
  In  2   In  3   
2 L  h a r1 K1  r1  K 2  r2  hb r3 
589 - 303
Q =
1  1 1  0.0381  1  0.0631 1 
 In  + In 
2  3  28  0.0254 43.26  0.0254  0.208  0.0381 17  0.0631 

Q  1129.42 W
Heat loss Q = 1129.42 W.
6. A furnace wall is made up of three layer thickness 25cm, 10cm, and 15cm with
thermal conductivities of 1.65w/mk and 9.2 w/mk respectively. the inside is
exposed to the gasses at 1250 0c with is convection coefficient of 25 w/m20c and
inside surface of 11000c ,the outside surface is exposed to the air at 25 0c with
convection coefficient of 12 w/m2K .determine (1)the unknown thermal
conductivity (2) THE overall heat transfer coefficient (3) ALL surface temperature
[May/June-12]

Given data:
Thickness L1=25*10-2m
Thermal conductivity, K1=1.65 w/mk
L2=10*10-2m
K2=?
L3=15*10-2m
K3=9.2 w/mk
Ta=12500C =1523 K, T1=11000C =1373 k ; Tb=250c =298K
ha= 25 w/m20c ; hb=12 w/m2k
To find:
(a) Unknown thermal conductivity ,K2

(b) Overall heat transfer coefficient ,U
(c) All the surface temperature (T2,T3,T4)
Solution:
Q  25 1 (1250  1100)  3750W

Ta  Tb
Q
1  1 l1 l2 l3 1 
   
A  ha k1 k2 k3 hb 
Q  conducted  Qconvected
1250  25
3750 
1  1 25 10 2
10 102 15 102 1 
    
1  25 1.65 k2 9.2 2
0.2912  10 102
 0.3266
k2
k2  2.82W / mK

Q  UA(Ta  Tb)
3750  UA(Ta  Tb)
3750  U 1(Ta  Tb)
U  3.061w / mK
T 2 T3
Q
L1
k2 A
531.81  T 3
3750 
10  102
2.82  1
T 3  398.83 C
T1  T2
Q
L1
kA
1100  T2
3750 
25  102
1.65  1
T2  531.71 C
T2  804.81K
T3  T4
Q
L1
k2A
398.83  T4
3750 
15 102
9.2 1
T4  337.68 C
7. A composite wall consists of 2.5 cm thick copper plate, a 3.2 cm layer of

asbestos insulation and 5cm layer fibber plate .thermal conductivities off the
material are respectively 355, 0.110 and 0.0489 w/mk. The temperature difference

across the composite wall is 560 0c the side and 0c on the other side. find the heat
flow through the wall per unit area and the interface temp .between asbestos and
fibber plate.[Nov/Dec-12]
Given data:
L1=2.5x10-2m K1=355 w/mk
L2=3.2 x10-2m K2=0.11 w/mk
L3=5x10-2m K3= 0.0489 w/mk
Temperature,T1= 5600C =833k; T4= 00C =273 K
To find:
(a) heat flow per unit area ,Q/A

(b) interface temperature between asbestos and fibre plate ,T 3
Solution:
Heat transfer,
T1  T4
Q
1  1 l1 l2 l3 1 
   
A  ha k1 k2 k3 hb 
ha and hb not given .so neglected it .

Q 833  273

A  2.5 10 2
3.2 102 5 102 
 355  
 0.11 0.0489 
 426.35W / m2

Q T1  T2

A L1
k1
520  T2
426.35 
2.5 102
355
 559.95 C
Q T2  T3

A L2
k2
559.95  T3
426.35 
3.2 102
0.11
T3  435.9 C
Result:
Q
(a) = 426.35w/m2
A
(b) T3 = 435.9 0C
8. Two slabs each of 120mm thick have thermal conductivities of 14 w/m and 210
w/m .These are placed in contact but due to roughness only 30 of area placed in
contact and gap in the remaining area is 0.025mm thick and is filled with air .If
the temperature of the face of the hot surface is at 220 and the outside surface of
the other slab is at 30 ,calculate the heat flow through the composite system
.Assume that conductivity of the air is 0.032 and the half of the contact (of the
contact area )is due to either metal [Nov/Dec 10]
Given data:
La =120mm =0.12 m, LA1=0.025 mm =0.000025m,
Lc=0.025 mm =0.000025 m=B1

KA=KA1=14.3 w/m0C; KB=KB1=210 /m0C
Kc=0.032 w/m0C T1=2200C ; T2=300C
To find
Heat flow through the composite system,Q
Solution
LA 0.12
RTh  A    0.00828 C
k A AA 14.5 1 W
LB 0.12
   0.0057 C
k B AB 210 1 W
1 1 1 1
  
Req RA1 RC RB1
14.5  0.15 0.0032  0.7 210  0.15
  
0.000025 0.000025 0.000025
7 C
Req  7.42 10
W
Rth  Total  Rth  A  Req  Rth  B
 0.00828  0.00057  7.42 107
 0.00885 C
W
T
Q
Rth  Total
220  30
  2149W
0.00855
Q  21.49KW

9.conside a 1.2m high and 2m wide double pane window consisting of two 3mm
thick layers glass(k=0.78w/mk) separated by a 12mm wide stagnant air space
(k=0.026 w/mk). Determine the steady rate of heat transfer through this double
pane window and the temperature of its inner surface when the room is
maintained at 240C while the temperature of the outdoor is -50C. Take the
convection heat transfer coefficient on the inner and outer surfaces of the
window to be 10w/m2k and 25w/m2k respectively.(Nov/Dec 2015)
Given:
H=1.2m, w=2m and tL=3mm
wa=12mm
Thick layers glass (k=0.78w/mk)
Air space (k=0.026 w/mk)
Ta=240C and Tb=-50C
ha =10w/m2k and hb =25w/m2k
Solution:
T
Q
R
24   5

Rcon1  R1 2  R23  R3 4  Rconv 2
1
Rconv1   0.0417 C
haA W

L1
R1 2   0.0016 C
k1 A W
L2
R23   0.1923 C
k2 A W
L3
R3 4   0.0016 C
k3 A W
1
Rconv 2   0.0167 C
hb A W
Q  114W
24  T1
Q
Rconv1
T1  19.2 C
10. A flat furnace wall is constructed of 114 mm layer of sil-o-gel brick with a
thermal conductivity of 0.l38 .W/moC backed by a 229 mm layer of common brick
of conductivity 1.38 W/moC . The temperature of inner face of the wall is 760°C
and that of the outer face is 76.6°c.(a) What is the heat loss through composite
wall ? (b) What is the temperature of interface between refractory brick and
common brick? (May/June2016)
Given data:
L1=114 mm=0.114m K1=0.138 w/mk
L2=229mm=0.229mK2=1.38 w/mk
Temperature,T1= 7600c =1033k; T3= 76.80c =349.8 K
To find:
(a) heat flow per unit area ,Q/A

(b) interface temperature between sil-o-gel and common brick ,T
Solution:

Heat transfer, Q 
T1  T3 
1  1 l1 l2 1 
  
A  ha k1 k2 hb 
ha and hb not given .so neglected it .

Q

1033  349.8
A  0.114 0.229 
 0.138  1.38 
 688.91W 2
m
Q T1  T2

A L1
k1
1033  T2
688.91 
 0.114 
 0.138 
T2  190.9 C
T2  463.9 K
Result:
(a) Q/A = 688.91 w/m2 (b) T2 = 463.9 K
11. A cold storage room has walls made of 23cm of bricks on the outsie,8cm of
plastic foam and finally 1.5cm of wood on the inside .the outside and inside air
temperature are22 and-2 respectively. the inside and outside heat transfer
coefficient are respectively 29 and 12 w/m2k .the thermal conductivities of brick
,foam and wood are 0.98,0.02 and0.12 w/mk respectively .if the total wall area is
90m/t determine the rate of heat removal by refrigerator and the temperature of
the inside surface of the brick [April/May-11]
Given data:
L`1=23*10-2m Ta= 220c =29
L2=8*10-2m Tb=-20c =271 K

L3=1.5*10-3m
Heat transfer coefficient, ha= 29 w/m2k ,hb12 wm2k
Thermal conductivity, K1=0.98 w/mK; K2= 0.02 w/mK; K3= 0.12 w/mK
Area, A = 90m 2
To find:
(a) Q ,(b) T1
Solution:
T1  T4
(a) Heat transfer , Q 
1  1 l1 l2 l3 1 
   
A  ha k1 k2 k3 hb 
295  271
Q
1  23 10 2
1.5  102 8  102 1 
  
90  0.98 0.12 0.02 12 
Q  482.41W
Q T1  T2
(b) 
A L1
k1
295  T1
482.41 
23 102
0.98  90
T1  293.74K
Result:
Heat transfer, Q =482.71 W

Interface temperature, T1= 293.74 K
12. A steel pipe line(K=50w/m k) of I.D 100mm and O.D 110mm is to be covered
with two layers of insulation each having a thickness 50mm .the thermal

conductivity of the first insulation material is 0.06 w/m k and that of the second is
0.12w/m k .calculate the loss of heat per meter length of pipe and the interface
temperature between the two layers of insulation when the temperature of the
inside tube surfaces is 2500c and that of the outside surface of the insulation is
500c.
Solution:
The insulated pipe
T1 =T2=2500C; T3=?
r1=50mm
r2=55mm; K1=50w/m k,
r3=105mm; K2=0.06w/m k,
r4=115mm; K30.12w/m k,
Loss of heat per unit length, (insulation, n=3)
Q
 2
T1  T4 
L r r r
ln 2 ln 3 ln 4
r1 r2 r3
 
k1 k2 k3
Q
 6.28
 250  50 
L 55 105 155
ln ln ln
50  55  105
50 0.06 0.12
Q
 89.6W
L m
The interface temperature, T3 is obtained from the equation

 2
T3  T4 
r4
ln
r3
k3
r4
ln
Q r3
T3  
L 2K 3  T4
155
ln
T3  89.6  55
 0.12  6.28   50
T3  96.3 C
13. a) An exterior wall of a house is covered by 10cm common bricks (K=0.7w/m

k) followed by a4cm layer of gypsum plaster (K=0.48w/m k) .what thickness of
loosely packed insulation (K=0.065w/m k)should be added to reduce the heat loss
through the wall by 80%? [May-2004]
Given data:
Thickness of brick, L1=10cm =0.1m
Thermal conductivity of brick, K1=0.7w/m k
Thickness of gypsum, L2=4CM =0.04m
Thermal conductivity of gypsum, K2=0.48w/m k
Thermal conductivity of insulation, K3=0.065w/m k
To find:
Thickness of insulation to reduce the heat loss through the wall by80% (L 3)
SOLUTION:
Toverall
Heat flow rate, Q  [from HMT data book]
R
Where,

1  1 l1 l2 l3 1 
R      
A  ha k1 k2 k3 hb 
[The time h a and hb are not given .so neglect are term
1  1 l1 l2 l3 
R     
A  ha k1 k2 k3 
Considering two slabs (i.e) neglect l 3 term [A=1m2]
T
Q
l1 l2

k1 k2
T
1000  [assume heat transfer (Q)= 100W]
0.1 0.04

0.7 0.48
T  22.619K
Heat loss is reduced by 80% due to insulation .so heat transfer is 20W
T
20 
1  1 l1 l2 l3 
  
A  ha k1 k2 k3 
22.619
20 
1  0.1 0.04 l3 
 
1  0.7 0.48 0.065 
L3  0.0588m
Result:
Thickness of insulation, L3=0.0588m

CONDUCTION WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION

14. A plane wall 10cm thick generator heat at rate of 4*10 4wm3 when a electric
current is passed through it. the convective heat transfer coefficient between
each face of the wall and ambient air is50 w/m 3.determine (a) surface temperature
(b) the maximum air temperature the wall assume that ambient air temperature to
be 200c and the thermal conductivity of the wall material to be 15 w/m k (May/
June 2016)
Given data:
Thickness, l=10 cm =0.10 m
Heat generation, q=4x104w/m3
Convective heat transfer coefficient, h =50w/m k
Ambient air temperature, T = 200c +273 =293 K,
Thermal conductivity, K =15w/m k
To find:
1) Surface temperature (2) maximum temperature in the wall
Solution:
Surface wall temperature,
 QL2 
Tw  T0   
 2H 
 4 104  0.10 
 293   
 2  50 
Tw  60 C  33K
MAXIMUM TEMPARATURE,

 QL2 
TMax  TW   
 8K 
 4 104 1.02 
 333   
 8 15 
TMax  336.3K
RESULT
Surface temperature, TW =333K
Maximum temperature, TMAX=336.3K
15. Derive an expression of Critical Radius of Insulation for A Cylinder.
Consider a cylinder having thermal conductivity K. Let r 1 and r0 inner and outer
radii of insulation.
Ti  T
Q
Heat transfer r  [From equation No.(3)]
In  0 
 r1 
2 KL
Considering h be the outside heat transfer co-efficient.

Ti  T
Q =
r 
In  0 
 r1   1
2 KL A 0h
Here A 0  2 r0L
Ti  T
Q
r 
In  0 
 r1   1
2 KL 2 r0Lh

To find the critical radius of insulation, differentiate Q with respect to r 0 and

equate it to zero.
 1 1 
0  (Ti  T )   2 

dQ
  2 KLr0 2 hLr0 
dr0 1 r  1
In  0  
2 KL  r1  2 hLr0
since (Ti  T )  0
1 1
  0
2 KLr0 2 hLr0 2
K
 r0   rc
h
16. A wire of 6 mm diameter with 2 mm thick insulation (K = 0.11 W/mK). If the

convective heat transfer co-efficient between the insulating surface and air is 25
W/m2L, find the critical thickness of insulation. And also find the percentage of
change in the heat transfer rate if the critical radius is used.
Given Data
d1= 6 mm
r1 = 3 mm = 0.003 m
r2 = r1 + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5 mm = 0.005 m
K = 0.11 W/mK
hb = 25 W/m2K
Solution:
K
1. Critical radius rc  [From equation No.(21)]
h

0.11
rc   4.4  103 m
25
rc  4.4  103 m
Critical thickness = rc – r1
 4.4  103  0.003
 1.4  103 m
Critical thickness t c = 1.4  10-3 (or) 1.4 mm
2. Heat transfer through an insulated wire is given by

Ta  Tb
Q1 
  r2  
 In   
1   r1  1 

2 L  K1 hbr2 
 
 
From HMT data book Page No.35

2 L (Ta  Tb )
=
  0.005  
 In  0.003  
   1

 0.11 25  0.005 
 
2 L (Ta  Tb )
Q1 =
12.64
Heat flow through an insulated wire when critical radius is used is given by
Ta  Tb
Q2  r2  rc 
  rc  
 In   
1   r1  1 

2 L  K1 hbrc 
 
 

2 L (Ta  Tb )
=
 4.4  10 3 
In  
 0.003   1
0.11 25  4.4  10 3
2 L (Ta  Tb )
Q2 =
12.572
 Percentage of increase in heat flow by using
Q2  Q1
Critical radius =  100
Q1
1 1
  100
 12.57 12.64
1
12.64
 0.55%
EXTENDED SURFACES
17. Circumferential rectangular fins of 140mm wide and 5mm thick are fitted on a
200mm diameter tube. The fin base temperature is 170 oC and the ambient
temperature is 25oC. Estimate fin efficiency and heat loss per fin.
Take: Thermal conductivity, k = 220 W/mK.
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 140 W/m2K (May/June-2013)
Given:
Wide, L =140 mm = 0.140 m
Thickness, t = 5 mm = 0.005 m
Diameter, d = 200 mm, r = 100 mm = 0.1 m

Fin base temperature, Tb = 170oC + 273 = 443 K
Ambient temperature T∞= 25oC + 273 = 298 K
Thermal conductivity, k = 220 W/mK.
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 140 W/m2K.
To find:
1. Fin efficiency,
2. Heat loss, Q
Solution:
A rectangular fin is long and wide. So, heat loss is calculated by using fin
efficiency curves. [From HMT data book page no. 50 sixth edition]
Corrected length, Lc = L+
= 0.140+
Lc = 0.1425 m
r2c = r1+ Lc
= 0.100+ 0.1425
r2c = 0.245 m
As =2π[r2c2 - r12]
As =2π[(0.2425)2 – (0.100)2]
As = 0.30650
Am = t [r2c- r1]
Am = 7.125 X 10-4 m2Q =

From graph, WKT
X-axis = Lc1.5 [ ]0.5
X-axis =1.60
Curve = r2C/r1 = 2.425
By using these values we found that the efficiency of the fin is 28%. (From the graph)
Pg. No: 50
Heat transfer Q = 0.28 x 0.30650 x 140 x (443-298) = 1742.99W.
Result:
1. Fin efficiency = 28%

2. Heat loss Q = 1742.99 W
18. Pin fins Aare provided to increase the heat transfer rate from hot surface
.which of the following arrange will given higher heat transfer rate? (1) 6 fins of 10
cm length (2) 12 fins of 5cm length .take K of fin material =200 w/mk and h
=20w/m20C cross sectional area of the fins =2cm2,perimeter of fin =4cm ,find the
base temperature =2300C, surrounding air temperature =3000C [May /June 12]
Given data:
Case (1) No. of fin, S =6 ; length ,L =10*10-2m
CASE (2) no. of fin, S=12, length, L=5*10 -2m
Thermal conductivity, K=200 w/mk
Heat transfer coefficient, h = 20 w/m20c
Cross sectional area of fin, A= 2cm2=2(1*102)2=20*10-4m2
Perimeter of fin, P =4*10-2m
Fin base temperature, Tb=2300c =503 K
Air temperature, T =3000c =303K

To find:
Higher heat transfer rate (Q)
Solution:
Assume short fin [end insulated]
Case (1):
Q   hpkA  Tb  Ta  .tanh  mL 

0.5
hp
M
kA
20 102  4
M  4.472m 1
200  2 104
Q   20  4 102  200 104  2   503  303 tanh  4.472 10 102 
0.5
Q  15.01W
Heat transfer for 6fins =15.01x6 =90.07 W
Case (2):
Q   20 102  4  200  2 104   503  303  0  4.472 10 102 

0.5
Q  7.86W
Heat transfer rate for 12 fins =7.86x12 =94.42 W
Result:
The higher heat transfer, Q=94.42 W for no. of fins =12
19. The cylinder of a 2-stroke SI engine is constructed of aluminium alloy (K=186

w/mk ).The height and outside diameter of the cylinder are respectively 15cm and
5cm.understand operating condition ,the outer surface the cylinder is at500k and
is exposed to the ambient air at 3000K ,with a convention heat transfer coefficient
of50 w/m2K equally spaced annular fins are attached with cylinder to increase the
heat transfer .there are five such fins with uniform thickness ,t=6mm and the

length ,l=20mm. calculate the increase in heat transfer due to the addition fins
[Nov/Dec-11]
Given data:
Thermal conductivity, K= 186 w/mk
Length of the cylinder, Lcy=15x10-2m
Cylinder diameter, d= 5x10-2 m
Ambient temperature, T =300k
Cylinder surface temperature, T b =500 K
Heat transfer coefficient, h= 50 w/m2k
Number of fin =5
Fin thickness, t=6x10-3m; fin length, lf= 20x10-3m
To find:
Increase in heat transfer due to addition of fins
Solution:
Fin length is a 20mm .so it is treated as short film
Heat transfer, Q   hpkA Tb  Ta  tanh  mL f 

0.5
Perimeter, p  2   Lcylinder  t 
p  2  15 102  6 103 
p  0.312m

Q   hpkA  Tb  Ta  tanh  mL f 

0.5
hp 50  0.312
m 
kA 186  9 104
m  9.563
Q   50  0.312 186  9 104   500  300  tanh  9.653  20 103 
0.5
Q  61.63W
Heat transfer /fin = 61.63 W
Heat transfer for five fin Q1= 61.63x5=308.16 W
Heat transfer for un fined surface [convection]
Q2  hAT  h  dLcy  5  t  L f  Tb  Ta 

 50   5 102 15 102  5  6 103  20 103   500  300 
 229.62W
Total heat transfer, Q3= Q1+Q
=308.16+229.62 =537.78 W
Heat transfer without fin Q  hAT
   5 102 1102   500  300 

 235.61W
Increase in heat transfer due to addition of fin Q 3-Q =537.73-235.61 =302.17 W
20. A steel rod of diameter 112mm and 60mm long with insulated end that has a
thermal conductivity of 32w/m0c is to be used as a spine .it is expressed to
surrounding with a temperature at 60 0c and heat transfer coefficient of 55w/m2
.the temperature the base of the fin is 95 0c .calculate the fin efficiency, the
temperature at the edge of the spine and the heat dissipation [Nov/Dec 10]

Given data:
Steel rod diameter, d=12 x10-3m
Length, L=60x10-3m,
Thermal conductivity, K =32 w/m 0C,
Surrounding temperature, Tα= 600c =333K
Heat transfer coefficient, h= 55 w/m2 0C,
Base temperature of fin, Tb = 95 0C =368K
To find:
(a)Fin efficiency fin
(b) Temperature at the edge of the spine,
(c)T heat dissipation, Q
Solution:
(a) assume short fin (end insulated )
tanh mL
 fin 
mL
hp
m
kL
Perimeter,
p   d  3.14 12 103

p  0.0376m
Area,

 3.14
A 
4 12 103 
2 2
d
A  1.13 104 m2
hp
m
kL
55  0.0376
m
32 1.13 104
m  23.91m 1
 fin  tanh
 23.91 60 10  3
 23.91 60 10  3
 fin  62.21%
(b) temperature at the edge of the spine

T  Ta
 cosh m
L  X 
Tb  Ta cosh  mL 
T  333
 cosh
 60 103  60 103 
368  333 cosh  23.91 60 103 
T  333K
(c) heat dissipation ,
Q   hpkA Tb  Ta  tanh  mL 

0.5
Q   55  0.0376  32 1.13 104   368  333 tanh  23.91 60 103 

0.5
Q  2.70W
21. A turbine blade 8cm long made of stainless steel (K=32w/mk) has cross
sectional area of 4.75cm2 and a perimeter of 12cm .the base temperature of the
blade is 6000c .find the quantity of heat given to blade if in the blade is exposed
to hot gases8500c .take heat transfer coefficient to be 465 w/m2k

Given data:
Length of the blade, L=8cm =0.08m
Thermal conductivity, K= 32w /mK
Area, A =4.75cm2=4.75x10-4m2
Perimeter, P=12cm=0.12m
Base temperature, Tb= 6000C +273=873k
Hot gas temperature, T =8500c+273=1123k
Heat transfer coefficient, h=465w/m2k
To find :
Since the blade length is 8cm,it is treated as short fin .
Assume end is insulated.
Heat transfer [short fin, end insulated]
1
Q   hpkA  2 Tb  T  tanh  mL 
where,
hp 465  0.12
m  4
 60.5m 1
kA 32  4.75 10
1
q   465  0.12  32  4.75 104  2   873  112.3  tanh  60.5  0.08 
q  230.2W
[-ve sign indicates that heat flows from gas to turbine blades]
22. An aluminum alloy fin of 7 mm thick and 50 mm long protrudes from a wall,
which is maintained at 120C. The ambient air temperature is 22C. The heat
transfer coefficient and conductivity of the fin material are 140 W/m 2K and 55
W/mK respectively. Determine
1. Temperature at the end of the fin.

2. Temperature at the middle of the fin.
3. Total heat dissipated by the fin.

Given
Thickness t = 7mm = 0.007 m

Length L= 50 mm = 0.050 m
Base temperature Tb = 120C + 273 = 393 K
Ambient temperature T = 22 + 273 = 295 K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 140 W/m2K
Thermal conductivity K = 55 W/mK.
Solution:
Length of the fin is 50 mm. So, this is short fin type problem. Assume end is
insulated.
We know
Temperature distribution [Short fin, end insulated]
T  T cos h m [L -x]
 .......(A) [From HMT data book Page No.41]
Tb  T cos h (mL)
(i) Temperature at the end of the fin, Put x = L
T - T cos h m [L-L]
(A)  
T - T 1
  ...(1)
where
hP
m=
KA
P = Perimeter = 2  L (Approx)
= 2  0.050
P = 0.1 m
A – Area = Length  thickness = 0.050  0.007

A  3.5  104 m2
hP
 m=
KA
140  0.1

55  3.5  10 4
m  26.96
T - T 1
(1)  
Tb  T cos h (26.9  0.050)
T - T 1
 
Tb  T 2.05
T - 295 1
 
393 - 295 2.05
 T - 295 = 47.8
 T = 342.8 K
Temperature at the end of the fin Tx L  342.8 K
(ii) Temperature of the middle of the fin,
Put x = L/2 in Equation (A)

T - T cos hm [L-L/2]
(A)  
 0.050 
cos h 26.9 0.050 -
T - T  2 
 
Tb  T cos h  26.9  (0.050)
T- 295 1.234
 
393 - 295 2.049
T - 295
  0.6025
393 -295
T  354.04 K
Temperature at the middle of the fin

Tx L / 2  354.04 K
(iii) Total heat dissipated
[From HMT data book Page No.41]
 Q = (hPKA)1/2 (Tb  T )tan h (mL)

 [140  0.1  55  3.5  10-4 ]1/ 2  (393  295)
 tan h (26.9  0.050)
Q = 44.4 W
UNSTEADY HEAT CONDUCTION, LUMPED ANALYSIS, SEMI INFINITE AND

INFINITE SOLIDS USE OF HEISLER’S CHARTS
23. At a certain instant of time, temperature distribution in a long cylindrical tube

is T = 800 +100 r- 5000 r2 where, T is in oC and r in mm. The inner and outer radii
of the tube are respectively 30 cm and 50 cm. the tube material has a thermal
conductivity of 58 W/m.K and a thermal diffusivity of 0.004 m 2/hr. Determine the
rate of heat flow at inside and outside surfaces per unit length, rate of heat
storage per unit length and rate of change of temperature at inner and outer
surfaces. (May/June-2013)
Given: In cylindrical tube,
T  800 1000 r  5000r 2

Inner radius, r1 = 30 cm = 30 x 10-2 m
Outer radius, r2 = 50 cm = 50 x 10-2 m
Thermal conductivity, K = 58 W/mK
Thermal diffusivity, α = 0.004 m2/hr
0.004
=  1.11106 m2 / s
3600

To find:
1. Rate of heat flow at inside and outside surfaces per unit length.
2. Rate of heat storage per unit length.
3. Rate of change of temperature at inner and outer surfaces.
Solution:
1. Rate of heat flow at inside surfaces per unit length.
 dT 
Qin   KAi  
 dr  ri  0.3
 d  800  1000r  5000r 2  
Qin  58  2   0.3   1   
 dr 
ri  0.3
Qin  109.33  2000  21.86  104W
Rate of heat flow at outside surfaces per unit length, Q out
 dT 
  K A0  
 dr  r0  0.5
 d  800  1000r  5000r 2  
Qout  58  3.14   
 
r0  0.5
 58  3.14   4000

Qout  72.84  104W
Rate of heat storage per unit length.

Qstored  Qin  Qout

  21.86  72.84   104
Qstored  50.98  104 W
T  800  1000r  5000r 2

dT
 1000  10000r
dr
d 2T
 10000
dr 2
Rate of change of temperature at inner surfaces, at r i = 0.3 m
d 2T 1 dT 1 dT
  .
dr 2 r dr  dt
1 1  dT 
10000  1000  10000  0.3  
0.3 1.11  106  dt  ri  0.3
 dT 
 dt   0.01851o C / s
  ri  0.3
Rate of change of temperature at outer surfaces,
d 2T 1 dT 1  dT 
  .
dr 2 r dr   dt  ro  0.5
1 1  dT 
10000   1000  5000  2  0.5  
0.5 1.11  10  dt  ro  0.5
6 
 dT 
 dt   0.02o C / s
  ro  0.5
24. Slab of aluminium 10cm thick is originally at a temperature of 5000c.it is

suddenly immersed in a liquid at 100 0c resulting in a heat transfer coefficient of
1200w/m2k.determine the temperature of the centre line and the surface I min after

the immersion. also calculate the total thermal energy removed per unit area of
the slab during this period. the properties for the aluminium for the given
conditions are Α=8.4*10-5m2/s, k=215w/mk ,p=2700kg/m3,c=0.9kj/kg k
Given data:
Thickness, l=10cm=0.1m
Initial temperature, ti=5000C+273=773k
Final temperature, tα=1000C+273=373k
Properties of aluminium are,
Density, ϱ=2700 kg/m2
Thermal diffusivity=8.4x10-5m2/s
Thermal conductivity=215w/mk
Specific heat,cp=0.9kj/kg k
To find
1) Temperature at the center line after 1min
2) Temperature at the surface
3) Total thermal energy removed per unit area
Solution:
We know that,
Characteristics length of slab,
L 60 103
Lc  
2 2
Lc  0.03m
Biot number,
hLc 1200  0.05
Bi  
k 215
Bi  0.279
Biot number value is in between 0.1 and 100 (i.e)0.1<Bi<100 .so ,this is infinite solid
type problem

Case (1):
To calculate mid plane temperature for infinite plate, refer HMT data book –heister chart
at 8.4 105  60
X-axis Fourier number    2.016
 0.05
2
Lc 2
Curves value
hLc 1200  0.05
Bi  
k 215
Bi  0.279
X axis value is 2.016 curve value is 0.279 .from that we can find corresponding y axis
value is 0.64
Y axis
T0  T 
  0.64
Ti  T 
T0  373
  0.64
773  373
T0  629K
Centre line temperature, T0=629K
Case (2)
X 0.05
CURVE ,  1
Lc 0.05
X-axis value is 0.279 curve value is 1 .from that we can find corresponding y –axis value
is 0.88
Y-axis
Tx  T 
  0.88
T0  T 
T0  273
  0.88
629  373

Tx  598.28K
Temperature at a surface, Tx  598.28K

Case (3)
Total thermal energy removed or total heat energy removed
X-axis Fourier number
h 2 at 1200   8.4 10  60

2 5
 2 
 215
2
k
 0.517
hLc 1200  0.05
Curve value    0.279
k 215
X-axis value is 0.517, curve value is0.279 .from that we can
Find corresponding y-axis value is 0.34
We know that
Q0  cpL Ti  T 
 2700  0.9 103  773  373
 97.2 106 j / m2
From graph, we know that

Q
 0.34
Q0
Q  0.34  97.2 106
Q  33.04 10 j / m
6 2
Total Thermal energy removed per unit area, Q  33.04 106 j / m2

25. A 60 mm thick large steel plate [K=42.6w/m0c,X=0.043m2/h ] initially at 4400c is

suddenly exposed on the both side to an ambient with convection heat transfer
coefficient 235w/m20c and temperature inside the plate 15mm from the mid plane
after 4.3minutes [Nov/Dec 10]
Given data:
Thickness of the steel plate, L= 60*10-3m
Thermal conductivity, K= 42.6 w/m0c
Thermal diffusivity, α= 0.043 m2 /h = 0.043/3600 =1.94 x10-5 m2/s
Initial temperature, T1 =4400c =713 K
Heat transfer coefficient, h=235 w/m0c
Distance, X =15mm =15810-3time, t= 4.3 min =258 seconds
To find:
(a)Centrelinetemperature,T0
b) Temperature inside the plate 15mm from the mid plane ,T x
Solution:
L 60 103
A) characteristics length , Lc    0.03
2 2
hLc 235  0, 03
biot number , Bi    0.165
k 42.6
0.1<B <100, so it is infinite solid type
For infinite plane (mid plane)
at 1.194 105  258

Fourier number    3.422
 0.03
2
Lc 2

T0  Ta
Y-axis =  0.63
Ti  Ta
T0  323
 0.63
713  323
Centre line temperature, T0  568.7 K
b) Temperature, at a distance of 15mmm from mid plane
X-axis ---- biot number,
hLc 235  0.03

Bi    0.165
k 42.6
X 15 103
Curve =   0.5
Lc 0.03
Ti  Ta
From graph,  0.88
Tx  Ta
Tx  323
 0.88
568.8  323
Tx  539.21K
Temperature inside the plate 15mm from mid plane, T x =539.21K
26. A copper plate 2 mm thick is heated up to 400C and quenched into water at
30C. Find the time required for the plate to reach the temperature of 50C. Heat
transfer co-efficient is 100 W/m2K. Density of copper is 8800 kg/m3. Specific heat
of copper = 0.36 kJ/kg K.
Plate dimensions = 30  30 cm.
Given
Thickness of plate L = 2 mm = 0.002 m

Initial temperature T0 = 400C + 273 = 673 K

Final temperature T = 30C + 273 = 303 K

Intermediate temperature T = 50C + 273 = 323 K
Density  = 8800 kg/m3
Specific heat C= 360 J/kg k
Plate dimensions = 30  30 cm
To find
Time required for the plate to reach 50C.
Solution:
Thermal conductivity of the copper K = 386 W/mK

For slab,
L
Characteristic length Lc 
2
0.002
=
2
Lc  0.001 m
We know,
hLc
Biot number Bi 
K
100  0.001

386
Bi = 2.59  104  0.1
Biot number value is less than 0.1. So this is lumped heat analysis type problem.
For lumped parameter system,
  hA 
T  T  t 
C  V  
 e  ……….(1)
T0  T
We know,

V
Characteristics length Lc =
A
 h 
 t 
T-T C L  
(1)   e   c 
T0  T
 100 
323 - 303  t 
  e  3600.0018800 
673 - 303
 t = 92.43 s
Time required for the plate to reach 50C is 92.43 s.
27. A steel ball (specific heat = 0.46 kJ/kgK. and thermal conductivity=35 W/mK)
having 5 cm diameter and initially at a uniform temperature of 450C is suddenly
placed in a control environment in which the temperature is maintained at 100C.
Calculate the time required for the balls to attained a temperature of 150C. Take
h = 10W/m2K.
Given
Specific heat C = 0.46 kJ/kg K = 460 J/kg K

Thermal conductivity K = 35 W/mK
Diameter of the sphere D = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Radius of the sphere R = 0.025 m
Final temperature T = 100C + 273 = 373 K
Intermediate temperature T = 150C + 273 = 423 K
To find
Time required for the ball to reach 150C

Solution

Density of steel is 7833 kg/m3

  7833 kg/ m3
For sphere,
R
Characteristic Length Lc 
3
0.025
=
3
Lc  8.33  103 m
We know,
hLc
Biot number Bi 
K
10  8.3  103

35
Bi = 2.38  10-3< 0.1

  hA 
T  T  t 
C  V  
 e  ……….(1)
T0  T

We know,
V
A
 h 
 t 
T-T C L  
(1)   e   c 
T0  T
 10 
423 - 373  3
t 
  e  4608.3310 7833 
723 - 373
423 - 373 10
 In  t
723 - 373 460  8.33  10 3  7833
 t = 5840.54 s

Time required for the ball to reach 150C is 5840.54 s.
28. Alloy steel ball of 2 mm diameter heated to 800C is quenched in a bath at

100C. The material properties of the ball are K = 205 kJ/m hr K,  = 7860 kg/m3, C
= 0.45 kJ/kg K, h = 150 KJ/ hr m2 K. Determine (i) Temperature of ball after 10
second and (ii) Time for ball to cool to 400C.
Given
Diameter of the ball D = 12 mm = 0.012 m

Radius of the ball R = 0.006m
Thermal conductivity K = 205 kJ/m hr K
205  1000J

3600 s mK
 56.94 W / mK [ J/s = W]
Density  = 7860 kg/m3

Specific heat C = 0.45 kJ/kg K
= 450 J/kg K
Heat transfer co-efficient h = 150 kJ/hr m2 K

150  1000J

3600 s m2K
 41.66 W / m2K
Solution
Case (i) Temperature of ball after 10 sec.
For sphere,

R
3
0.006
=
3
Lc  0.002 m
We know,
hLc
Biot number Bi 
K
41.667  0.002

56.94
Bi = 1.46  10-3< 0.1
  hA 
T  T  t 
C  V  
 e  ……….(1)
T0  T
We know,
V
A
 h 
 t 
T-T C L  
(1)   e   c  ..........(2)
T0  T
 41.667 
T - 373  10 
  e  4500.0027860 
1073 - 373
 T = 1032.95 K
Case (ii) Time for ball to cool to 400C
T = 400C + 273 = 673 K

 h 
 t 
T-T C L  
(2)   e   c  .......(2)
T0  T
 41.667 
673 - 373  t 
  e  4500.0027860 
1073 - 373
 673 - 373  41.667
 In    t
1073 - 373  450  0.002  7860
 t = 143.849 s
29. A large steel plate 5 cm thick is initially at a uniform temperature of 400C. It

is suddenly exposed on both sides to a surrounding at 60C with convective heat
transfer co-efficient of 285 W/m2K. Calculate the Centre line temperature and the
temperature inside the plate 1.25 cm from themed plane after 3 minutes.
Take K for steel = 42.5 W/mK,  for steel = 0.043 m2/hr.
Given
Thickness L = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Initial temperature Ti = 400C + 273 = 673 K
Distance x = 1.25 mm = 0.0125 m
Time t = 3 minutes = 180 s
Thermal diffusivity  = 0.043 m2/hr = 1.19  10-5 m2/s.
Thermal conductivity K = 42.5 W/mK.
Solution
For Plate:
L
2

0.05
=
2
Lc  0.025 m
We know,
hLc
Biot number Bi 
K
285  0.025

42.5
 Bi  0.1675
0.1 < Bi< 100, So this is infinite solid type problem.
Infinite Solids
Case (i)
[To calculate Centre line temperature (or) mid plane temperature for infinite plate,
refer HMT data book Page No.59 Heisler chart].
t
X axis  Fourier number = 2
Lc
1.19  10-5  180
=
(0.025)2
X axis  Fourier number = 3.42
hLc
Curve 
K
285  0.025
  0.167
42.5
hLc
Curve   0.167
K
X axis value is 3.42, curve value is 0.167, corresponding Y axis value is 0.64

T0  T
Y axis =  0.64
Ti  T
T0  T
 0.64
Ti  T
T0  T
  0.64
Ti  T
T0  333
  0.64
673  333
 T0  550.6 K
Center line temperature T0  550.6 K
Case (ii) Temperature (Tx) at a distance of 0.0125 m from mid plane
[Refer HMT data book Page No.60, Heisler chart]

hL
X axis  Biot number Bi  c  0.167
K
x 0.0125
Curve    0.5
Lc 0.025
X axis value is 0.167, curve value is 0.5, corresponding Y axis value is 0.97.
Tx  T
 0.97
T0  T
Tx  T
Y axis =  0.97
T0  T
Tx  T
  0.97
T0  T
Tx  333
  0.97
550.6  333
 Tx  544 K
Temperature inside the plate 1.25 cm from the mid plane is 544 K.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
PART A
1. Define heat transfer?

2. What are the modes of heat transfer? Give Examples.(May/June2016)
3. What is conduction?
4. Define Convection.
5. Define Radiation.
6. Define Thermal conductivity.
7. Give some examples of heat generation application in heat conduction.
8. State Fourier‟s law of heat conduction. (May/June 2013, Nov/Dec 2013, April/May
2011)
9. Discuss the mechanism of heat conduction in solids. (May/June 2009)
10. Explain the significance (physical meaning)of Fourier number.
11. What are the factors affecting the thermal conductivity?
12. Explain the significance of thermal diffusivity.
13. State Newton‟s law of cooling or convection law.
14. Write the three dimensional heat transfer Poisson‟s and Laplace equations in
Cartesian co-ordinates. (May/June-2012)
15. Write the general 3-D heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinates.
(Apr/May2008)
16. Write down the general equation for one dimensional steady state heat transfer in
slab or plane wall with and without heat generation.
17. List down the three types of boundary conditions.

18. What is meant by steady state heat conduction?

19. What is Periodic heat flow and non-periodic heat flow?
20. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a slab or plane wall.
21. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a hollow cylinder.
22. . Define overall heat transfer co-efficient.
23. A 3 mm wire of thermal conductivity 19 W/mK at a steady heat generation of 500
MW/m³. Determine the centre temperature if the outside temperature is maintained
at 25 . h=4500W/m²K. (May/June 2012)
24. What is heat generation in solids? Give examples. (April/May 2011)
25. What is sensitivity of a thermocouple? (Nov/Dec 2007)
26. What are the factors affect thermal conductivity?
27. What is meant by Newtonian heating or cooling process?
28. Will the thermal contact resistance be greater for smooth or rough plain surfaces?
Why?(Nov/Dec-2015)
29. A temperature difference of 500 is applied across a fire-clay brick, 10cm thick
having a thermal conductivity of 1 W/mK. Find the heat transfer rate per unit area.
(Apr/May2008)
30. What is the purpose of attaching fins to a surface? What are the different types of
fin profiles? (Nov/Dec 2011)
31. State the applications of fins.
32. Define fins (or) extended surfaces. (May/June 2015)
33. Define fin efficiency and fin effectiveness. (May/June 2013, Nov/Dec 2010,2015)
34. What is the main advantage of parabolic fins? (Nov/Dec 2007)
(May/June 2016)
(May/June 2016)
37. What is meant by Transient heat conduction or unsteady state conduction?
2011, Nov/Dec 2010, (May/June 2016)

39. In what medium, the lumped system analysis is more likely to be applicable?
Aluminium or wood? Why? (Nov/Dec 2011)
40. Biot number is the ratio between .......... and.......... (Apr/May 2008).
41. Mention the importance of Biot number. (Nov/Dec 2007)
42. What is meant by Lumped heat analysis? (May/June 2016)
43. What is meant by Semi-infinite solids?
44. What is meant by infinite solid?
45. What is the significance of Heisler charts transient heat conduction?(May/June
2016)
46. What is super insulation and give its application.
PART B
1. Obtain an expression for the general heat conduction equation in Cartesian
coordinates. [Nov/Dec 2006] (Nov/Dec-2015).
2. Derive the general heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinate system

(May/June 2014)
3. A wall is constructed of several layers. The first layer consists of masonry brick 20
cm. thick of thermal conductivity 0.66 W/mK, the second layer consists of 3 cm thick
mortar of thermal conductivity 0.6 W/mK, the third layer consists of 8 cm thick lime
stone of thermal conductivity 0.58 W/mK and the outer layer consists of 1.2 cm thick
plaster of thermal conductivity 0.6 W/mK. The heat transfer coefficient on the interior
and exterior of the wall are 5.6 W/m2K and 11 W/m2K respectively. Interior room
temperature is 22C and outside air temperature is -5C.
Calculate
e) Overall heat transfer coefficient

f) Overall thermal resistance
g) The rate of heat transfer
h) The temperature at the junction between the mortar and the limestone.

4. A furnace wall made up of 7.5 cm of fire plate and 0.65 cm of mild steel plate. Inside
surface exposed to hot gas at 650C and outside air temperature 27C. The convective
heat transfer co-efficient for inner side is 60 W/m2K.The convective heat transfer co-
efficient for outer side is 8W/m2K. Calculate the heat lost per square meter area of the
furnace wall and also find outside surface temperature.
5. A steel tube (K = 43.26 W/mK) of 5.08 cm inner diameter and 7.62 cm outer diameter
is covered with 2.5 cm layer of insulation (K = 0.208 W/mK) the inside surface of the
tube receivers heat from a hot gas at the temperature of 316C with heat transfer co-
efficient of 28 W/m2K. While the outer surface exposed to the ambient air at 30C with
heat transfer co-efficient of 17 W/m2K. Calculate heat loss for 3 m length of the tube.
[May-June-2009,13]
6.A furnace wall is made up of three layer thickness 25cm, 10cm, and 15cm with
thermal conductivities of 1.65w/mk and 9.2 w/mk respectively. the inside is exposed to
the gasses at 12500c with is convection coefficient of 25 w/m20c and inside surface of
11000c ,the outside surface is exposed to the air at 25 0c with convection coefficient of
12 w/m2K .determine (1)the unknown thermal conductivity (2) THE overall heat transfer
coefficient (3) ALL surface temperature [May/June-12]
7. A composite wall consists of 2.5 cm thick copper plate,a 3.2 cm layer of asbestos
insulation and 5cm layer fibber plate .thermal conductivities off the material are
respectively 355,0.110 and 0.0489 w/mk. The temperature difference across the
composite wall is 5600c the side and 0c on the other side. find the heat flow through the
wall per unit area and the interface temp .between asbestos and fibber plate.[Nov/Dec-
12]
8. Two slabs each of 120mm thick have thermal conductivities of 14 w/m and 210 w/m
.These are placed in contact but due to roughness only 30 of area placed in contact and
gap in the remaining area is 0.025mm thick and is filled with air .If the temperature of
the face of the hot surface is at 220 and the outside surface of the other slab is at 30
,calculate the heat flow through the composite system .Assume that conductivity of the
air is 0.032 and the half of the contact (of the contact area )is due to either metal
[Nov/Dec 10]
9.conside a 1.2m high and 2m wide double pane window consisting of two 3mm thick
layers glass(k=0.78w/mk) separated by a 12mm wide stagnant air space (k=0.026

w/mk). Determine the steady rate of heat transfer through this double pane window and
the temperature of its inner surface when the room is maintained at 24 0C while the
temperature of the outdoor is -50C. Take the convection heat transfer coefficient on the
inner and outer surfaces of the window to be 10w/m2k and 25w/m2k respectively.
(Nov/Dec 2015)
10. A flat furnace wall is constructed of 114 mm layer of sil-o-gel brick with a thermal
conductivity of 0.l38 .W/moC backed by a 229 mm layer of common brick of conductivity
1.38 W/moC .The temperature of inner face of the wall is 760°C and that of the outer
face is 76.6°c.(a) What is the heat loss through composite wall ? (b) What is the
temperature of interface between refractory brick and common brick? (May/June2016)
11.A cold storage room has walls made of 23cm of bricks on the outsie,8cm of plastic
foam and finally 1.5cm of wood on the inside .the outside and inside air temperature
are22 and-2 respectively. the inside and outside heat transfer coefficient are
respectively 29 and 12 w/m2k .the thermal conductivities of brick ,foam and wood are
0.98,0.02 and0.12 w/mk respectively .if the total wall area is 90m/t determine the rate of
heat removal by refrigerator and the temperature of the inside surface of the brick
[April/May-11]
12.A steel pipe line(K=50w/m k) of I.D 100mm and O.D 110mm is to be covered with
two layers of insulation each having a thickness 50mm .the thermal conductivity of the
first insulation material is 0.06 w/m k and that of the second is 0.12w/m k .calculate the
loss of heat per meter length of pipe and the interface temperature between the two
layers of insulation when the temperature of the inside tube surfaces is 250 0c and that
of the outside surface of the insulation is 50 0c.
13. An exterior wall of a house is covered by 10cm common bricks (K=0.7w/m k)
followed by a4cm layer of gypsum plaster (K=0.48w/m k) .what thickness of loosely
packed insulation (K=0.065w/m k) should be added to reduce the heat loss through the
wall by 80%? [May-2004]
14. A plane wall 10cm thick generator heat at rate of 4x104wm3 when a electric current
is passed through it. the convective heat transfer coefficient between each face of the
wall and ambient air is50 w/m3.determine (a) surface temperature (b) the maximum air

temperature the wall assume that ambient air temperature to be 20 0c and the thermal
conductivity of the wall material to be 15 w/m k
(May/ June 2016)
15. Derive an expression of Critical Radius of Insulation for A Cylinder.
16. A wire of 6 mm diameter with 2 mm thick insulation (K = 0.11 W/mK). If the

convective heat transfer co-efficient between the insulating surface and air is 25 W/m2L,
find the critical thickness of insulation. And also find the percentage of change in the
heat transfer rate if the critical radius is used.
17. Circumferential rectangular fins of 140mm wide and 5mm thick are fitted on a
200mm diameter tube. The fin base temperature is 170 oC and the ambient temperature
is 25oC. Estimate fin efficiency and heat loss per fin.
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 140 W/m2K (May/June-2013)
18. Pin fins Aare provided to increase the heat transfer rate from hot surface .which of
the following arrange will given higher heat transfer rate?(1) 6 fins of 10 cm length (2)
12 fins of 5cm length .take K of fin material =200 w/mk and h =20w/m20C cross sectional
area of the fins =2cm2,perimeter of fin =4cm ,find the base temperature =230 0C,
surrounding air temperature =3000C [May /June 12]
19. The cylinder of a 2-stroke SI engine is constructed of aluminium alloy (K=186 w/mk
).The height and outside diameter of the cylinder are respectively 15cm and
5cm.understand operating condition ,the outer surface the cylinder is at500k and is
exposed to the ambient air at 3000K ,with a convention heat transfer coefficient of50
w/m2K equally spaced annular fins are attached with cylinder to increase the heat
transfer .there are five such fins with uniform thickness ,t=6mm and the length ,l=20mm.
calculate the increase in heat transfer due to the addition fins [Nov/Dec-11]
20.A steel rod of diameter 112mm and 60mm long with insulated end that has a thermal
conductivity of 32w/m0c is to be used as a spine .it is expressed to surrounding with a
temperature at 600c and heat transfer coefficient of 55w/m2 .the temperature the base of
the fin is 950c .calculate the fin efficiency, the temperature at the edge of the spine and
the heat dissipation [Nov/Dec 10]

21. A steel rod of diameter 112mm and 60mm long with insulated end that has a
thermal conductivity of 32w/m0c is to be used as a spine .it is expressed to surrounding
with a temperature at 600c and heat transfer coefficient of 55w/m2 .the temperature the
base of the fin is 950c .calculate the fin efficiency, the temperature at the edge of the
spine and the heat dissipation [Nov/Dec 10]
22.A turbine blade 8cm long made of stainless steel (K=32w/mk) has cross sectional
area of 4.75cm2 and a perimeter of 12cm .the base temperature of the blade is 600 0c
.find the quantity of heat given to blade if in the blade is exposed to hot gases850 0c
.take heat transfer coefficient to be 465 w/m2k
23. An aluminum alloy fin of 7 mm thick and 50 mm long protrudes from a wall, which is
maintained at 120C. The ambient air temperature is 22C. The heat transfer coefficient
and conductivity of the fin material are 140 W/m2K and 55 W/mK respectively.
Determine
1. Temperature at the end of the fin.

2. Temperature at the middle of the fin.
3. Total heat dissipated by the fin.
24. At a certain instant of time, temperature distribution in a long cylindrical tube is T =

800 +100 r- 5000 r2 where, T is in oC and r in mm. The inner and outer radii of the tube
are respectively 30 cm and 50 cm. the tube material has a thermal conductivity of 58
W/mK and a thermal diffusivity of 0.004 m2/hr. Determine the rate of heat flow at inside
and outside surfaces per unit length, rate of heat storage per unit length and rate of
change of temperature at inner and outer surfaces. (May/June-2013)
25. Slab of aluminium 10cm thick is originally at a temperature of 5000c.it is suddenly

immersed in a liquid at 1000c resulting in a heat transfer coefficient of
1200w/m2k.determine the temperature of the centre line and the surface I min after the
immersion. also calculate the total thermal energy removed per unit area of the slab
during this period. the properties for the aluminium for the given conditions are
=8.4*10-5m2/s, k=215w/mk ,p=2700kg/m3,c=0.9kj/kg k


coefficient 235w/m20c and temperature inside the plate 15mm from the mid plane after
4.3minutes [Nov/Dec 10]
27. A copper plate 2 mm thick is heated up to 400C and quenched into water at 30C.
Find the time required for the plate to reach the temperature of 50C. Heat transfer co-
efficient is 100 W/m2K. Density of copper is 8800 kg/m3. Specific heat of copper = 0.36
kJ/kg K. Plate dimensions = 30  30 cm.
28. A steel ball (specific heat = 0.46 kJ/kgK. and thermal conductivity=35 W/mK) having
5 cm diameter and initially at a uniform temperature of 450C is suddenly placed in a
control environment in which the temperature is maintained at 100C. Calculate the time
required for the balls to attained a temperature of 150C. Take h = 10W/m2K.
29. Alloy steel ball of 2 mm diameter heated to 800C is quenched in a bath at 100C.
The material properties of the ball are K = 205 kJ/m hr K,  = 7860 kg/m3, C = 0.45
kJ/kg K, h = 150 KJ/ hr m2 K. Determine (i) Temperature of ball after 10 second and (ii)
Time for ball to cool to 400C.
30. A large steel plate 5 cm thick is initially at a uniform temperature of 400C. It is

suddenly exposed on both sides to a surrounding at 60C with convective heat transfer
co-efficient of 285 W/m2K. Calculate the Centre line temperature and the temperature
inside the plate 1.25 cm from themed plane after 3 minutes.
Take K for steel = 42.5 W/mK,  for steel = 0.043 m2/hr.

Review questions:-
1. State Fourier‟s law of heat conduction. (May/June 2013, Nov/Dec 2013, April/May
2011Nov/Dec 2014) (Ref.pg: 2, Qn. no: 1)
2. Define fin efficiency and fin effectiveness. (May/June 2013, Nov/Dec 2010,Nov/Dec
2014) (Ref.pg: 2, Qn. no: 2)

2011, Nov/Dec 2010) (Ref.pg: 3, Qn. no: 3)
4. Write the three dimensional heat transfer Poisson‟s and Laplace equations in
Cartesian co-ordinates. (May/June-2012) (Ref.pg: 3, Qn. no: 4)
5. A 3 mm wire of thermal conductivity 19 W/mK at a steady heat generation of 500

MW/m³. Determine the centre temperature if the outside temperature is maintained at
25 . h = 4500W/m²k(May/June 2012) (Ref.pg: 3, Qn. no: 5)
(Ref.pg: 4, Qn. no: 6)
7. What is the purpose of attaching fins to a surface? What are the different types of fin
profiles? (Nov/Dec 2011 (Ref.pg: 4, Qn. no: 7)
8. In what medium, the lumped system analysis is more likely to be applicable? An

aluminium or wood? Why? (Nov/Dec 2011) (Ref.pg: 4, Qn. no: 8)
9. What is heat generation in solids? Give examples.(April/May 2011)

(Ref.pg: 4, Qn. no: 9)
10. Discuss the mechanism of heat conduction in solids.(May/June 2009)

(Ref.pg: 5, Qn. no: 10)
11. What is the physical meaning of Fourier number?(May/June 2009)

(Ref.pg: 5, Qn. no: 11)
12. A temperature difference of 500 is applied across a fire-clay brick, 10cm thick
having a thermal conductivity of 1 W/mK. Find the heat transfer rate per unit area.
(Apr/May2008) (Ref.pg: 5, Qn. no: 12)

13. Write the general 3-D heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinates.
( Apr/May2008) (Ref.pg: 5, Qn. no: 13)
14. Biot number is the ratio between .......... and ..........(Apr/May 2008) (Ref.pg: 5, Qn.
no: 15. What is the main advantage of parabolic fins? (Nov/Dec 2007) (Ref.pg: 5, Qn.
no: 15)
16. What is sensitivity of a thermocouple? (Nov/Dec 2007)(Ref.pg: 5, Qn. no: 16)
17.Define critical radius of insulation. (Nov/Dec 2007) (Ref.pg: 6, Qn. no: 17)
18. Mention the importance of Biot number. (Nov/Dec 2007) (Ref.pg: 6, Qn. no: 18)
19. What is use of Heislers chart?(May/June 2007) (Ref.pg: 6, Qn. no:20)
20. Write any two examples of heat conduction with heat generation Some examples of
heat generation areresistanceheatinginwires, exothermic
chemicalreactionsinsolids,andnuclearreaction(May/June 2014):
21. Define critical thickness of insulation with its significance. (May/June 2014)(Ref.pg:
11, Qn. no: 50)
22. State Fourier‟s law of heat conduction. (Nov/Dec 2014) (Ref.pg: 2, Qn. no: 1)
23. Define fin efficiency and fin effectiveness. (Nov/Dec 2014) (Ref.pg: 2, Qn. no: 2)
Part-B
1. a) Explain the mechanism of heat conduction in solids: (May/June-2013, Nov/Dec

2014)(Ref.pg: 5, Qn. No: 10)
b) At a certain instant of time, temperature distribution in a long cylindrical tube is T =

800 +100 r- 5000 r2 where, T is in oC and r in mm. The inner and outer radii of the tube
are respectively 30 cm and 50 cm. the tube material has a thermal conductivity of 58
W/m.K and a thermal diffusivity of 0.004 m2/hr. Determine the rate of heat flow at inside
and outside surfaces per unit length, rate of heat storage per unit length and rate of

change of temperature at inner and outer surfaces. : (May/June-2013)(Ref.pg: 10, Qn.

no: 1)
2. (i) Explain different fin profiles: (May/June-2013)(Ref.pg: 4, Qn. no:7)
ii) Circumferential rectangular fins of 140mm wide and 5mm thick are fitted on a 200mm
diameter tube. The fin base temperature is 170 oC and the ambient temperature and the
ambient temperature is 25oC. Estimate fin efficiency and heat loss per fin.
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 140 W/m2K(May/June-2013)(Ref.pg: 12, Qn. no:2)
3.A furnace wall is made up of three layer thickness 25cm, 10cm, and 15cm with
thermal conductivities of 1.65w/mk and 9.2 w/mk respectively .the inside is exposed to
the gasses at 12500c with is convection coefficient of 25 w/m20c and inside surface of
11000c ,the outside surface is exposed to the air at 25 0c with convection coefficient of
12 w/m2K .determine (1)the unknown thermal conductivity (2) THE overall heat transfer
coefficient (3) ALL surface temperature [May/June-12] (Ref.pg: 14, Qn. no:3 )
4. Pin fins Aare provided to increase the heat transfer rate from hot surface .which of
the following arrange will given higher heat transfer rate ?(1) 6 fins of 10 cm length (2)
12 fins of 5cm length .take K of fin material =200 w/mk and h =20w/m 20c cross sectional
area of the fins =2cm2,perimeter of fin =4cm ,find the base temperature =230 0c,
surrounding air temperature =3000c [May /June 12] (Ref.pg: 15, Qn. no:4)
5. A composite wall consists of 2.5 cm thick copper plate, a 3.2 cm layer of asbestos
insulation and a5cm layer fiber plate .thermal conductivities off the material are
respectively 355,0.110 and 0.0489 w/mk. The temperature difference across the
composite wall is 5600c the side and 0c on the other side. The find the heat flow through
the wall per unit area and the interface temp .between asbestos and fiber
plate.[Nov/Dec-12 ](Ref.pg: 16, Qn. no:5)
6. The cylinder of a 2-stroke SI engine is constructed of aluminum alloy (K=186 w/mk

).The height and outside diameter of the cylinder are respectively 15cm and
5cm.understand operating condition ,the outer surface the cylinder is at500k an is
exposed to the ambient air at 3000K ,with a convention heat transfer coefficient of50
w/m2K equally spaced annular fins are attached with cylinder to increase the heat

transfer .there are five such fins with uniform thickness ,t=6mm and the length ,l=20mm.
calculate the increase in heat transfer due to the addition fins [Nov/Dec-11] (Ref.pg:
16, Qn. no:6)
7. A cold storage room has walls made of 23cm of bricks on the outsie,8cm of plastic
foam and finally 1.5cm of wood on the inside .the outside and inside air temperature
are22 and-2 respectively. the inside and outside heat transfer coefficient are
respectively 29 and 12 w/m2k .the thermal conductivities of brick ,foam and wood are
0.98,0.02 and0.12 w/mk respectively .if the total wall area is 90m/t determine the rate of
heat removal by refrigerator and the temperature of the inside surface of the brick
[April/May-11] (Ref.pg:18, Qn. no:7)
8. A steel rod of diameter 112mm and 60mm long with insulated end that has a thermal
conductivity of 32w/m0c is to be used as a spine .it is expressed to surrounding with a
temperature at 600c and heat transfer coefficient of 55w/m2 .the temperature the base of
the fin is 950c .calculate the fin efficiency,the temperature at the edge of the spine and
the heat dissipation [Nov/Dec 10] (Ref.pg: 19, Qn. no:8)
9. a) Two slabs each of 120mm thick have thermal conductivities of 14 w/m and 210
w/m .These are placed in contact but due to roughness only 30 of area placed in
contact and gap in the remaining area is 0.025mm thick and is filled with air .If the
temperature of the face of the hot surface is at 220 and the outside surface of the other
slab is at 30 ,calculate the heat flow through the composite system .Assume that
conductivity of the air is 0.032 and the half of the contact (of the contact area )is due to
either metal [Nov/Dec 10] (Ref.pg: 20, Qn. no:9)

coefficient 235w/m20c and temperature inside the plate 15mm from the mid plane after
4.3minutes [Nov/Dec 10] (Ref.pg: 20, Qn. no:10)
11. Obtain an expression for the general heat conduction equation in cartesian
coordinates. [Nov/Dec 2006] (Ref.pg: 23, Qn. no: 13)
12. a) An exterior wall of a house is covered by 10mm common bricks (K=0.7w/m k)

followed by a4cm layer of gypsum plaster (K=0.48w/m k) .what thickness of loosely

packed insulation (K=0.065w/m k)should be added to reduce the heat loss through the
wall by 80%? [May-2004](Ref.pg: 26, Qn. no: 14)
13. A plane wall 10cm thick generator heat at rate of 4*10 4wm3 when a electric current
is passed through it. the convective heat transfer coefficient between each face of the
wall and ambient air is50 w/m3.determine (a) surface temperature (b) the maximum air
temperature the wall assume that ambient air temperature to be 20 0c and the thermal
conductivity of the wall material to be 15 w/m k [April- 98](Ref.pg: 27, Qn. no:15)

UNIT II
CONVECTION
PART A
FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION:
1. Define convection?
Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid surface
and a fluid medium when they are at different temperatures.
2. What is meant by Newtonian and non – Newtonian fluids?
The fluids which obey the Newton‟s Law of viscosity are called Newtonian fluids
and those which do not obey are called non – Newtonian fluids.
3. What is meant by laminar flow and turbulent flow? (May/June -2013)

Laminar flow: Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line flow. In this type of
flow, the fluid moves in layers and each fluid particle follows a smooth continuous path.
The fluid particles in each layer remain in an orderly sequence without mixing with each
other.
Turbulent flow: In addition to the laminar type of flow, a distinct irregular flow is
frequency observed in nature. This type of flow is called turbulent flow. The path of any
individual particle is zig – zag and irregular. Fig. shows the instantaneous velocity in
laminar and turbulent flow.
4. Define Critical Reynolds number? What is the typical value for flow over a flat
plate and flow through a pipe? (May/June -2013)
The Reynold‟s number at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is
called as critical reynold‟s number. For plate plate, it is 5 x 10 5 and for pipe 2300.
5. What is dimensional analysis?

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical method which makes use of the study of

the dimensions for solving several engineering problems. This method can be applied to
all types of fluid resistances, heat flow problems in fluid mechanics and
thermodynamics.
6. What are all the advantages of dimensional analysis?
1. It expresses the functional relationship between the variables in dimensional
terms.
2. It enables getting up a theoretical solution in a simplified dimensionless form.
3. The results of one series of tests can be applied to a large number of other
similar problems with the help of dimensional analysis.
7. What are all the limitations of dimensiona1 analysis?

1. The complete information is not provided by dimensional analysis. It only
indicates that there is some relationship between the parameters.
2. No information is given about the internal mechanism of physical
phenomenon.
3. Dimensional analysis does not give any clue regarding the selection of
variables.
8. What is the significance of dimensional number? (May/June 2007)
It is mathematical technique which makes use of study of the dimensions for

solving convection problems.
It is used in forced convection heat transfer as
Nu = C(Re)m (Pr)n
It is also used for free convection heat transfer

Nu = C(Pr)n (Gr)m
9. What are the dimensionless parameters used in forced convection?

1. Reynolds number (Re)
2. Nusselt number (Nu)
3. Prandtl number (Pr).
10. What are the dimensionless parameters used in forced and free convection
heat transfer analysis? (May/June 2012)
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the study

of the dimensions for solving several engineering problems.
It is used in forced convection heat transfer
Nu = C(Re)m (Pr)n
It is used in free convection heat transfer
Nu = C(Pr)n (Gr)m
Where Re = Reynolds number
Pr=Prandtl number
Nu = Nusselt number
Gr = Grashoff number
11. Define Reynolds number (Re) &Prandtl number (Pr).
Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force.

Inertia force
Re 
Viscous force
Prandtl number is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity of the thermal diffusivity.
Momentum diffusivity
Pr 
Thermal diffusivity
12. Define Nusselt number (Nu).
It is defined as the ratio of the heat flow by convection process under an unit
temperature gradient to the heat flow rate by conduction under an unit temperature
gradient through a stationary thickness (L) of metre.
Qconv
Nusselt number (Nu) = .
Qcond
13. Define Grashof number (Gr) & Stanton number (St).
It is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the
square of viscous force.
Inertia force  Buyoyancy force

Gr 
(Viscous force)2
14.Stanton number is the ratio of nusselt number to the product of Reynolds number
and prandtl number.
Nu
St 
Re Pr
15. List the parameters that influence the heat transfer coefficient. (Nov/Dec
2011)

 Nusselt Number
 Thermal conductivity
 Length
16. Define Grashof number and explain its significance in free convection heat
transfer? (Nov/Dec-2015)
Grashof number= Buoyance force / viscouse force
A critical value of the Grashof number is used to indicate transition from laminar to
turbulent flow in free convection.
17. Physically, what does the Grashoff number represent and how does it differ
from Reynolds number? (Nov/Dec 2011)
Grashoff Number =
Reynolds Number, Re =
Grashoff Number has a role in free convection similar to that played by Reynolds
number in forced convection.

HYDRODYNAMIC AND THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER:
18. Define the term ‘Boundary Layer’ (Thermal). (Nov/ Dec 2013) (May/June 2016)
‘Boundary Layer’ (Thermal)
In thermal boundary layer, temperature of the fluid is less than 99% of free steam
temperature.
19. What is hydrodynamic boundary layer? (May/June 2016)
In hydrodynamic boundary layer, velocity of the fluid is less than 99% of free
stream velocity.
20. Define boundary layer thickness.
The thickness of the boundary layer has been defined as the distance from the
surface at which the local velocity or temperature reaches 99% of the external velocity
or temperature.
21. Indicate the concept or significance of boundary layer.
In the boundary layer concept the flow field over a body is divided into two
regions:
1. A thin region near the body called the boundary layer where the velocity and the
temperature gradients are large.
2. The region outside the boundary layer where the velocity and the temperature
gradients are very nearly equal to their free stream values.
22. Define displacement thickness.
The displacement thickness is the distance, measured perpendicular to the
boundary, by which the free stream is displaced on account of formation of boundary
layer.
23. Define momentum thickness.

The momentum thickness is defined as the distance through which the total loss
of momentum per second is equal to if it were passing a stationary plate.
24. Define energy thickness.

The energy thickness can be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to
the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of
boundary layer formation.
25.What is Dittus-Boelter equation? When does it apply? (Nov/Dec-2015)
Nu=0.023 Re0.8 Prn

Where n=0.4 for heating and n=0.3 for cooling
It can be used to find the Nusselt No. of the internal flow when the
Reynolds No is greater than 10000.
26. Draw the velocity and temperature profiles for free convection on a hot
vertical plate. (May/June 2009)
Fig 2.1velocity and temperature profile
FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION DURING EXTERNAL FLOW OVER PLATES

27. Distinguish between free and forced convection. (Nov/Dec 2010) (May/June
2016)
FREE CONVECTION FORCED CONVECTION
The fluid motion is

The fluid motion is produced
artificially created by means of
due to change in density.
some external force like a blower.
If velocity (V) is not given, If the velocity (V) is given,

That is free convection problems. That is forced convection problems.
The heat transfer coefficient

The heat transfer coefficient
Value is high as compared to free
value is low.
convection.
28. State Buckingham’s π theorem. What is π – terms? (Nov/Dec 2010)
f (π1,π2,π3......πn-m) = 0
If there are n variables (dependent and independent variables) in a dimensionally

homogeneous equation and if these contain m fundamental dimensions (such an M, L,
T and Ө), then the variables are arranged in to (n - m) dimensionless terms are called π
– term. M – mass, L – length, T – term, Ө – temperature.
29. What is over all heat transfer co-efficient? (May/June 2007)
The overall heat transfer co-efficient is a quality such that the rate of heat flow
through a configuration is given by taking a product of U, the surface area and the
overall temperature difference.

30. State Newton’s law of cooling. (May/ June 2009)
The rate convective heat transfer between a surface and an adjacent fluid is
prescribed by Newton‟s law of cooling.
Q = hA(ts - tf)
Where
Q = rate of convective heat transfer

A = area exposed to heat transfer
ts = surface temperature
tf = fluid temperature
h = convective heat transfer coefficient
31. Define Bulk temperature. (April/May 2011)
The fluid properties involved in Nusselt number expressions are evaluated at film
temperature which is called bulk temperature.
Bulk temperature =
32. In which mode of heat transfer is the convection heat transfer coefficient
usually higher, natural or forced convection? (Nov/ Dec 2013)
Free convection is nothing but if the fluid motion is created due to the density
difference resulting from temperature gradients are called as free or natural convection.

Forced convection is nothing but the fluid motion is produced by the help of some
external force like a fan or blower.
Generally heat transfer coefficient is high in forced convection.

CYLINDERS AND INTERNAL FLOW THROUGH TUBES:
33. What is the form of equation used to calculate heat transfer for flow through
cylindrical pipes?
Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
Where n = 0.4 for heating of fluids
n = 0.3 for cooling of fluids
PART-B
FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION

1. Consider flow of air at atmospheric pressure and 300 K parallel to a flat plate 2
m long. The velocity of air far away from the plate is 10 m1sec. The plate surface

is held at a constant temperature of 400 K. Determine the ·heat transfer

coefficient at the trailing edge of the plate using the Colburn analogy? Data:
Properties at film temperature are: Density 0.995 kg/m 3, kinematic viscosity 20.92.
x 10-6m2/s, thermal conductivity 0.03 W/m k . Prandtl number 0.7 (May/June 2016)
Given:
Fluid temperature (T∞) =300k
Length (L) = 2m
Velocity (u) =10 m/s
Plate surface temperature (Tw) = 400k
Density (ρ) =0.995 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity ( ) =20.92x10-6 m2/s,
Thermal conductivity (K) = 0.03 wm-1 k-1.
Prandtl number (Pr) = 0.7
To find:
Heat transfer coefficient at the trailing edge (h)
Solution:
Tw  T
Tf 
2
= 400+300
2
=350k
=350-273 =77°c
Properties are given so we take values from data book.
We know,
UL
Reynolds number Re =
v

10  2

20.92  106
Re  9.56  105  5  105
Since Re > 5  105, flow is turbulent.
Given using colburn anology so that flow is fully turbulent.
From HMT Data book page no: 114
Nux = 0.0296(Re) 0.8(pr) 0.333
= 0.0296x(9.56x105)0.8(0.7)0.333
= 1599.83
hL
Nu 
K
hx  2
1599.83   x = L = 2m
0.03
 h  23.9 W/m2K
heat transfer coefficient hx  23.9W / m2K
2. A fluid of kinematic viscosity equal to 15 x 10 -6m2/s flows with an average

velocity of 10 m/s in a square duct of 0.08 x 0.08 m cross section. What is the
Reynolds number based on the hydraulic diameter? Is the flow laminar or
turbulent? What are the Nusselt number if the flow is fully developed and the
Prandtl Number is.0.7?( May/June 2016)
Given:
Kinematic viscosity = 15 x 10-6m2/s
U=10 m/s
Area=0.08x0.08 m
Pr=0.7

To find:
Flow Laminar or Turbulent and h
Solution:
Re=UL/v = 10x0.08/ 15x10-6
= 0.53x105
Nu= C x (Re)n (Pr)0.33
Where n=0.675 and C=0.092
Nu=126
For cylinder Re=UD/ v
0.53x105= 10xD/15x10-6
D=0.07m
Nu=hD/k
126=hx0.07/0.03047
h = 54.8w/m2k
3. A horizontal pipe of 6 m length and 8 cm diameter passes through a large room

in which the air and walls are at 18°c. The pipe outer surface is at 70°c. Find the
rate of heat losses from the pipe by natural convection? (May/June-2013)
Given data:
Length of the pipe, L =- 6 m
Diameter of the pipe ,d = 8 cm = 0.08 m

Surface temperature ,Ts =70+273 =343K
Fluid temperature ,T∞ = 18 +273 =291K
To find:
Rate of heat lose[Q/L]
Solution
Film temperature, Tf =Ts + T∞/2
=70+18/2=44°c
The properties of air @ 40°c
P = 1.11Kg/m3
V=17.45*10-6m2/s
α = 25.014 *10-6m2/s
K = 0.02791 W/mK
Pr = 0.6985
β= 1/Tf
=1/317
=0.00315K-1
Gr = gβ  Td3/v2
=9.81*0.00315*(343-291)(0.08)3/(17.455*10-6)2
=8.229*10-4-10-12/304.677 = 2.7*106
Gr.Pr=2.7*106x0.6985
GrDPr = 1.88*106
For horizontal cylinder,

From HMT Data book page no:138
NuD = (0.6+0.387(GrDPr/(1+(0.559/Pr)0.5625)0.296)0.167)2
10-5<GrDPr<1012
={0.6+0.387[1.858*106/(1+(0.559/0.6985)0.5625)0.2960)2
= (0.6+0.387 (1559130.86)0.167)2
={0.6+0.387(10.819)}2
={0.6+4.186953}2
NuD= 22.916
NuD= hd/k
h= 22.916x0.02791/0.08
=7.99
Q = hA(Ts-T∞)
=7.99xπx0.08x6x(343-291)
Q = 626.529W
4. Castor oil at 30°c flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The length of
the plate is 4 m. The plate is heated uniformly and maintained at 90°c. Calculate
the following. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thicknesses, Thermal boundary
layer thickness, Total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate, Heat
transfer rate. (May/June-2012)
GIVEN:

Fluid temperature T∞=30°c
Velocity = 1.5m/s
Length l = 4m
Plate surface temp t w= 90°c
Þ=956.8kg/m2
K=0.213w/mk
V=0.65*10-4m2/s
TO FIND:
Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness
Thermal boundary layer thickness
Total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate
Heat transfer
SOLUTION:
At the mean film temperature Tf =90+30/2=60°c,
physical properties are taken as follows
P=956.8Kg/m3; v = 0.65 * 10-4m2/s
K = 0.213W/mK‟; α= 7.2*10-8m2/s.
We know that ,
Reynolds no. Re=UL/v
=1.5x4/0.65x10-4
=9.23x104

For flat plate laminar flow
From HMT db pg: 113
HYDRODYNAMIC BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS:
ȣhx=5*x*(re)-0.5
=5x4x(9.23x104)-0.5
=0.065m
THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS:
ȣTx = ȣhx *(pr)-0.333
=0.065x(902.77)-0.333
=6.74x10-3
TOTAL DRAG FORCE ON ONE SIDE OF THE PLATE
CFL=1.328(Re)-0.5
=1.328x(9.23x104)-0.5
=4.37x10-3
We know that
CfL = т/pU2/2 [pg: 113 right side]
4.37*10-3= т /956.8*1.52/2
т = 4.70N/m2
т = 4.70N/m2
Drag force, FD= area x avg shear stress

= (L x W) x 4.70
= (4x1)x4.70
Drag force,FD= 18.8N
Heat transfer rate:
We know that,
Local nusselt number
Nux =0.332*(Re)0.5(Pr)0.333
Nux = hxL/k
972.6 = hx*4/0.213
hx= 51.7W/m2K
Local heat transfer co-efficient, hx= 51.7W/m2k
Avg heat transfer coefficient
h = 2*hx
h = 2* 51.7
h=103.58W/m2k
heat transfer, Q = hA (Tw-T∞)
=h*L*W(Tw-T∞)
=103.58*4*1*(90-30)
Q = 24.859KW
5. Air at 30oC flows over a plate at a velocity of 2m/s the plate is 2m long and 1.5m
wide. calculate the following; Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer
thickness at the trailing edge of the plate , Total drag force , Total mass flow rate
through the boundary layer between x=40cm , x=85cm. (April/May-2010)

GIVEN;
T∞=30 oC
U=2m/s
L=2m
W=1.5m
Solution:
Properties of air at 30 oC
P=1.165 kg/m3
V=16*10-6 m2/s
Pr=0.701
K=0.02675W/mk
Re=UL/V
= [2x2]/16x10-6
=2.5x105 < 5*105
The flow is laminar
For flat plate laminar flow
ȣhx=5*x*(r e)-0.5
=5*2*(2.5*105)-0.5
=0.02m
Thermal boundary layer thickness
ȣTx = ȣhx *pr-0.333

=0.02*(0.701)-0.333
=0.0225m
cfl =1.328(Re)-0.5
=1.328x(2.5x105 )-0.5
=2.65x10-3
We know cfl =ℓ/pU2/2
2.65*10-3 = ℓ/(1.165*22)/2
ℓ =6.1*10-3 N/m2
Drag force =area x average shear stress
=2x1.5x6.1x10-3
=0.018 N
Drag force on two sides of the plate
0.018x2=0.036 N
Total mass flow rate x=40Cm ,x=85cm
ȣ m = (5/8) pU
=5*x*(re)-0.5
=5*0.85*(U*x/v)-0.5
=5*0.85*(2*0.85/16*10-6)-0.5
=0.0130m
ȣhx =5*x*(r ex)-0.5
= 5*0.40*(2*0.40/16*10-6)-0.5
=8.9*10-3 m

ȣ m =(5/8)*1.165*2{0.0130-8.9*10-3)
=5.97*10-3 kg/s
6. Air at 20C at atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s.
if the plate is 1 m wide and 80C, calculate the following at x = 300 mm.
1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,

2. Thermal boundary layer thickness,
3. Local friction coefficient,
4. Average friction coefficient,
5. Local heat transfer coefficient
6. Average heat transfer coefficient,
7. Heat transfer.(Nov/Dec-2008)
Given:
Fluid temperature T = 20C
Velocity U = 3 m/s
Wide W=1m
Surface temperature Tw = 80C
Distance x = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Solution:
Tw  T
We know, Film temperature Tf 
2
80  20

2
Tf  50C
Properties of air at 50C
Density  = 1.093 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity v = 17.95  10 -6m2 / s
Pr andt l number Pr =0.698
Thermal conductivity K = 28.26  10 -3 W / mK

We know,
UL
v
3  0.3

17.95  106
Re  5.01 104  5  105
Since Re < 5  105, flow is laminar
For Flat plate, laminar flow,
1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness:
 hx  5  x  (Re)0.5
= 5  0.3  (5.01 104 )0.5
 hx  6.7  103 m
2. Thermal boundary layer thickness:
 TX   hx (Pr)0.333
 
  TX  6.7  10 3 (0.698)0.333
 TX  7.5  10 m 3
3. Local Friction coefficient:
Cfx  0.664(Re)0.5
= 0.664 (5.01 104 )0.5
Cfx = 2.96  10-3
4. Average friction coefficient:

CfL  1.328 (Re)-0.5

= 1.328 (5.01 10 4 )0.5
= 5.9  10-3
CfL  5.9  10 3
5. Local heat transfer coefficient (hx):
Local Nusselt Number Nu x = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
 0.332 (5.01 104 ) (0.698)0.333

Nux  65.9
We know
Local Nusselt Number
hx  L
Nux 
K
hx  0.3
65.9   x = L = 0.3m
23.26  10 3
 hx  6.20 W/m2K
Local heat transfer coefficient h x  6.20 W / m2K
6. Average heat transfer coefficient (h):
h  2  hx
 2  6.20
h  12.41 W / m2K
7. Heat transfer:
Q  h A(Tw  T )
We know that, = 12.41 (1 0.3) (80-20)
Q = 23.38 Watts

HYDRODYNAMIC AND THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER.

7. Discuss briefly the development of velocity boundary layer for flow through a
pipe. (May/June-2013) (Nov/Dec-2015). (May/June 2016)
Convection Boundary Layers:
Velocity Boundary Layer: Consider the flow of fluid over a flat plate as shown in the fig
2.2. The fluid approaches the plate in x direction with uniform velocity u∞. The fluid
particles in the fluid layer adjacent to the surface get zero velocity. This motionless layer
acts to restart the motion of particles in the adjoining fluid layer as a result of friction
between the particles of these two adjoining fluid layers at two different velocities. This
fluid layer then acts to restart the motion of particles of next fluid layer and so on, until a
distance
y =d from the surface reaches, where these effects become negligible and the fluid
velocity u reaches the free stream velocity u∞. as a result of frictional effects between
the fluid layers, the local fluid velocity u will vary from x =0, y = 0 to y =d .

Fig 2.2
The region of the flow over the surface bounded by din which the effects of viscous
shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are observed is called velocity boundary layer
or hydro dynamic boundary layer. The thickness of boundary layer d is generally
defined as a distance from the surface at which local velocity u = 0.99 of free stream
velocity u∞. The retardation of fluid motion in the boundary layer is due to the shear
stresses acting in opposite direction with increasing the distance y from the surface
shear stress decreases, the local velocity u increases until approaches u∞. With
increasing the distance from the leading edge, the effect of viscosity penetrates further
into the free stream and boundary layer thickness grows.
Thermal boundary Layer: If the fluid flowing on a surface has a different temperature
than the surface, the thermal boundary layer developed is similar to the velocity
boundary layer. Consider a fluid at a temperature T∞ flows over a surface at a constant
temperature Ts shown in fig 2.3. The fluid particles in adjacent layer to the plate get the
same temperature that of surface. The particles exchange heat energy with particles in
adjoining fluid layers and so on. As a result, the temperature gradients are developed in

the fluid layers and a temperature profile is developed in the fluid flow, which ranges
from Ts at the surface to fluid temperature T∞ sufficiently far from the surface in y
direction.
Fig 2.3
The flow region over the surface in which the temperature variation in the direction
normal to surface is observed is called thermal boundary layer. The thickness of thermal
boundary layer at any location along the length of flow is defined as a distance y from
the surface at which the temperature difference (T-Ts) equal 0.99 of (T∞ - Ts). With
increasing the distance from leading edge the effect of heat transfer penetrates further
into the free stream and the thermal boundary layer grows as shown in the figure. The
convection heat transfer rate anywhere along the surface is directly related to the
temperature gradient at that location. Therefore, the shape of the temperature profile in
the thermal boundary layer leads to the local convection heat transfer between surface
and flowing fluid.

Development of velocity boundary layer on a flat plate:

It is most essential to distinguish between laminar and turbulent boundary layers.
Initially, the boundary layer development is laminar as shown in figure for the flow over
a flat plate. Depending upon the flow field and fluid properties, at some critical distance.
From the leading edge small disturbances in the flow begin to get amplified, a transition
process takes place and the flow becomes turbulent. In laminar boundary layer, the fluid
motion is highly ordered whereas the motion in the turbulent boundary layer is highly
irregular with the fluid moving to and from in all directions. Due to fluid mixing resulting
from these macroscopic motions, the turbulent boundary layer is thicker and the velocity
profile in turbulent boundary layer is flatter than that in laminar flow.
Fig 2.4
The critical distance xc beyond which the flow cannot retain its laminar character is
usually specified in term of critical Reynolds number Re. Depending upon surface and
turbulence level of free stream the critical Reynolds number varies between 10 5 and 3
X106. In the turbulent boundary layer, as seen three distinct regimes exist. A laminar
sub-layer, existing next to the wall, has a nearly linear velocity profile. The convective
transport in this layer is mainly molecular. In the buffer layer adjacent to the sub-layer,

the turbulent mixing and diffusion effects are comparable. Then there is the turbulent
core with large scale turbulence.
8. Air at 30C flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 2 m/s. The plate is 2 m long
and 1.5 m wide. Calculate the following:
1. Boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the plate,

2. Total drag force,
3. Total mass flow rate through the boundary layer between x = 40 cm and x =
85 cm.
Given: Fluid temperature T = 30C
Velocity U = 2 m/s
Length L =2m
Wide W W = 1.5 m
To find:
1. Boundary layer thickness

2. Total drag force.
3. Total mass flow rate through the boundary layer between x = 40 cm and x = 85
cm.
Solution:
Properties of air at 30C
  1.165 kg/m3
v  16  106 m2 / s
Pr  0.701
K  26.75  10  3 W / mK
We know,

UL
Reynolds number Re 
v
2 2

16  106
Re  2.5  105  5  105
Since Re<5  105 ,flow is laminar
For flat plate, laminar flow, [from HMT data book, Page No.113
 hx  5  x  (Re)0.5
= 5  2  (2.5  105 )0.5
 hx  0.02 m
Thermal boundary layer thickness,
 tx hx  (Pr)0.333
=0.02  (0.701)-0.333
 TX  0.0225 m
We know,
Average friction coefficient,
CfL  1.328 (Re)0.5

= 1.328  (2.5  105 )0.5
CfL  2.65  10-3

t
CfL 
U2
2
t
 2.65  10-3 
1.165  (2)2
2
 Average shear stress t = 6.1 10 -3N / m 2
Drag force = Area  Average shear stress
We know
= 2  1.5  6.1 10 -3
Drag force = 0.018 N
Drag force on two sides of the plate
= 0.018  2
= 0.036 N
Total mass flow rate between x = 40 cm and x= 85 cm.
5
m   U  hx  85   hx  40
8
 hx 0.5  5  x  (Re)0.5
0.5
U  x 
= 5  0.85   
 v 

0.5
 2  0.85 
 5  0.85   6 
16  10 
 HX0.85  0.0130 m
 hx=0.40 = 5  x  (Re)-0.5
0.5
 U x 
 5  0.40   
 v 
0.5
 2  0.40 
 5  0.40   6 
 16  10 
 HX0.40  8.9  10 3 m
5
(1)  m=  1.165  2 0.0130  8.9  10 3 
8
m = 5.97  10-3Kg / s,
9. Air at 290C flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 6 m/s. The plate is 1m long
and 0.5 m wide. The pressure of the air is 6 kN/m 2. If the plate is maintained at a
temperature of 70C, estimate the rate of heat removed from the plate.
Given :
Velocity U = 6 m/s.
Length L = 1 m
Wide W= 0.5 m
Pressure of air P = 6 kN/m2  6  103 N/ m2
Plate surface temperature Tw = 70C
To find: Heat removed from the plate

Tw  T
Solution: We know, Film temperature Tf 
2
70  290

2
Tf  180C
Properties of air at 180C (At atmospheric pressure)
  0.799 Kg/m3
 = 32.49  10-6 m2 / s
Pr  0.681
K  37.80  10-3 W/mK
Note: Pressure other than atmospheric pressure is given, so kinematic viscosity will
vary with pressure. Pr, K, Cp are same for all pressures.
Patm
Kinematic viscosity    atm 
Pgiven
1 bar
   32.49  10 6
6  103N / m2
 Atmospheric pressure = 1 bar 
6105 N / m2
 32.49  10 
6  103 N / m3
 1 bar = 1 105N/ m2 
Kinematic viscosity v = 5.145  10-4m2 / s.
UL
We know, Reynolds number Re 
v

6 1

5.145  10 4
Re  1.10  10 4  5  105
Since Re< 5  105 , flow is laminar
For plate, laminar flow,
Local nusselt number
NUx  0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333

 0.332 (1.10  10 4 )0.5 (0.681)0.333
NUx  30.63
h xL
We know NUx =
K
hx  1
30.63  [ L = 1 m]
37.80  103
Local heat transfer coefficient h x  1.15 W/m2K
We know
Average heat transfer coefficient h = 2hx
h  2  1.15
h  2.31 W/m2K
We know
Heat transferred Q  h A (T  Tw )
 2.31 (1 0.5)  (563  343)
Q  254.1 W
Heat transfer from both side of the plate = 2  254.1
= 508.2 W.

10. Air at 40C flows over a flat plate, 0.8 m long at a velocity of 50 m/s. The plate
surface is maintained at 300C. Determine the heat transferred from the entire
plate length to air taking into consideration both laminar and turbulent portion of
the boundary layer. Also calculate the percentage error if the boundary layer is
assumed to be turbulent nature from the very leading edge of the plate.
Given :
Fluid temperature T = 40C,
Length L = 0.8 m,
Velocity U = 50 m/s ,
Plate surface temperature Tw = 300C
To find :
1. Heat transferred for:
i. Entire plate is considered as combination of both laminar and turbulent flow.

ii. Entire plate is considered as turbulent flow.
2. Percentage error.
Solution:
We know
Tw  T
Film temperature Tf 
2

300  40
  443 K
2
Tf  170C
Pr operties of air at 170C:
 = 0.790 Kg/m3
  31.10  106 m2 / s
Pr  0.6815
K  37  10 3 W/mK
We know
UL
Reynolds number Re=
v
50  0.8
 6
 1.26  10 6
31.10  10
Re = 1.26  106  5  105
Re  5  105 ,so this is turbulent flow
Case (i): Laminar – turbulent combined. [It means, flow is laminar upto Reynolds
number value is 5  105, after that flow is turbulent]
HMT data book pg .no:115
Average nusselt number = Nu = (Pr)0.333 (Re)0.8 – 871
Nu = (0.6815)0.333 [0.037 (1.26  106)0.8 – 871
Average nusselt number Nu = 1705.3
hL
We know Nu =
K
h  0.8
1705.3 
37  103

h  78.8 W / m2K
Average heat transfer coefficient
h=78.8 W/m2K
Head transfer Q1  h  A  (Tw  T )
 h  L  W  (Tw  T )
= 78.8  0.8  1 (300 - 40)
Q1  16390.4 W
Case (ii) :Entire plate is turbulent flow:
Local nusselt number} Nux = 0.0296  (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.333
NUx = 0.0296  (1.26 106)0.8 (0.6815)0.333
NUx = 1977.57
hx  L
We know NUx 
K
hx  0.8
1977.57 
37  103
hx  91.46 W/m2K
Local heat transfer coefficient hx = 91.46 W/m2K
Average heat transfer coefficient (for turbulent flow)
h = 1.24 hx
= 1.24 91.46
Average heat transfer coefficient} h = 113.41 W/m2K

We know Heat transfer Q2 = h  A  (Tw + T)
= h  L  W  (Tw + T)
= 113.41  0.8  1 (300 – 40)
Q2 = 23589.2 W
Q2  Q1
2. Percentage error =
Q1
23589.2 - 16390.4
=  100
16390.4
= 43.9%
12. Air at 20C, at a pressure of 1 bar is flowing over a flat plate at a velocity of 3
m/s. if the plate maintained at 60C, calculate the heat transfer per unit width of
the plate. Assuming the length of the plate along the flow of air is 2m.
Given: Fluid temperature T = 20C,
Pressure p = 1 bar,
Velocity U = 3 m/s,
Plate surface temperature Tw = 60C,
Width W = 1 m,
Length L = 2m.
To Find;
heat transfer
Solution: We know,
Tw  T
2

60  20

2
Tf  40C
Properties of air at 40C:
Density  = 1.129 Kg/m3
Thermal conductivity K = 26.56  103 W / mK,
Kinematic viscosity v = 16.96  106 m2 / s.
Prandtl number Pr = 0.699
We know,
32
UL 
Reynolds number Re = 16.96  10 6
v
 35.377  10 4
Re  35.377  104  5  105
Reynolds number value is less than 5  105, so this is laminar flow.
For flat plate, Laminar flow,
Local Nusselt Number Nux = 0.332 (Re)0.5 (Pr)0.333
Nux  0.332 (35.377  10 4 )0.5  (0.699)0.333

Nux  175.27
We know that,
hs  L
Local Nusselt Number Nux 
K
hs  2
 175.27 
26.56  103
Local heat transfer coefficient hx = 2.327 W/m2K

We know,
Average heat transfer coefficient h = 2 hx
h  2  2.327
h = 4.65 W/m2K
Heat transfer Q = h A (Tw - T)
 4.65  2 (60  20)

[ Area  width  length  1 2  2]
Q  372 Watts.
13. An air stream at 00C is flowing along a heated plate at 90 0C at a speed of

75m/s. The plate is 45cm long and 60cm wide. Calculated the average values of
friction coefficient for the full of length of the plate. Also calculated the rate of
energy dissipation from the plate.
Given:
Ts=900C and T∞=00C
U=75m/s , L=45cm and W=60cm
Tofind:
hL and Energy dissipation
Solution:
Tf=90+0
=450C
K=2.8x10-2 w/mk
ϒ=17.45x10-6m2/s
Pr=0.698

Xc= ReL x ϒ =0.116m
µ∞
so laminar flow exists up to a length of 11.6cm and turbulent flow
ReL=75x0.45/17.45x10-6
=1.93x106
For the combined laminar and Turbulent flow
CfL= 0.074 – 1740
(ReL1/5) ReL
=3.19x10-3
NuL=(0.037 ReL4/5 – 870)Pr1/3
=2732
hL = Nu
= 170w/m2k
Energy dissipation from one side = hA(Ts-T∞)
=4131w
Energy dissipation from both side of plate= 2x4131
=8262w
14. Calculate the heat transfer from a 60W incandescent bulb at 115 0C to ambient
air at 25oC. Assume the bulb as a sphere of 50mm diameter .Also find the % of
power lost by free convection. (May/June-2012)
GIVEN:
D=50mm

Tw=115 oC +273=383k
T∞=25 oC +273=298k
TO FIND:
% of power lost by free convection
Solution;
Tf=T w+ T∞/2
=115+25/2=70 oC
The properties of air at 70 oC
K=0.02966w/mk
V=20.02*10-6 m2/s
Pr=0.694
=1/tf in k
=1/[70+273]
=2.915x10-3 k-1
Grashof no, Gr =gD3β(Tw - T∞)
=9.81*(0.050)3 *2.915*10-3*(383-298)/(20.02*10-6 )2
=7.58*105
Gr pr=7.58*105x0.694
=5.26x105
(Hmt db 137)
Nusselt no Nu=2+0.50(gr pr)0.25

=15.46
hd/k= Nu
h=9.15w/m2 k
Heat transfer Q=h A (TS-T∞)
=9.15*4πr2 (383-298)
=6.10w
Percentage of power lost by free convection
=q/60*100
=6.10/60*100
=10.18%.
15. Find the convective heat loss from a radiator 0.6 m wide and 1.2 m high
maintained at a temp of 90°c in a room at 14° c consider the radiator as a vertical
plate. (May/June-2012)
Given data:
Wide , W = 0.6 m
Height or length ,L = 1.2 m
Wall temperature, Tw= 90°c
Room temperature ,T∞= 30°c
To find:
convective heat loss(Q).
Solution:
velocity (U)is not given. So, this is natural convection type problem.

We know that,
Film temperature Tf =Tw+T∞/2
=90+30/2
Tf = 60°c
Properties of air at 60°c:
(from hmt data book, pg no. 33)
P = 1.060Kg/m3
V = 18.97 * 10-6m2/s
Pr = 0.696
K = 0.023896 W/mK
We know that,
Coefficient of thermal expansion, β = 1/Tf in K
=1/(60+273)
=3x 10-3K-1
Grashof number, Gr = gxβxL3xT/v2
=9.81x3x10-3x1.23x(90-30)/(18.97x10-6)2
Gr = 8.4 x 109
GrPr = 8.4 x 109 x0.696
Gr Pr = 5.9 x 109
Since Gr Pr> 109,flow is turbulent.
For turbulent flow,
Nusselt number, Nu = 0.10(Gr Pr)0.333

From hmt data book, pg no 135
Nu = 0.10[5.9 * 109}0.333
Nu = 179.3
We know that,
Nusselt number, Nu = hL/K
179.3 = h * 1.2/0.02896
Convective heat transfer co efficient, h =- 4.32 W/m2k
Heat loss, Q = hA(  T)
=hWL(Tw - T∞)
=4.32x0.7x1.2x(90-30)
Q= 228.16 W
16. A vertical plate of 0.7m wide and 1.2m height maintained at a temperature of
90oC in a room at 30 oC. Calculate the convective heat loss:
Given:
W=0.7m
L=1.2m
Tw=90 oC
t∞=30 oC
To find: convective heat loss (q)
Solution:

Tf=Tw +T∞/2
=90+30/2
=60 oC
Properties of air at 60oC (HMT data book pg .no:34)
P=1.061 kg/m3
V=18.97*10-6 m2/s
Pr=0.696
K=0.02896 w/mk
=1/Tf in k
=1/(60+273)
=3x10-3 k-1
Gr= g*β*L3*  t/V2
=9.81*3*10-3*(1.2)3*(90-30)/(18.97*10-6)2
=8.4*109 > 109
Therefore flow is turbulent. From HMT data book pg .no:136
Nu=0.10(gr pr )0.333
=0.10(5.96*109)0.333
=179.3
Nu =hl/k
179.3=h*1.2/0.02896

h=4.32 W/m2k
Heat loss q=h A (  T)
=4.32x0.7x1.2x (90-30)
=218.16w
17. A large vertical plate 4 m height is maintained at 606C and exposed to

atmospheric air at 106C. Calculate the heat transfer is the plate is 10 m wide.
Given :
Vertical plate length (or) Height L = 4 m
Wall temperature Tw = 606C
Air temperature T = 106C
Wide W = 10 m
To find:
Heat transfer (Q)
Solution:

Tw  T
2
606  106

2
Tf  356C
Properties of air at 356C = 350C
 = 0.566 Kg/m3
  55.46  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.676
K = 49.08  10-3 W/mK
1
Coefficient of thermal expansion}  =
Tf in K
1 1
 
356  273 629
 = 1.58  10-3K 1
g    L3  T
Grashof number Gr =
v2
9.81 2.4  10-3  (4)3  (606  106)
 Gr =
(55.46  10 6 )2
Gr = 1.61  1011
Gr Pr = 1.61  1011 0.676
Gr Pr = 1.08  1011
Since Gr Pr> 109, flow is turbulent
For turbulent flow, HMT data book pg .no:136
Nusselt number Nu = 0.10 [Gr Pr]0.333

 Nu = 0.10 [1.08  1011 ]0.333

Nu = 471.20
We know that,
hL
Nusselt number Nu 
K
h 4
 472.20 =
49.08  10-3
Heat transfer coefficient h = 5.78 W/m2K
Heat transfer Q = h A T
 h  W  L  (Tw  T )
 5.78  10  4  (606  106)
Q  115600 W
Q = 115.6  103 W
18. A thin 100 cm long and 10 cm wide horizontal plate is maintained at a

uniform temperature of 150C in a large tank full of water at 75C. Estimate the
rate of heat to be supplied to the plate to maintain constant plate temperature as
heat is dissipated from either side of plate.
Given :
Length of horizontal plate L = 100 cm = 1m
Wide W = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Plate temperature Tw = 150C
To find: Heat loss (Q) from either side of plate

Solution:
Tw  T
2
150  75

2
Tf  112.5C
Properties of water at 112.5C
 = 951 Kg/m3
 = 0.264  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 1.55
K = 683  10 3 W/mK
1 1
Coefficient of thermal expansion}  = 
T in K 112.5  273
f
  2.59  103 K 1
g    L3  T
Grashof Number Gr =
v2
For horizontal plate,
W 0.10
Characteristic length L c  
2 2
Lc = 0.05 m
9.81 2.59  10-3  (0.05)3  (150  75)

(1)  Gr =
(0.264  106 )2
Gr = 3.41 109
Gr Pr = 3.41 109  1.55
Gr Pr = 5.29  109
Gr Pr value is in between 8  106 and 1011

i.e., 8  106< Gr Pr< 1011
For horizontal plate, upper surface heated: HMT data book pg .no:136
Nusselt number Nu = 0.15 (Gr Pr)0.333
 Nu = 0.15 [5.29  109 ]0.333

 Nu = 259.41
We know that,
huLc
Nusselt number Nu =
K
hu  0.05
259.41 
683  10 3
hu = 3543.6 W/m2K
Upper surface heated, heat transfer coefficient h u = 3543.6 W/m2K
For horizontal plate, lower surface heated: HMT data book pg .no:137
Nusselt number Nu = 0.27 [Gr Pr]0.25
 Nu = 0.27 [5.29  109 ]0.25

Nu = 72.8
We know that,
h1Lc
Nusselt number Nu =
K
h1Lc
72.8 
K
h1  0.05
72.8 
683  103
h1  994.6 W/m2K
Lower surface heated, heat transfer coefficient h 1 = 994.6 W/m2K
Total heat transfer Q = (hu + h1)  A T

= (hu + h1)  W  L  (Tw - T)
= (3543.6 + 994.6)  0.10  (150 – 75)
Q = 34036.5 W
19. Water at 60°c and a velocity of 2cm/s flow over a 5m long flat plate which is
maintained at a temperature of 20°c. Determine the total drag force and the rate of
heat transfer per unit width of the entire plate. (May/June-2013)
Given data:
T∞= 60°c(fluid temperature)
Velocity, u = 2cm/s
X = 5m,
Ts=20°c,
L=5m.
To find:
Drag force,FD
Rate of heat transfer per unit width of the entire plate.
Solution:
We know that
Film temperature, Tf=Tw+T∞/2
=60 + 20/2= 40
Properties of water @ 40
(From hmt data book, pg no. 33,6th edition)

P = 995 kg/m3
V= 0.657* 10-6m2/s
Pr = 4.34
K = 0.628 W/mK
Reynold‟s number, Rel =uL/v
=0.02*5/0.657*10-6
Since, Re<5*105, the flow is laminar.
Avg friction coefficient, Cfl= 1.328 * Rel-0.5
=1.328*(1.522*10-5)
=1.328/390.128
=3.4*10-3
Drag force,FD = area x avg shear stress
=1 *5 *CfL*pu2/2
=5* 995(0.02)2/2 *3.4*10-3
=3.4*10-3*1.99/2
FD=3.41*10-3N
Local heat transfer co efficient,hx:
Local nusselt number, Nu x=0.322(Re)0.5(Pr)0.333
=0.322(1.522*105)0.5*4.340.333
=0.332*390.128*1.6303
Nux = 211.168

Nux =hxL/K
hx=211.16*0.628/5
hx=26.52W/m2K
h = 2*hx=2*26.52=53.04W/m2K
Rate of heat transfer
Q=hA(Ts-T∞)
Q=53.04*5*(333-293)
Q=10608W
20. A long 10cm dia steam pipe whose external surface temperature is 110 0C
passes through some open area that is not protected against the winds.
Determine the rate of heat loss from the pipe per unit length when the air is at 1
atm and 100C and the wind is blowing across the pipe at a velocity of 8m/s. (Nov/
Dec 2015)
Given:
L=10cm
Ts=1100C and T∞ =100C
U=8m/s
Tofind:
Rate of heat loss from the pipe per unit length
Solution:
Tf=110+10
=600C

K=0.02808 w/mk
Pr=0.70202
ϒ=1.896x10-3m2/s
Re=vD/ ϒ =8x0.1/ 1.896x10 -5
= 4.219x104
Nu= 0.3+ 0.62 Re0.5 Pr0.333 1+(Re/28200)5/8 4/5
1+(0.4/Pr)0.67 0.25
= 124
Nu= hD/k
= 34.8w/m2k
Q=hA (Ts-T∞)
= 34.8(∏x0.1x1) (110-10)
= 1093w
Alternatively Nu=C(ReD)npr1/3 can also used to calculated the Nusselt No.
CYLINDERS AND INTERNAL FLOW THROUGH TUBES

21. Explain about three-layer model for internal convection in tubular flow
(May/June2016)

Fig 2.5 turbulant flow
Similar to the flow over a flat plate, a fluid of uniform velocity entering a tube is retarded
near the walls and the boundary layer begins to develop as shown in Fig 2.5 by dotted
lines.
The thickness of the boundary layer is limited to the pipe radius because of the flow
being within a confined passage. Boundary layers from the pipe walls meet at the centre
of the pipe and the entire flow acquires the characteristics of a boundary layer. Once the
boundary layer thickness becomes equal to the radius of the tube there will not be any
further change in the velocity distribution. This invariant velocity distribution is called
fully developed velocity profile. i.e., Poiseulle flow.
22. A steam pipe 80mm in diameter is covered with 30mm thick layer of insulation
which has a surface emissivity of 0.94.the insulation surface temperature is 85 oC
and the pipe is placed in atmospheric air at 15 oC. If the heat is lost both by
radiation and free convection find the following: The heat loss from 5m length of
the pipe, the overall heat transfer coefficient, Heat transfer co-efficient due to
radiation. (April/May-2011)
GIVEN:
D=80mm=0.080m

Thickness=30mm=0.030m
Actual diameter =0.080+2*0.030
=0.14m
Emissivity €=0.94
Surface temp tw=85 oC
Air temperature t∞=15 oC
TO FIND:
Heat loss from 5m length of pipe, q
Overall heat transfer co-efficient, ht
Heat transfer co-efficient due to radiation, hr
SOLUTION:
Film temperature tf=t w+t∞
=85+15/2
o
=50 C
Properties of air @50oC
(hmt db 33)
Þ=1.093 kg/m3
V=17.95*10-6 m2/s
Pr=0.698
K=0.0286 w/mk
Co-efficient of thermal expansion=1/tf in k

=1/50+273
=3.095*10-3k-1
Grashof no gr=g*β*d3*  t/v2
=9.81*3.095*10-3*(0.14)3*(85-15)/(17.95*10-6)2
=18.10*106
Gr pr =18.10*106
Gr pr =1.263*107
Nu=c[gr pr]m
Gr pr=1.263*107 [c=0.125,m=0.333)
Nu=0.125[1.263*107)0.033
Nu=28.952
Nu=hd/k
28.952=h*0.14/0.02826
h=5.84 W/m2 k
Heat lost by convection
Qconv=h a ( T)
=h*π*d*l*(tw-t∞)
=5.84*π*0.14*5*(85-15)
=898.99 W
Heat lost by radiation
Q=€(sigma)A[T4w–T4∞]

=85+273
=358k
Qrad=0.94*5.67*10-8*π*0.14*5*[3584-2884]
=1118.90W
Total heat loss=qconv + qrad
=898.99+1118.90
=2017.89W
Total heat transfer qt=h At
2017.89=ht(πdl)  t
2017.89=ht*π*d*l
ht=13.108 W/m2
Overall heat transfer coefficient =13.108 W/m2k(ht)
Radiative heat transfer coefficient
Hr=ht-hc
=13.108-5.84
=7.268W/m2k-1`
23. 250 Kg/hr of air are cooled from 100C to 30C by flowing through a 3.5 cm
inner diameter pipe coil bent in to a helix of 0.6 m diameter. Calculate the value of
air side heat transfer coefficient if the properties of air at 65C are
K = 0.0298 W/mK
 = 0.003 Kg/hr – m

Pr = 0.7
 = 1.044 Kg/m3
Given :
Mass flow rate in = 205 kg/hr
205
 Kg / s in = 0.056 Kg/s
3600
Inlet temperature of air Tmi = 100C
Outlet temperature of air Tmo = 30C
Diameter D = 3.5 cm = 0.035 m
Tmi  Tmo
Mean temperature Tm   65C
2
To find: Heat transfer coefficient (h)
Solution:
UD
Reynolds Number Re =


Kinematic viscosity  

0.003
Kg / s  m
3600
1.044 Kg/m3
v  7.98  10 7 m2 / s
Mass flow rate in =  A U


0.056  1.044   D2  U
4

0.056  1.044   (0.035)2  U
4
 U = 55.7 m/s
UD
(1)  Re =

55.7  0.035
=
7.98  10-7
Re = 2.44  106
Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent
For turbulent flow, general equation is (Re > 10000)
Nu  0.023  (Re)0.8  (Pr)0.3

This is cooling process, so n = 0.3
 Nu = 0.023  (2.44  106 )0.8  (0.7)0.3
Nu  2661.7
hD
We know that, Nu 
K
h  0.035
2661.7 
0.0298
Heat transfer coefficient h = 2266.2 W/m2K
24. In a long annulus (3.125 cm ID and 5 cm OD) the air is heated by maintaining
the temperature of the outer surface of inner tube at 50C. The air enters at 16C

and leaves at 32C. Its flow rate is 30 m/s. Estimate the heat transfer coefficient
between air and the inner tube.
Given :
Inner diameter Di = 3.125 cm = 0.03125 m
Outer diameter Do = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Tube wall temperature Tw = 50C
Inner temperature of air Tmi = 16C
Outer temperature of air tmo = 32C
Flow rate U = 30 m/s
To find: Heat transfer coefficient (h)
Solution:
Tmi  Tmo
Mean temperature Tm =
2
16  32

2
Tm  24C
Properties of air at 24C:
 = 1.614 Kg/m3
 = 15.9  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 0.707
K = 26.3  10-3 W / mK
We know,
Hydraulic or equivalent diameter


4 D2  Di2 
Dh 
4A
 4
P  Do  Di 

Do  Di  Do  Di 
(Do  Di )
 Do  Di
= 0.05 – 0.03125
Dh= 0.01875 m
UDh

30  0.01875

15.9  106
Re = 35.3  10-6
Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent
For turbulent flow, general equation is (Re > 10000)
Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
This is heating process. So n = 0.4
 Nu = 0.023  (35.3  103 )0.8 (0.707)0.4

Nu  87.19
hDh
We know Nu =
K
h  0.01875
 87.19=
26.3  10-3
 h = 122.3 W/m2K

25 .Engine oil flows through a 50 mm diameter tube at an average temperature of

147C. The flow velocity is 80 cm/s. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient
if the tube wall is maintained at a temperature of 200C and it is 2 m long.
Given :Diameter D = 50 mm = 0.050 m
Average temperature Tm = 147C
Velocity U = 80 cm/s = 0.80 m/s
Tube wall temperature Tw = 200C
Length L = 2m
To find: Average heat transfer coefficient (h)
Solution :Properties of engine oil at 147C
 = 816 Kg/m3
 = 7  10-6 m2 / s
Pr = 116
K = 133.8  10-3 W/mK
We know
UD

0.8  0.05

7  106
Re = 5714.2
Since Re < 2300 flow is turbulent
L 2
  40
D 0.050
L
10   400
D
For turbulent flow, (Re < 10000)

0.055
0.8 0.33 D
Nusselt number Nu = 0.036 (Re) (Pr) L
 
0.055
 0.050 
Nu  0.036 (5714.2)0.8  (116)0.33   
 2 
Nu  142.8
hD
We know Nu =
K
h  0.050
 142.8 =
133.8  10-3
 h = 382.3 W/m2K
26. A 6m long section of an 8cm diameter horizontal hot water pipe passes
through a large room whose temperature is 20 0C. If the outer surface temperature
and emissivity of the pipe are 70 0C and 0.8. Determine the rate of heat loss from
the pipe by (Nov/ Dec 2015)
(1) Natural convection
(2) Radiation.
Given:
L=6m,
D=8cm
Ts=700C
T∞=200C
=0.8
To find:
Qcov and Qrad
Solution:
Tf =70+20 =450C

K=2.8x10-2 w/mk
ϒ=1.745x10-5m2/s
Pr=0.724
β =1/Tf (k) =0.003
ReD = gxβ(Ts-T∞)D3 Pr
ϒ2
= 1.869x106
Nu= 0.6+ 0.387ReD1/6 2
[1+(0.559/pr)9/16 ]
= 1.869x106
h = kNu/D=5.869w/m2
Qcov=hAs(Ts-T∞)
=5.869x(∏x0.08x6) (Ts-T∞)
=443w
Qrad= xA x (T4s-T4∞)
= 0.8x1.508x5.67x10-8((70+273)4_(20+273)4)
= 442.4w
Review questions:
Part-A:

1. Define Critical Reynolds number. What is the typical value for flow over a flat plate
and flow through a pipe? (May/June -2013)
2. What is meant by laminar flow and turbulent flow? (May/June -2013)
3. Define the term „Boundary Layer‟ (Thermal). (Nov/ Dec 2013)
4. In which mode of heat transfer is the convection heat transfer coefficient usually
higher, natural or forced convection? (Nov/ Dec 2013)
5. What are the dimensionless parameters used in forced and free convection heat
transfer analysis? (May/June 2012)
6. List the parameters that influence the heat transfer coefficient. (Nov/Dec 2011)
7 Physically, what does the Grashoff number represent and how does it differ from
Reynolds number? (Nov/Dec 2011)
8. Define Bulk temperature. (April/May 2011)
9. Distinguish between free and forced convection. (Nov/Dec 2010)
10. State Buckingham‟s π theorem. What is π – terms? (Nov/Dec 2010)
11. State Newton‟s law of cooling. (May/ June 2009)
12. Draw the velocity and temperature profiles for free convection on a hot vertical plate.
(May/June 2009)
13. What is over all heat transfer co-efficient? (May/June 2007)
14. What is the significance of dimensional number? (May/June 2007)
15. Differentiate viscous sublayer and buffer layer. (May/June 2014)
16.Define grashoff number and prandtl number. (May/June 2014) (Nov/Dec 2014)
17. Name four dimensions used for dimensional analysis (Nov/Dec 2014)
Part-B:
1. Discuss briefly the development of velocity boundary layer for flow through a pipe.
(May/June-2013)(Nov/Dec 2014)

2. Water at 60°c and a velocity of 2cm/s flow over a 5m long flat plate which is
maintained at a temperature of 20°c. Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat
transfer per unit width of the entire plate. (May/June-2013)
3. A horizontal pipe of 6 m length and 8 cm diameter passes through a large room in

which the air and walls are at 18°c. The pipe outer surface is at 70°c. Finds the rate of
heat losses from the pipe by natural convection. (May/June-2013)
4. Castor oil at 30°c flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The length of the
plate is 4 m. The plate is heated uniformly and maintained at 90°c. Calculate the
following. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thicknesses, Thermal boundary layer
thickness, Total drag force per unit width on one side of the plate, Heat transfer rate.
(May/June-2012)
5. Calculate the heat transfer from a 60W incandescent bulb at 115 0C to ambient air at
25oC. Assume the bulb as a sphere of 50mm diameter .Also find the % of power lost by
free convection. (May/June-2012)
6. Find the convective heat loss from a radiator 0.6 m wide and 1.2 m high maintained
at a temp of 90°c in a room at 14° c consider the radiator as a vertical plate.
(May/June-2012)
7. A steam pipe 80mm in diameter is covered with 30mm thick layer of insulation which
has a surface emissivity of 0.94.the insulation surface temperature is 85 oC and the pipe
is placed in atmospheric air at 15 oC. If the heat is lost both by radiation and free
convection find the following: The heat loss from 5m length of the pipe, the overall heat
transfer coefficient, Heat transfer co-efficient due to radiation. (April/May-2011)
8. Air at 30oC flows over a plate at a velocity of 2m/s .The plate is 2m long and 1.5m
wide. calculate the following; Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness at
the trailing edge of the plate , Total drag force , Total mass flow rate through the
boundary layer between x=40cm , x=85cm. (April/May-2010)
9. Air at 20C at atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. if the
plate is 1 m wide and 80C, calculate the following at x = 300 mm.
1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,

2. Thermal boundary layer thickness, 3. Local friction coefficient,

4. Average friction coefficient, 5. Local heat transfer coefficient,6. Average heat transfer
coefficient, 7. Heat transfer. (Nov/Dec-2008)

UNIT III
PHASE CHANGE HEAT TRANSFER AND HEAT EXCHANGERS
NUSSELT’S THEORY OF CONDENSATION
1. What are assumption flows in Nusselt’s Theory for film condensation?

(May/June-2016)
1. The plate is maintained at a uniform temperature Tw, which is less than

saturation temperature Tsat of the vapour.
2. Fluid properties are constant.
3. The shear stress at the liquid vapour interface is negligible.
4. The heat transfer across the condensate layer is by pure conduction and the
temperature distribution is linear.
5. The condensing vapour is entirely clean and free from gases, air and non
condensing impurities.
2. What are the modes of condensation?
There are two modes of condensation
(1) Film wise condensation (2) Drop wise condensation
3. What is meant by condensation? (May/June 2012)
The change of phase from vapour to liquid state is known as condensation.
4. Give the application of boiling and condensation.
Boiling and condensation process finds wide applications as mentioned below
1. Thermal and nuclear power plant
2. Refrigerating systems
3. Process of heating and cooling

4. Air conditioning systems
5. What is meant by Film wise condensation?
The liquid condensate wets the solid surface, spreads out and forms a
continuous film over the entire surface is known as film wise condensation.
6. What is meant by Drop wise condensation?
In drop wise condensation, the vapour condenses into small liquid droplets of
various sizes which fall down the surface in a random fashion.
7. Give the merits of drop wise condensation.
In drop wise condensation, a large portion of the area of the plate is directly
exposed to vapour. The heat transfer rate in drop wise condensation is 10 times
higher than in film condensation.
8. List the various promoters used for maintaining drop wise condensation.(A/M-
11)
Oleic acid, benzyl, certain fats and waxes are effective promoters used for
maintaining drop wise condensation.
9. Write the force balance equation on a volume element for film wise
condensation on a vertical plane surface.
REGIMES OF POOL BOILING AND FLOW BOILING

10. What is meant by pool boiling? (Nov/Dec-12)
If heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface, the boiling process is
referred to as pool boiling. In this case the liquid above the hot surface is essentially
stagnant and its motion near the surface is due to free convection and mixing induced
by bubble growth and detachment.
11. What is flow boiling or forced convection boiling? (Nov/Dec-12)
Flow boiling may occur when a fluid is forced through a pipe or over a surface
which is maintained at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the fluid.
This type of boiling occurs in water tube boilers involving forced convection
12. How does boiling differ from evaporation (Nov/Dec-11)
 Evaporation process, phase change will occur

 Boiling process, bubbles will form
 Evaporation occurs in initial stage
 Boiling occurs in the later stage
13. Define boiling (May/June 2012)
The change of phase from liquid to vapour state is known as boiling.
Correlations in boiling and condensation
14. What is the difference between boiling and condensation?(May/June 2012)
Boiling condensation
 The phase change from liquid to  The phase change from vapour to
vapour will occur liquid will occur
 Various regions of boiling as,  Modes of condensation as,
 Interface evaporation  Film wise condensation
 Nucleate boiling  Drop wise condensation
 Film boiling
15. What is meant by sub-cooled and saturated boiling? (Nov/Dec-2015)

If the temperature of the liquid is below the saturation temperature the process is
called sub-cooled or local boiling. If the liquid is maintained at saturation temperature or
higher the process is called saturated boiling.
Heat Exchanger Types
16. Sketch the temperature variations in parallel flow and counter flow heat
exchangers.
17. What is heat exchanger?
A heat exchanger is defined as equipment which transfers the heat from a hot
fluid to a cold fluid.
18. What are the types of heat exchangers?
The types of heat exchangers are as follows
1. Direct contact heat exchangers. 2. Indirect contact heat exchangers
3. Surface heat exchangers. 4. Parallel flow heat exchangers
5. Counter flow heat exchangers. 6. Cross flow heat exchangers

7. Shell and tube heat exchangers. 8. Compact heat exchangers
19. What is meant by direct heat exchanger (or) open heat exchanger?
In direct contact heat exchanger, the heat exchange takes place by direct mixing
of hot and cold fluids.
20. What is meant by indirect contact heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchangers, the transfer of heat between two fluids could be
carried out by transmission through a wall which separates the two fluids.
21. What is meant by Recuperators (or) Surface heat exchangers?
This is the most common type of heat exchangers in which the hot and cold fluid
do not come into direct contact with each other but are separated by a tube wall or a
surface.
Examples: Automobile radiators, Air preheaters, Economisers etc.,
22. What is meant by parallel flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move in the same direction.
23. What is meant by counter flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move in parallel but opposite
directions.
24. What is meant by cross flow heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, hot and cold fluids move at right angles to each
other.
25. What is meant by Effectiveness? Or Effectiveness of a heat exchange?(A/M-

10)
The heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer to the
maximum possible heat transfer.

Actual heat transfer

Effectiveness  
Maximum possible heat transfer
26. What is meant by Shell and tube heat exchanger?
In this type of heat exchanger, one of the fluids moves through a bundle of tubes
enclosed by a shell. The other fluid is forced through the shell and it moves over the
outside surface of the tubes.
27. What is meant by compact heat exchangers? (May/June 2012)
There are many special purpose heat exchangers called compact heat
exchangers. They are generally employed when convective heat transfer coefficient
associated with one of fluids is much smaller than the associated with the other fluid.
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT- FOULING FACTORS
28. What is meant by Fouling factor and how does it affect the rate of heat
transfer? (May/June 2016)
We know, the surfaces of heat exchangers do not remain clean after it has been
in use for some time. The surfaces become fouled with scaling or deposits. The effect of
these deposits affecting the value of overall heat transfer co-efficient. This effect is
taken care of by introducing an additional thermal resistance called the fouling
resistance.
29. What is burnout point? Why is it called so?
A point at which flow is maximum is known as burnout point. Once we cross this point,
large temperature difference is required to get the same heat flux and most material
may burn at this temperature.
30. What is meant by Regenerators?
In this type of heat exchangers, hot and cold fluids flow alternately through the same
space. Examples: IC engines, gas turbines.

ANALYSIS
31. List the assumptions made in the analysis of heat exchangers. (Nov/Dec-11)
 Flow is study
 The overall heat transfer co-efficient is constant
 The specific heats of fluids are constant
 Axial conduction along the tube is negligible.
LMTD METHOD
32. What is meant by LMTD? (May/June 2013)
We know that the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids in the heat
exchanger varies from point to point. In addition various modes of heat transfer are
involved. Therefore based on concept of appropriate mean temperature difference, also
called logarithmic mean temperature difference, the total heat transfer rate in the heat
exchanger is expressed as
Q = U A (∆T) m
Where, U – Overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2K
A – Area m2
(∆T) m – Logarithmic mean temperature difference.
NTU METHOD
33. Give the expression for NTU. (A/M-10)
Number of Transfer units (NTU) =

34. What advantage does the NTU method have over the LMTD method?
(Nov/Dec-2015)
LMTD method requires all the four terminal temperature for the design
calculation. In NTU method two inlet terminal temperatures are sufficient to
design the heat exchanger.
PART-B
NUSSELT’S THEORY OF CONDENSATION
1. A condenser is to designed to condense 600 kg/h of dry saturated steam at a

pressure of 0.12 bar. A square array of 400 tubes, each of 8 mm diameter is to be
used. The tube surface is maintained at 30 0C. Calculate the heat transfer
coefficient and the length of each tube.
Given:
Pressure P – 0.12 bar No. of tubes = 400
Diameter D = 8mm = 8  10-3m

Surface temperature Tw  30C
600
m  600 kg/h = kg / s  0.166 kg/s
3600
m = 0.166 kg/s

Solution:
Properties of steam at 0.12 bar From R.S. Khurmi steam table Page No.7
Tsat  49.45C
hfg  2384.3 kj/kg
hfg = 2384.9  103 j / kg
We know
Tw  Tsat
2
30  49.45

2
Tf  39.72C  40C
Properties of saturated water at 400C
From HMT data book Page No.13
 - 995 kg/m3
 = .657  10-6 m2 / s
k  628.7  10 3 W/mk
 =   = 995  0.657  10-6
 = 653.7  10-6 Ns/m2
With 400 tubes a 20 x 20 tube of square array could be formed
i.e. N  400  20
N  20
For horizontal bank of tubes heat transfer coefficient.

0.25
 K 3  2g hfg 
h = 0.728  
  D (Tsat  Tw ) 

0.25
 (628  10-3 )3  (995)2  9.81 2384.3  103 
h = 0.728  6 3 
 653.7  10  20  8  10  (49.45  30) 
h = 5304.75 W/m2K
We know,
Heat Transfer
Q  hA(Tsat  Tw )
No. of tubes = 400
Q = 400  h    D  L  (Tsat  Tw )
Q  400  5304.75    8  10 3  1 (49.45-30)
Q = 1.05  106  L........1
We know,
Q  m  hfg
= 0.166  2384.3  103
Q = 0.3957  106 W
= 0.3957  106  1.05  106 L
L  0.37 m
2. A 10 by 10 array of horizontal tubes of 1.27 cm diameter is exposed to pure

steam at atmospheric pressure. If the tube wall temperature is 98C, estimate the
mass of steam condensed assuming a tube of length 1.5 m (12) (N/D-11)
Given:
No of tubes = 10 by 10 array

Tube diameter, D 1.27 × 10 – 3 m
Wall temperature, Tw= 98C = 371 K
Tube length, L 1.5 m
To find:
WKT, saturation temperature of water is 100C.
Film temperature, Tf
Tw  Tsat
2
98  100

2
Tf  99 C
Properties of water at 99C. ~ 100C.
P  1.013 bar
Density  = 0.598 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity v = 20  10-6 m2 / s
k  0.02373W / mK
    v  0.58  20  10-6
  1.196  105NS / m2
Given 10×10 array
 N=10
For horizontal bank of tubes,

0.25
 K 3  2g hfg 
h = 0.728  
  D (Tsat  Tw ) 

Properties of steam at 1.013 bar (from steam table)
Hfg= 2256.9 kJ/kg =2256.9x 103

0.25
 (0.02373)3  (0.598)2  9.81 2256.9  103 
h = 0.728  5 2 
 1.196  10  10  1.27  10  (100  98) 
h = 1196.15 W/m2K
Heat transfer,Q  hA(Tsat  Tw )

No. of tubes = 10  10=400
Q = 400  h    D  L  (Tsat  Tw )
Q  400  1196.15    1.27  10 2  1.5 (100-98)
Q = 14.317  103 W
Q  m  hfg
14.317  103 = m  2256.9  103
m  6.343  103 kg / s
REGIMES OF POOL BOILING AND FLOW BOILING
3. Water at atmospheric pressure is to be boiled in polished copper pan. The

diameter of the pan is 380 mm and is kept at 115C. calculate the following:
1) Power required to boil the water
2) Rate of evaporation
3) Critical heat flux (May/June 2012)
Given:
Diameter, d= 0.38 m
Surface temperature, Tw =115C

To find:
1) Power required, (P)
2) Rate of evaporation, (ṁ)
3) Critical heat flux,
Solution:
WKT, saturation temperature of water is 100C.
Tsat = 100C
Properties of water at 100C
Density l = 961 kg/m3

Kinematic viscosity v = 0.293  10 -6 m2 / s
Pr andtl number Pr  1.740
Specific heat Cpl = 4.216 kj/kg K = 4216 J/kg K
Dynamic viscosity l = l  v
= 961 0.293  10-6
l  281.57  10 6 Ns/m2
From steam table (R.S. Khurmi Steam table Page No.4)
At 100C
Enthalpy of evaporation hfg = 2256.9 kJ/kg
hfg  2256.9  103 J/kg

Specific volume of vapour,
Vg = 1.673 m3/kg
Density of vapour,
1
v 
vg
1
1.673
 v  0.597 kg/m3
T = excess temperature= Tw- Tsat = 115-100 = 15C
T = 15C ˂ 50C. so this is nucleate boiling process.
1. Power required to boil the water
For nucleate boiling

3
g  ( l   v )
0.5
Q Cpl  T
Heat flux  l  hfg 
A  Csf  hfgPrn
At 100C (From HMT data book Page No.147)
  surface tension for liquid vapour interface
  58.8  103 N/ m
For water – copper – Csf = Surface fluid constant = 0.013
Csf  .013 (From HMT data book Page No.145)
n =1 for water (From HMT data book Page No.144)

Substitute, l , hfg, l , v ,  , Cpl , hfg, n and Pr values in Equation 1
Q
(1)   281.57  10 6  2256.9  103
A
0.5
9.81 961  0.597
58.8  10 3
3
4216  15
0.013  2256.9  103  (1.74)1
Q
Heat flux,  4.83x105 W / m2
A
Heat transfer, Q = 4.83 x 105 x A

= 4.83 x 105 x x(0.38)2
4
Q = 54.7 x 103 W
Q = 54.7 x 103 = P
Power (P)= 54.7 x 103 W
2. Rate of evaporation, (ṁ)
WKT,
Heat transferred Q = m  hfg.
ṁ=
ṁ =0.024 kg/s

3) Critical heat flux

0.25
Q   g  ( l   v )
Heat flux  0.18xhfg x v
A v 2
(From HMT data book Page No.143)
0.25
0.0588  9.81 (961  0.597)
0.18× 2256.9× 103 × 0.597×
 0.597 
2
Q
Heat flux,  1.52x106 W / m2
A
4. Discuss briefly the pool boiling regimes of water at atmospheric pressure

(May/June -2013, 2016)
Boiling heat transfer phenomena
Boiling is a convection process involving a change of phase from liquid to vapour

state. This is possible only when the temperature of the surface (Tw,*exceeds the
saturation temperature of liquid (T sat) ·
According to convection law,
Q = hA (Tw- Tsat)
Q=hA( T)
where
T = (Tw-Tsat) is known as excess temperature.
If heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface; the boiling process is
referred to as pool boiling. In this case the liquid above the hot surface is essentially
stagnant and its motion near the surface is due to free convection and mixing induced
by bubble growth and detachment.

Fig. shows the temperature distribution in saturated pool boiling with a liquid - vapour
interface. The different regions of boiling are indicated in fig.3.2. list specific curve has
been obtained from an electrically heated platinum wire submerged in a pool of water by
varying its surface temperature and measuring the surface heat flux (q).
1. Interface evaporation
Interface evaporation i.e., evaporation process with no bubble formation exists in
region 1. In this region the excess temperature T is very small (5°C). Here the liquid
near the surface is super-heated slightly, and evaporation takes place at the liquid
surface.

2. Nucleate Boiling
This type of boiling exists in regions II and III. The nucleate boiling begins at
region II. As the excess temperature is further increased, bubbles are formed more
rapidly and rapid evaporation takes place. This is indicated in region III. Nucleate boiling
exists upto T = 50°C. The maximum heat flux, known as critical heat flux, occurs at
point A.
3. Film Boiling
Film boiling exists in regions IV, V and VI. In region IV the vapour film is not
stable and collapses and reforms rapidly. With further increase in T (excess
temperature),
the vapour film is stabilised as indicated in region V.
The surface temperature required to maintain a stable film is high and under
these conditions a sizeable amount of heat is lost by the surface due to radiation. This is
indicated in VI.

From fig it is clear that high heat transfer rates are associated with small values
of the excess temperature in nucleate boiling region.
3.1.6 Flow Boiling
Flow boiling or forced convection boiling may occur when a fluid is forced through a pipe
or over a surface which is maintained at a temperature higher than the saturation
temperature of the fluid. This type of boiling occurs in water tube boilers involving forced
convection.
CORRELATIONS IN BOILING AND CONDENSATION
5. Water is boiled at atmospheric pressure by horizontal polished copper heating

element of diameter 5mm and emissivity 0.05 immersed in water. If the surface
temperature of the heating wire is 350 0C determine the rate of heat transfer from
the wire to the water per unit length of the wire. (Nov/Dec 2015)
Given:
D=5mm
=0.05
Tsat=3500C
To find:
Rate of heat transfer
Solution:
Properties of water at T sat=1000C
hfg=2257 kj/kg
ρl=957.9 kg/m3
properties of vapour at Tf=Tsat+Ts/ 2
=350+100/2=2250C
` ρv=0.441 kg/m3

Cpv=1977 j/kg k
hv=1.73x10-5 kg/ms
kv= 0.0357w/mk
qfilm=0.62 g kr3ρv(ρl-ρv) hfg+0.4cpv(Ts-Tsat)
µvD(Ts-Tsat)
=5.93x104 w/m2
qred= (T14-Tsat4)
` = 5.67x10-8x0.05(5234-3734) =157 w/m2
Qtotal=qflim+3/4 qred =5.94x104 w/m2
Qtotal=A x qtotal
=∏DL x qtotal =922w
6. Water is boiling on a horizontal tube whose wall temperature is maintained CT

15C above the saturation temperature of water. Calculate the nucleate boiling
heat transfer coefficient. Assume the water to be at a pressure of 20 atm. And
also find the change in value of heat transfer coefficient when
1. The temperature difference is increased to 30C at a pressure of 10 atm.
2. The pressure is raised to 20 atm at  T = 15C
Given:
Wall temperature is maintained at 15C above the saturation temperature.
Tw  115C. Tsat  100C Tw  100  15  115C
p = 10 atm = 10 bar
case (i)

T  30C; p  10 atm = 10 bar
case (ii)
p = 20 atm = 20 bar; T = 15C
Solution:
We know that for horizontal surface, heat transfer coefficient
h = 5.56 (T)3 From HMT data book Page No.128
h = 5.56 (Tw – Tsat)3
= 5.56 (115 – 100)3
h  18765 w/m2K
Heat transfer coefficient other than atmospheric pressure
hp = hp0.4 From HMT data book Page No.144
= 18765  100.4
Heat transfer coefficient hp  47.13  103 W / m2K
Case (i)
P = 100 bar T = 30C From HMT data book Page No.144
Heat transfer coefficient
h  5.56 ( T)3 = 5.56(30)3

h  150  103 W / m2K
hp = hp0.4

 150  103 (10)0.4

hp  377  103 W / m2K
Case (ii)
P = 20 bar; T = 15C
Heat transfer coefficient h = 5.56 (T)3 = 5.56 (15)3
h  18765 W/m2K
hp = hp0.4
= 18765 (20)0.4
hp  62.19  103 W/m2K
Heat Exchanger Types
7. What are the different types of fouling in heat exchangers? (May/Jun-13)
Fouling is the accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces to the

detriment of function. The fouling material can consist of either living organisms (bio
fouling) or a non-living substance (inorganic or organic). Fouling is usually distinguished
from other surface-growth phenomena in that it occurs on a surface of a component,
system or plant performing a defined and useful function, and that the fouling process
impedes or interferes with this function.
Macro fouling
Macro fouling is caused by coarse matter of either biological or inorganic origin, for
example industrially produced refuse. Such matter enters into the cooling water circuit
through the cooling water pumps from sources like the open sea, rivers or lakes. In
closed circuits, like cooling towers, the ingress of macro fouling into the cooling tower

basin is possible through open canals or by the wind. Sometimes, parts of the cooling
tower internals detach themselves and are carried into the cooling water circuit. Such
substances can foul the surfaces of heat exchangers and may cause deterioration of
the relevant heat transfer coefficient. They may also create flow blockages, redistribute
the flow inside the components, or cause fretting damage.
Examples
 Manmade refuse;
 Detached internal parts of components;
 Tools and other "foreign objects" accidentally left after maintenance;
Micro fouling
 Precipitation fouling
 Particulate fouling
 Corrosion fouling
 Chemical reaction fouling
 Solidification fouling
 Bio fouling
 Composite fouling
8. Calculate for the following cases, the surface area required for a heat
exchanger which is required to cool 3200 kg/hr of benzene(Cp = 1.74 kJ/kgK) from
72C to 42C. the cooling water (Cp = 4.18 kJ/kgC) at 15C has a flow rate of 2200
kg/hr.
(i) Single pass counter flow
(ii) 1 — 4 exchanger (one-shell pass and four-tube passes) and
(iii) Cross flow single pass with water mixed and benzene unmixed.
Assume all the cases U =0.28 kW/m2K. (May/June 2012)
Given:
Hot fluid- benzene cold fluid- water

(T1, T2) (t1, t2)
Mass flow rate of benzene, ṁh =3200 kg/h
= 0.889 kg/s
Entry temperature of benzene, T 1 =72C
Exit temperature of benzene, T 2 =42C
Specific heat of benzene, Cph =1.74 kJ/kgK
= 1.74 × 103J/kgC
Specific heat of water,Cpc = 4.18 kJ/kgC
= 4.18 × 103J/kgC
Entry temperature of water, t1 = 15 C
Mass flow rate of water, ṁc = 2200 kg/hr. or 0.611 kg/s
Overall heat transfer coefficient,U = 0.28 k W/m2K
= 0.28 × 103 W/m2K
Solution:
Case (i)
Heat lost by hot fluid (benzene) = Heat gained by cold fluid (water)
Qh = Q c
mhCph (T1  T2 )  mc Cpc (t 2  t1 )
 0.889 × 1.74 × 103 (72-42) = 0.611 × 4.18 × 103 (t2-15C)
 t2 = 33.2 C
 Q  mhCph (T1  T2 )or mcCpc (t 2  t1)

 0.889 × 1.74 × 103 (72-42)
Q = 46.405 × 103 W
WKT,
Heat transfer Q = UA (T)m …… (1)
Where, (T)m – Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference. LMTD
For Counter flow
(T1  t 2 )  (T2  t1 )
( T)m 
T  t 
In  1 2 
 T2  t1 
(72  33.2)  (42  15)

( T)m 
 72  33.2 
In 
 42  15 
(T)m = 32.5 C
Substitute (T)m and Q values in eqn (1),
(1)  46.405 × 103 = 0.28× 103 × A × (32.5C)
 A = 5.1 m2
Case (ii):
One-shell pass and four-tube passes.
To find correction factor F, From HMT data book Page No.158.
From graph,
t  t 
X- axis value, P =  2 1  = 0.32
 T1  t1 

T  T 
Curve value, R =  1 2  = 1.65
 t 2  t1 
X- axis value is 0.32, curve value is 1.65, from graph (Y- axis value)
i.e., F = 0.9
 Q = FUA (T)m
46.405 × 103 = 0.9×0.28×103 × A × 32.5
 A = 5.66 m2
Case (iii):
Cross flow single pass with water mixed and benzene unmixed.
To find correction factor, F, From HMT data book Page No.160.
From graph,
t  t 
X- axis value, P =  2 1  = 0.32
 T1  t1 
T  T 
Curve value, R =  1 2  = 1.65
 t 2  t1 
From graph, Y- axis value is 0.92,
i.e., F = 0.9
 Q = FUA (T)m
46.405 × 103 = 0.9×0.28×103 × A × 32.5
 A = 5.54 m2

9. In a cross flow heat exchanger, air is heated by water. Air enters the exchanger
at 15°C and a mass flow rate of kg/s while water enters at 90°C and a mass flow
rate of 0.25 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/m .K. If the
exchanger has a heat transfer area of 8.4 m2, find the exit temperatures of both
the fluids and the total heat transfer rate. (12)(N/D-11)
Given:
Air temperature, t1 =15C.
Mass flow rate of air, mc=2kg/s
Water temperature, T1 =90C.
Mass flow rate of water, ṁh=0.25 kg/s
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 250 W/m2K
Area ,A =8.4 m2
To find:
a) Exit temperature of both fluids (T 2,t2)
b) Total heat transfer rate,Q
Solution:
Note: if two temperatures are unknown go to NTU method.
Capacity rate of hot fluid, C = mC x CPC
= 2x 1.005 x 103
C= 2100 W/K
 Cmin = 1046.75 W/K

Cmax =2010 W/K
Cmin 1046.75
   0.52
Cmax 2010
UA
Number of transfer units , NTU 
Cmin
250  8.4

1046.75
NTU  2.006
From graph,
X  axis  NTU  2.006

C
 min  0.52
Cmax
   0.72
Maximum heat transfer , Qmax  Cmin (T1  t1 )
 1046.75(90  15)
Qmax  78.5 103W
Qact

Qmax
Qact
0.72 
78.5 103
Qact  50.62 103 W
Q  mC CP air (t2  t1 )
t 2  43.12 C
Q  mh CPw (T1  T2 )
56.52 103  0.25  4.187 103 (90  T2 )
T2  36 C

10. Hot oil Cp=2200J/kg k is to be cooled by water Cp=4180J/kg k in a 2shell pass

and 12 tube pass heat exchanger. The tubes are thin walled and are made of
copper with a diameter of 1.8cm. The length of each tube pass in the heat
exchanger is 3m and the overall heat transfer coefficient is 340w/m 2k. Water flow
through the tube at a total rate of 0.1kg/s and the oil through the shell at a rate of
0.2kg/s. The water and the oil enter at the temperature 18 0C and 1600C. Determine
the rate of heat transfer in the heat exchanger and the outlet temperature of the
water and oil. (Nov/Dec 2015)
Given:
Cph=2200J/kgk
Cpc=4180J/kgk
2shell pass and 12 tube pass heat exchanger
D=1.8cm and L=3m
U=340w/m2k, mh=0.2 and mc=0.1
Th=1600C and Tc=180C
To find:
Q, Tco, Tho
Solution:
Ch=mh Cph=0.2x2200=440w/k
Cc=mc Cpc=0.1x4180=418w/k
Cmin=418w/k
Qmax=Cmin(Thi-Ta)
=418(160-18)
=5.935x104w
Surface area As =12x∏DL

=12x∏x0.018x2
=2.04m2
NTU=UAS/Cmin
=340x2.04/418
=1.659
Cmin/Cmax=0.95
From the graph we find the =0.061
Q= Qmax
=0.61(5.935x104)
=3.62x104
Q=mh Cph(Thi-Tho)
Tho=104.60C
Q=mc Cpc(Tco-Tci)
Tco=77.70C
11. Hot water enters a counter flow heat exchanger at 95°C. This hot water is used
to heat a cool stream of water from 8 to 40° C. The flow rate of the cool water is 1
.2 kg/s, and that of the hot water is 2.7 kg/so. The overall .heat-transfer coefficient
is 850 W/m2°C. What is the area of the heat exchanger and its effectiveness?
(May/June2016)

Given:
Hot fluid Cold fluid

T1=950C t1=80C and t2=400C
Mh=2.7kg/s mc =1.2kg/s
Ch=41867 J/kg k CC=41867 J/kg k
To find:
Area and Effectiveness
Solution:
WKT
Qh  Qc
mhCph(T1  T2 )  Cpc(t2  t1 )
2.7  4186(95  T2 )  1.2  4186(40  8)
1073709  11202.2T2  16074.4
T2  80 C
C  mh  C ph
C  11302.2w / C  C max
C  mc  Cpc
C  5023.2w / C  C min
C min
 0.44
C max
WKT
T1  T2
  0.17
T1  t1
UA
NTU 
C min

850  A
0.17 
5023.2
A= 1.4m2
12. Name and brief the different types of heat exchangers
(May/ June 2016)
Types of Heat Exchanger
There are several types of heat exchangers which may be classified on the basis of
I. Nature of heat exchange process
II. Relative direction of fluid motion
III. Design and constructional features
IV. Physical state of fluids.
I. Nature of heat exchange process
On the basis of the nature of heat exchange process, heat exchangers are classified as
a. Direct contact heat exchangers or Open heat exchangers
In direct contact heat exchanger, the heat exchange takes place by direct mixing of hot
and cold fluids. This heat transfer is usually accompanied by mass transfer.
Examples: Cooling towers, Direct contact feed heaters

b. Indirect contact heat exchangers

In this type of heat exchangers, the transfer of heat between two fluids could be carried
out by transmission through a wall which separates the two fluids. It may be classified
as
i. Regenerators
In the type of heat exchangers, hot and cold fluids flow alternately through the same
space.
Examples: IC engines, gas turbines.
ii. Recuperators (or) Surface heat exchangers
This is the most common type of heat exchanger in which the hot and cold fluid do not
come into direct contact with each other but are separated by a tube wall or a surface.
Examples: Automobile radiators, Air pre heaters, Economisers etc.
Advantages
1. Easy construction
2. More economical
3. More surface area for heat transfer
Disadvantages
1. Less heat transfer co-efficient

2. Less generating capacity

II. Relative direction of fluid motion
This type of heat exchangers are classified as follows
a. Parallel flow heat exchanger
In this type, hot and cold fluids move in the same direction.
b. Counter flow heat exchanger

In this type, hot and cold fluids move in parallel but opposite directions.
c. Cross flow heat exchanger

In this type, the hot and cold fluids move at right angles to each other

III. Design and constructional features

On the basis of design and constructional features, the heat exchangersare classified
as follows.
a. Concentric tubes
In this type, two concentric pipes, each carrying one of the fluids are used as a heat
exchanger. The direction of flow may be parallel or counter.
b. Shell and tube
In this type of heat exchanger, one of the fluids move through a bundle of tubes
enclosed by a shell. The other fluid is forced through the shell and it moves over the
outside surface of the tubes.

c. Multiple shell and tube passes

In order to increase the overall heat transfer, multiple shell and tube passes are used. In
this type, the two fluids traverse the exchanger more than one time. This type of
exchanger is preferred due to its low cost of manufacture, and easy to repair.
d. Compact heat exchangers
There are many special purpose heat exchangers called compact heat exchangers.
They are generally employed when convective heat transfer co-efficient associated with
one of the fluids is much smaller than that associated with the other fluid.
IV. Physical state of fluids
Based on the physical state of fluids inside the exchanger, heat exchangers are
classified as
a. Condensers
In a condenser, the condensing fluid remains at constant temperature throughout the
exchanger while the temperature of the wider fluid gradually increased from inlet to
outlet. In other words, the hot fluid loses latent heat which is accepted by the cold fluid.
b. Evaporators

In a evaporator, the cold fluid remains at constant temperature while the temperature of
hot fluid gradually decreases from inlet to outlet.
FOULING FACTORS
13. A nickel wire carrying electric current of 1.5 mm diameter and 50 cm long, is
submerged in a water bath which is open to atmospheric pressure. Calculate the
voltage at the burn out point, if at this point the wire carries a current of 200A.
Given:
D = 1.5mm = 1.5  10-3 m;
L = 50 cm = 0.50m;
Current I = 200A
Solution:
We know saturation temperature of water is 100C
i.e. Tsat = 100C
Properties of water at 100C
l = 961 kg/m3
v  0.293  10 6 m2 / s
Pr - 1.740
Cpl = 4.216 kj/kg K = 4216 J/kg K
l = l  v  961 0.293  106

l  281.57  106 Ns/m2
From steam Table at 100C
R.S. Khurmi Steam table Page No.4

hfg  2256.9 kJ / kg
hfg = 2256.9  103 J/kg
v g  1.673m3 / kg
1 1
v    0.597 kg/m3
g 1.673
 = Surface tension for liquid – vapour interface At 100C
  58.8  103 N/m (From HMT data book Page No.147)
For nucleate pool boiling critical heat flux (AT burn out)
Q    g  (l - v )0.25 
 0.18  hfg   v      1
A  v2 
Substitute hfg, l , v ,  values in Equation (1)
Q
(1)   0.18  2256.9  103  0.597
A
0.25
 58.8  10 3  9.81 (961  .597) 
 
 .5972 
Q
 1.52  106 W/m2
A
We know
Heat transferred Q = V  I

Q V I

A A
V  200
1.52  106  A =  dL
 dL
V  200
1.52  106 =
  1.5  10-3  .50
V  17.9 volts
LMTD METHOD, NTU METHOD
14. A hot stream is cooled from 120°C to 30°C while the cold stream temperature
changes from 20 to 60°C. Find out the LMTD for both counter current and co-
current phenomenon. Justify how counter current is effective than co-current?
(May/ June 2016)
Hence, in a concurrent design, the temperature of the cold stream outlet, Tc, out is
always lesser than that of the hot stream outlet, Th, out. Therefore, the heat transfer is
restricted by the cold stream's outlet temperature, Tc,out. On the other hand, in a
countercurrent design, the restriction is relaxed and Tc, out can exceed Th, out. Hence

in this design, the heat transfer is restricted by the cold stream's inlet temperature, Tc,
in. Therefore, to achieve greater heat recovery, a countercurrent design is preferred to
that of a concurrent design.
15. Hot exhaust gases which enter a cross-flow heat exchanger at and leave at
100°C are used to heat water at a flow rate of from 35 to 125°C. The specific heat
of the gas is 1000 J/kgK and the. Overall heat transfer coefficient based on the
gas side surface is 100 W/m2.K Find the required gas side surface area using the
NTU method and LMTD method. (12) (M/J-13)
Given:
Hot gas :(Hot fluid)
Inlet temperature, T1 = 300C
Outlet temperature, T2 = 100C
Water: (cold fluid)
Inlet temperature, t1 = 35C
Outlet temperature, t2 = 125C
Specific heat of hot gas, Cph =1000 J/kgK
Specific heat of water, Cpw =4186 J/kgK
To find: (i) Area (LMTD method)
(i) Area (NTU method)
Solution:
(i) LMTD method:

For cross flow heat exchanger,
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference, LMTD
(T1  t 2 )  (T2  t1 )
= ( T)m 
T  t 
In  1 2 
 T2  t1 
(175)  (65)
( T)LMTD 
175 
In 
 65 
110

0.99
 111.06
To find correction factor, F (Both fluids unmixed):
From graph,
t  t 
X- axis value, P =  2 1  = 0.32
 T1  t1 
 125  35 
 
 300  35 
90

265
 0.34
T  T 
Curve value, R =  1 2  = 1.65
 t 2  t1 

 300  100 
 
 125  35 
200

90
 2.22
X- Axis value is 0.34; curve value is 2.22, from graph (Y- axis value)
i.e., F = 0.87
Q  mCCPC (t 2  t1 )
 1 4186  (125  35)
Q  376.74kW
Q  U A h F( T)LMTD
376.74  103  100  A h  0.87  (111.06)
 A h  38.99m2
(ii) NTU METHOD:
Q  mhCph (T2  T1 )
376.74  103  mh  1000(300  100)
mh = 1.883
kg/s
mC = 1 kg/s
Capacity rate of hot liquid, Cm = mhCPh=1.883 1000
Cmin = Ch = 1883.7 W/K
Capacity rate of cold liquid, Cc =mcCPc = 1 4186
Cmax = Cc =4186W/K

Cmin 1883.7
  0.45
Cmax 4186
Qmax  Cmin (T1  t1 )
 1883.7(300  35)
 499180.5 W
Q
Effectiveness,  
Qmax
mC CPC (t 2  t1 )

499180.5
376740
  0.75
499180.5
To find NTU:
From graph,
Cmin 1883.7
Curve    0.45
Cmax 4186
Y  axis    0.75
corresponding Xaxis valueisNTU  2.1
Uh A h
NTU 
Cmin
100  A h
2.1 
1883.7
A h  39.55m2

16. In a cross flow heat exchanger, air is heated by water. Air enters the
exchanger at 15°C and a mass flow rate of kg/s while water enters at 90°C and a
mass flow rate of 0.25 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/m .K. If
the exchanger has a heat transfer area of 8.4 m2, find the exit temperatures of
both the fluids and the total heat transfer rate. (12)(N/D-11)
Given:
Air temperature, t1 =15C.
Mass flow rate of air, mc=2kg/s
Water temperature, T1 =90C.
Mass flow rate of water, ṁh=0.25 kg/s
Area ,A =8.4 m2
To find:
a) Exit temperature of both fluids (T2,t2)
b) Total heat transfer rate,Q
Solution:
Note: if two temperatures are unknown go to NTU method.
Capacity rate of hot fluid, C = mC x CPC
= 2x 1.005 x 103
C= 2100 W/K
 Cmin = 1046.75 W/K
Cmax =2010 W/K

Cmin 1046.75
   0.52
Cmax 2010
UA
Number of transfer units , NTU 
Cmin
250  8.4

1046.75
NTU  2.006
From graph,
X  axis  NTU  2.006

C
 min  0.52
Cmax
   0.72
Maximum heat transfer , Qmax  Cmin (T1  t1 )
 1046.75(90  15)
Qmax  78.5 103W
Qact

Qmax
Qact
0.72 
78.5 103
Qact  50.62 103 W
Q  mC CP air (t2  t1 )
t 2  43.12 C
Q  mh CPw (T1  T2 )
56.52 103  0.25  4.187 103 (90  T2 )
T2  36 C

PREVIOUS YEAR ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
PART A
1. What are assumption flows in Nusselt’s Theory for film condensation?

(May/June-2016, Pg. No.1 , Q.No.1)
2. What are the modes of condensation? ( Pg.No.1 , Q.No.2)
3. What is meant by condensation? (May/June 2012, Pg.No.1 , Q.No.3)
4. Give the application of boiling and condensation.( Pg.No.1 , Q.No.4)
5. What is meant by Film wise condensation?( Pg.No.1 , Q.No.5)
6. What is meant by Drop wise condensation?( Pg.No.2 , Q.No.6)
7. Give the merits of drop wise condensation. (Pg.No.2 , Q.No.7)
8. List the various promoters used for maintaining drop wise condensation.(A/M-
11, Pg.No.2 , Q.No.8)
9. Write the force balance equation on a volume element for film wise
condensation on a vertical plane surface. (Pg.No.2 , Q.No.9)
10. What is meant by pool boiling? (N/D-12, Pg.No.2, Q.No.10)
11. What is flow boiling or forced convection boiling?
(N/D-12, Pg.No.2 , Q.No.11)
12. How does boiling differ from evaporation (N/D-11, Pg.No.2, Q. No.12)

13. Define boiling (May/June 2012, Pg.No.3, Q. No. 13)
14. What is the difference between boiling and condensation?
(M/J-12, Pg.No.3, Q. No. 14)
15. What is meant by sub-cooled and saturated boiling? (Nov/Dec-2015,

Pg.No.3, Q. No. 15)
16. Sketch the temperature variations in parallel flow and counter flow heat
exchangers. ( Pg.No.3, Q. No. 16)
17. What is heat exchanger? ( Pg.No.3, Q. No. 17)
18. What are the types of heat exchangers? ( Pg.No.4, Q. No. 18)
19. What is meant by direct heat exchanger (or) open heat exchanger? (Pg.No.4,
Q. No. 19)
20. What is meant by indirect contact heat exchanger?
(Pg.No.4, Q. No. 20)
21. What is meant by Recuperators (or) Surface heat exchangers? (Pg.No.4, Q.

No. 21)
22. What is meant by parallel flow heat exchanger? (Pg.No.4, Q. No. 22)
23. What is meant by counter flow heat exchanger? (Pg.No.4, Q. No. 23)
24. What is meant by cross flow heat exchanger? (Pg.No.4, Q. No. 24)
25. What is meant by Effectiveness? Or Effectiveness of a heat exchange?
(A/M-10,Pg.No.4, Q. No. 25)
26. What is meant by Shell and tube heat exchanger? (Pg.No.5, Q. No. 26)
27. What is meant by compact heat exchangers?
(May/June 2012, Pg.No.5, Q. No. 27)

28. What is meant by Fouling factor and how does it affect the rate of heat
transfer? (May/June 2016, Pg.No.5, Q. No. 28)
29. What is burnout point? Why is it called so? (Pg.No.5, Q. No. 29)
30. What is meant by Regenerators? (Pg.No.5, Q. No. 30)
31. List the assumptions made in the analysis of heat exchangers. (N/D-11,
Pg.No.5, Q. No. 31)
32. What is meant by LMTD? (A/M-11,13, Pg.No.6, Q. No. 32)
33. Give the expression for NTU. (A/M-10,Pg.No.6, Q. No. 33)
34. What advantage does the NTU method have over the LMTD method?
(Nov/Dec-2015, Pg.No.6, Q. No. 34)
PART B
1. A condenser is to designed to condense 600 kg/h of dry saturated steam at a

pressure of 0.12 bar. A square array of 400 tubes, each of 8 mm diameter is to be
used. The tube surface is maintained at 300C. Calculate the heat transfer
coefficient and the length of each tube. (Pg.No.7, Q. No. 1)

2. A 10 by 10 array of horizontal tubes of 1.27 cm diameter is exposed to pure

steam at atmospheric pressure. If the tube wall temperature is 98 0C, estimate the
mass of steam condensed assuming a tube of length 1.5 m . (N/D-11, Pg.No.8, Q.
No. 2)
3. Water at atmospheric pressure is to be boiled in polished copper pan. The

diameter of the pan is 380 mm and is kept at 115 0C. calculate the following:
1) Power required to boil the water
2) Rate of evaporation
3) Critical heat flux (May/June 2012, Pg.No.10, Q. No. 3)
4. Discuss briefly the pool boiling regimes of water at atmospheric pressure. (M/J-
13,16, Pg.No.13, Q. No. 4)
5. Water is boiled at atmospheric pressure by horizontal polished copper heating

element of diameter 5mm and emissivity 0.05 immersed in water. If the surface
temperature of the heating wire is 3500C determine the rate of heat transfer from
the wire to the water per unit lengyh of the wire. (N/D2015, Pg.No.15, Q. No. 5)
6. Water is boiling on a horizontal tube whose wall temperature is maintained ct

15C above the saturation temperature of water. Calculate the nucleate boiling
heat transfer coefficient. Assume the water to be at a pressure of 20 atm. And
also find the change in value of heat transfer coefficient when
1. The temperature difference is increased to 30C at a pressure of 10 atm.
2. The pressure is raised to 20 atm at  T = 15C (Pg.No.16, Q. No. 6)
7. What are the different types of fouling in heat exchangers?
(M/J-13,Pg.No.18, Q. No. 7)

8. Calculate for the following cases, the surface area required for a heat
exchanger which is required to cool 3200 kg/hr of benzene(C p = 1.74 kJ/kgK) from
72C to 42C. the cooling water (Cp = 4.18 kJ/kgC) at 15C has a flow rate of 2200
kg/hr.
(i) Single pass counter flow
(ii) 1 — 4 exchanger (one-shell pass and four-tube passes) and
(iii) Cross flow single pass with water mixed and benzene unmixed.
Assume all the cases U =0.28 kW/m2K (May/June 2012, Pg.No.19, Q. No. 8)
9. In a cross flow heat exchanger, air is heated by water. Air enters the exchanger
at 15°C and a mass flow rate of kg/s while water enters at 90°C and a mass flow
rate of 0.25 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/m .K. If the
exchanger has a heat transfer area of 8.4 m2, find the exit temperatures of both
the fluids and the total heat transfer rate. (N/D-11, Pg.No.22, Q. No. 9)
10. Hot oil Cp=2200J/kg k is to be cooled by water Cp=4180J/kg k in a 2shell pass

and 12 tube pass heat exchanger. The tubes are thin walled and are made of
copper with a diameter of 1.8cm. the length of each tube pass in the heat
exchanger is 3m and the overall heat transfer coefficient is 340w/m2k. Water flow
through the tube at a total rate of 0.1kg/s and the oil through the shell at a rate of
0.2kg/s. The water and the oil enter at the temperature 180C and 1600C.
Determine the rate of heat transfer in the heat exchanger and the outlet
temperature of the water and oil. (Nov/Dec 2015, Pg.No.23, Q. No. 10)
11. Hot water enters a counter flow heat exchanger at 95°C. This hot water is used
to heat a cool stream of water from 8 to 40° C. The flow rate of the cool water is 1
.2 kg/s, and that of the hot water is 2.7 kg/so. The overall .heat-transfer coefficient
is 850 W/m2°C. What is the area of the heat exchanger and its effectiveness?
(May/June2016, Pg.No.25, Q. No. 11)
12. Name and brief the different types of heat exchangers.
(May/ June 2016, Pg.No.26, Q. No. 12)

13. A nickel wire carrying electric current of 1.5 mm diameter and 50 cm long, is
submerged in a water bath which is open to atmospheric pressure. Calculate the
voltage at the burn out point, if at this point the wire carries a current of 200A.
(Pg.No.29, Q. No. 13)
14. A hot stream is cooled from 120°C to 30°C while the cold stream temperature
changes from 20 to 60°C. Find out the LMTD for both counter current and co-
current phenomenon. Justify how counter current is effective than co-current?
(May/ June 2016,Pg.No.31, Q. No. 14)
15. Hot exhaust gases which enter a cross-flow heat exchanger at and leave at
100°C are used to heat water at a flow rate of from 35 to 125°C. The specific heat
of the gas is 1000 J/kgK and the. Overall heat transfer coefficient based on the
gas side surface is 100 W/m2.K Find the required gas side surface area using the
NTU method and LMTD method. (M/J-13, Pg.No.32, Q. No. 15)
16. In a cross flow heat exchanger, air is heated by water. Air enters the
exchanger at 15°C and a mass flow rate of kg/s while water enters at 90°C and a
mass flow rate of 0.25 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 250 W/m .K. If
the exchanger has a heat transfer area of 8.4 m2, find the exit temperatures of
both the fluids and the total heat transfer rate. (12)(N/D-11)

UNIT IV
RADIATION
PART-A
Black Body Radiation
1. Define Radiation?
The heat is transferred from one body to another without any transmitting
medium is known as radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave phenomenon.
2. What is black body radiation? [ April 97,Dec 2004, Dec 2005] (May/June 2016)
Black body is an ideal surface having the following properties:
1. A black body absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wave length and
direction.
2. For a prescribed temperature and wave length, no surface can emit more
energy than black body.
3. Define emissive power [Eb]. (Dec 2005, Oct 97, 2000)(May/June 2016)
The emissive power is define as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body
per unit and unit area. It is expressed in W/m2.
4. Define monochromatic emissive emissivity? [Eb ](May/June 2016)
The energy emitted by the surface at a given length per unit time per unit area in
all directions is known as monochromatic emissive power.
4. What is meant by absorptivity? [Dec 2004]
Absorptivity is defined as the ratio between radiation absorbed and incident

radiation.
Radiation absorbed
Absorptivity,  
Incident radiation
5. What is meant by reflectivity? [Dec 2004]

Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the incident radiation.
Radiation reflected
Reflectivity, ρ 
Incident radiation
6. What is meant by transmissivity?
Transmissivity is defined as the ratio of radiation transmitted to the incident radiation.

Radiation transmitted
Transmissivity,  
Incident radiation
7. State Planck’s distribution law? [ Oct 97, April 2000, May 2004 ]
The Relationship between the monochromatic emissive power of black
body and wave length of a radiation at a particular temperature is given by the
following expression, by plank
c  5
(i) Eb   C1 
2
 
e  T   1
Where,
Eb – Monochromatic emissive power, W/m2.
- Wavelength – m
C1 - 0.374 x 10-15 Wm2
C2 - 14.4 x10-3mK
8.State Stefan-Boltzman law?
The emissive power of a black body is proportional to the fourth of absolute

temperature.
Eb T 4
Eb   T 4
Where,
Eb = Emissive power W/m2
= Stefan – Boltzmann Constant
= 5.67X10-8 W/m2K4

T = Temperature, K
9. Find The energy emitted by a black body at 700°C [ Nov/Dec-2011]
GIVEN DATA:
Surface temperature, T = 7000C = 973k.
To FIND:
Energy emitted by a black body
SOLUTION:
Energy emitted, Eb = T4
= 5.6 X 10-8 W/m2 K4 HMT data book Pg.no .82
Eb = 5.67X10-8 (973)4 = 50.82X103 W/m2
10. Define Emissivity? [ Oct 2000, April 2002, Dec 2004]
It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat. It is also

defined as the ratio of emissive power of a black body of equal temperature.
E
Emissivity,  
Eb
11. Assuming the sun to be a black body emitting radiation with maximum
intensity at = 0.49 m, calculate the surface temperature of the sun.
[ Nov/Dec 2008]
Given :
= 0.49 m. = 0.49 X 10-6m
maxT = 2.9X10-3mk,
Τ = 2.9X10-3 = 5575k
Grey body radiation
12. What is meant by grey body? [ April 2000, Dec 2004, 2005,2015]

If a body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation irrespective of their wave

length, the body is known as gray body. The emissive power of a gray body is always
less than that of the black body.
13. State Kirchhoff’s law of radiation? [ April 2001, M, Dec 2004, Ap2010, jun2006]
This law states that the ratio of total emissive power to the absorptivity is
constant for all surfaces which are in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings.
This can be written as
E1 E2 E3
 
1 2 3
It also states that the emissivity of the body is always equal to is absorptivity when
the body remains in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
E1  1; E2   2 and so on.
14.Define intensity of radiation (Ib) ? [Nov 96. Oct 98, 99]
It is defined as the rate of energy leaving a space in a given direction per unit solid
angle per unit area of the emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space.
Eb
Ib 

15.State Lambert’s cosine law?
It State that the total emissive power Eb from a radiating plane surface in any
direction proportional to the cosine of the angle of emission.
Eb Cos 
16.What is the purpose of radiation shield?
Radiation shield constructed from low emissivity high reflective materials. It is used to
reduce the net radiation transfer between two surfaces.
17.Define irradiation (G)? [May/June 2013] (Nov/Dec-2015)

It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per unit area. It
is expressed in W/m2.
18.What is radiosity (J)? [May/June 2013](Nov/Dec-2015)
It is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a surface per unit time per unit area. It
is expressed in W/m2.
19.What are the assumptions made to calculate radiation exchange between the
surfaces?
1. All Surfaces are considered to be either black or gray.
2. Radiation and reflection process are assumed to be diffuse.
3. The absorptivity of a surface is taken equal to its emissivity and independent of

temperature of the source of the incident radiation.
Shape Factor
20.What is meant be shape factor and mention its physical significance? [May05,
Oct97,01, Apr98, June09] (Nov/ Dec-2015)(May/June 2016)
The shape factor defined as, “The fraction of the radioactive energy that is diffused
from one surface element and strikes the other surface directly with no intervening
reflections”. It is represented by F ij. Other names for radiation shape factor are view
factor angle factor and configuration factor. The shape factor is used in the analysis of
radioactive heat exchange between two surfaces.
21.Name the of variations laws used in heat transfer analysis ?[ May 2012]
1) Planck‟s Law
2) Wien‟s – displacement law

3) Stefan – Boltzmann law

4) Kirchhoff‟s law.
22. What is thermal radiation and what is its Wave length band [May/June 2013]
The heat transfer from one body to another without any manumitting medium is
known as radiation or thermal radiation. It is an electromagnetic wave Phenomenon.
[Wavelength band = = 0.1 to 100 m ]
According to Wien‟s Displacement law,
= 2.9 X 10-3mk
max
0.5 x 10-6x T = 2.9X10-3
T = 5800k
23. Distinguish between irradiation and radiosity ?[ May/June 2013]
Radiosity: It is used to indicated the total radiation leaving a surface per unit
time and per unit area
Irradiation: It is used to indicate the total radiation incident upon a surface per
unit time and per unit area.
Electrical Analogy
24. Explain electrical analogy? [ May/June 2007]
An alternate approach for analyzing thermal radiation between gray or black

surfaces is called electrical network analogy.
Radiation Shields
25. What are radiation shields? (Nov/Dec-2011)

Radiation shield is used to reduce the radiation heat transfer in between
two surfaces. Thin plastic coated sheets with highly reflecting metallic films on both
sides are used as effective radiation shields. It increases the surface resistance.

26. What is the greenhouse effect? Why is it a matter of great concern among
atmospheric scientists?(Nov/Dec-2015)
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a
planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases and re-radiated
in all directions. Greenhouse effect has significant role in climate change.
Radiation through gases.
27. Discuss the radiation characteristics of carbon dioxide and water vapour?
[Dec 05]
 The CO2 and H2O both absorb and emit radiations over certain wave length
regions called absorption bands.
 The radiation in there gores is a volume phenomenon.
 The emissivity of CO2 and the emissivity of H2O at a particular temperature
increases with partial pressure and mean beam length.
Part –B
Black Body Radiation and Grey body radiation
1 . Define the Following [ Nov/Dec – 2010 ]

(i) Black body (ii) Grey body (iii) Opaque body (iv) white body
(i) Black body :(May/June 2016)
This black body absorbs all the radiation falling on it surface.

For this body α = 1, So = 0, ρ = 0
(ii) Grey body :(Nov/Dec-2015)
For this grey body, absorptivity does not very with temperature and wave length
of the incident radiation. So, for a gray body α = (α) = Constant.
(iii) Opaque body :

This opaque body does not transmit any radiation falling on its surface.
Here = 0, So, α+ ρ = 1
(iv) White body:

This white body reflected all the radiation felling on its surfaces
2. Calculate the following for an industrial furnace in the form of a black body
and emitting radiation at 2500 0C [ May/June 2012] (8 marks)
(i) Monochromatic emissive power at 1.2 m length

(ii) Wavelength at which the emissive is maximum
(iii) Maximum emissive powers
(iv) Total emissive power
Given Data:
Surface temperature, T = 2500 0C = 2773 K
To Find :
(i) Monochromatic emissive power, Eb at = 1.2 m length
= 1.2X10-6 m
(ii) Wavelength at maximum, max
(iii) Maximum emissive power, (Eb )max

(iv) Total emissive power, Eb
Solution:
c 1  5
Eb   C2  [HMT data book. Pg. 82]
 T 
e  
1
Let C1 = 0.374177107 x10-15 W/m2
C2 = 0.014387752 mK
Eb = 2.019X1012 W/m2
(ii) max T = 2898 mk

max . 2773 = 2898 X 10-6mk

max = 1.045 X10-6m
(iii) (Eb )max = 1.307X10-5 T5
= 1.307X10-5 (2773)5
(Eb ) max = 2.143X 1012 W/m2
(iv) Eb = T4
= 5.67X10-8x (2773)4
Eb = 3.352 X106 W/m2
3. A black body at 3000 K emits radiation. Calculate the following:

i) Monochromatic emissive power at 7 m wave length.
ii) Wave length at which emission is maximum.
iii) Maximum emissive power.
iv) Total emissive power,
v) Calculate the total emissive of the furnace if it is assumed as a real
surface having emissivity equal to 0.85.
Given: Surface temperature T = 3000K
Solution: 1. Monochromatic Emissive Power:
From Planck‟s distribution law, we know
C1 5
Eb 
 C2 
 
e   T  1
[From HMT data book, Page No.71]

Where
c1 = 0.374  10-15 W m2
c2 = 14.4  10-3mK
 = 1  10-6 m [Given]

0.374  10 15 [1 10 6 ]5

 Eb 
 144  10 3 
1 106  3000 
  1
Eb  3.10  1012 W/m2
2. Maximum wave length ( max)
From Wien‟s law, we know

max T  2.9  10 3 mK
2.9  10 3
 max =
3000
max = 0.966  10-6m
3. Maximum emissive power (Eb ) max:
Maximum emissive power

(Eb)max = 1.307  10-5 T5
= 1.307  10-5 (3000)5
(Eb)max = 3.17  1012 W/m2
4. Total emissive power (Eb):

From Stefan – Boltzmann law, we know that
Eb =  T4
Where  = Stefan – Boltzmann constant
= 5.67  10-8 W/m2K4
Eb = (5.67  10-8) (3000)4
Eb = 4.59  106 W/m2

5. Total emissive power of a real surface:
(Eb)real =  T4
Where = Emissivity = 0.85
8
(Eb)real = 0.85  5.67  10  (3000)
4
(Eb )real  3.90  106 W / m2
4. Assuming sun to be black body emitting radiation at 6000 K at a mean

distance of 12  1010 m from the earth. The diameter of the sun is 1.5  109 m
and that of the earth is 13.2  106 m. Calculation the following.
1. Total energy emitted by the sun.
2. The emission received per m2 just outside the earth’s atmosphere.
3. The total energy received by the earth if no radiation is blocked by the
earth’s atmosphere.
4. The energy received by a 2  2 m solar collector whose normal is inclined
at 45 to the sun. The energy loss through the atmosphere is 50% and the
diffuse radiation is 20% of direct radiation.
Given: Surface temperature T = 6000 K

Distance between earth and sun R = 12  1010 m
Diameter on the sun D1 = 1.5 109 m
Diameter of the earth D2 = 13.2  106 m
Solution:1. Energy emitted by sun Eb =  T4

 Eb = 5.67  10-8  (6000)4

[  = Stefan - Boltzmann constant
= 5.67  10-8 W / m2 K 4 ]
Eb = 73.4  10 6 W/m2
Area of sun A 1  4 R12
2
 1.5  109 
= 4   
 2 
A1  7  1018 m2
 Energy emitted by the sun

Eb = 73.4  106  7  1018
Eb  5.14  1026 W
2. The emission received per m2 just outside the earth’s atmosphere:

The distance between earth and sun R = 12  1010 m
Area, A = 4 R2
= 4    (12  1010 )2
A = 1.80  1023 m2
 The radiation received outside the earth atmosphere per
m2
Eb
=
A
5.14  1026
=
1.80  1023
= 2855.5 W/m2
3. Energy received by the earth:


Earth area = (D2 )2
4

=  [13.2  10 6 ]2
4
Earth area = 1.36  10 4m2
Energy received by the earth
 2855.5  1.36  104
 3.88  1017 W
4. The energy received by a 2  2 m solar collector;

Energy loss through the atmosphere is 50%. So energy reaching the
earth.
 100 - 50 = 50%
= 0.50
Energy received by the earth
 0.50  2855.5
 1427.7 W/m2 ......(1)
Diffuse radiation is 20%
 0.20  1427.7 = 285.5 W/m2
Diffuse radiation = 285.5 W/m2 .........(2)
Total radiation reaching the collection
 142.7  285.5
 1713.2 W/m2
Plate area = A  cos 
= 2  2  cos 45
= 2.82 m2

Energy received by the collector

 2.82  1713.2
 4831.2 W
5. Discuss briefly the variation of black body emissive power with wave length for
different temperatures [ Apr/May – 2008 ]
A plot of (E ) b as a function of temperature and wavelength is given in
The plot shows the following characteristics of block body radiations.
 The energy emitted at all wavelength increases with rise in temperature.

 The peak spectral emissive power shift towards a smaller, wavelength at higher
temperature.
 The area under the monochromatic emissive power versus wavelength at any
temperature. Given the rate of radiation energy emitted within the wavelength
interval d .
dEb = (E )b . d .
6.Derive Wien’s displacement law of radiation from plank’s law (May/June2012)

Solution:
We know that, Planck‟s distribution law
C1 5
 E b 
C 
exp  2   1
 T 
 E b Become maximum (if T remains constant)
d  E b
When 0
d

 
d  E b d  C  5 
  1
0
d d   C2  

exp   1
 T  
  C2   5   C2  C2  1  
  1  5C1   C1 exp 
6
exp  T   2 
      T  T   
2
0
  C2  
exp  T   1
   
C  5 1 C 
5C1 6 exp  2   5C1  C1C2 
6
exp  2   0
 T  T  T 
2
Dividing both side by 5C1 6 we get
C  1 1 C 
 exp  2   1  C2 2 exp  2   0
 T  5 T  T 
Solving the equation by trial error method, we get
C2 C2
  4.965
T maxT
C2
maxT 
4.965
1.439 10 4
=  mk  2898 mk
4.965
maxT  2.9 103 mk
Shape Factor

7. Find the shape factor F1-2 for the figure shown below In the fig 4.1 the areas A1
and A2 are perpendicular but do not share the common edge.
Fig.4.1
Solution:
From the fig WKT,
A5=A1+A3
A6=A2+A4
We know that,
A5F5-6 =A1F1-6 +A3F3-6
[A5=A1+A3;F5-6=F1-6+F3-6]
=A1F1-4+A1F1-2+A3F3-6
[F1-6=F1-4+F1-2]
A5F5-6=A5F5-4-A3F3-4+A1-2F1-2+A3F3-6
[A1=A5-A3;F1-4=F5-4-F3-4]

A1F1-2=A5F5-6-A5F5-4+A3F3-4-A3F3-6
A1F1-2=A5[F5-6-F5-4]+A3[F3-4-F3-6]
F1-2=A5[F5-6-F5-4]+A3[F3-4-F3-6] 1
A1A1
Refer HMT data book P.no:94
Shape Factor for the area A5 and A6 shown in fig.4.2
Z=L2/B =4/2 = 2
Y=L1/B=4/2 =2
Z value is 2, Y value is 2.
From that we can find corresponding Fig. 4.2
Shape factor value is 0.14930 (from table, p.no. 94)
F5-6 =0.14930
Shape Factor for the area A5 and A4: shown in
fig.4.3
Z=L2/B =2/2 = 1
Y=L1/B=4/2 =2
F5-4=0.11643 (from table) Fig.4.3
fig.4.4
Z=L2/B =2/2 = 1
Y=L1/B=2/2 =1

F3-4=0.20004 Fig.4.4
fig.4.5
Z=L2/B =4/2 =2
Y=L1/B=2/2 =1
F3-6=0.23285
Substitute F5-6, F5-4, F3-4 and F3-6 values in equation 1 Fig.4.5
=A5/A1(0.14930-0.11643)+A3/A1(0.20004-0.23285)
=A5/A1(0.03287)-A3/A1(0.03281)
=8/4(0.03287)-4/4(0.03281)
=2(0.03287)-1(0.03281)
F1-2=0.03293
8. Two black square plates of size 2 by 2 m are placed parallel to each other at a
distance of 0.5 m. One plate is maintained at a temperature of 1000 0C and the
other at 5000C. Find the heat exchange between the plates.
Given:
A = 2 x 2 = 4 m2
T1 = 10000C + 273
= 1273 K
T2 = 5000C + 273
= 773 K
Distance = 0.5 m
To find: Heat transfer (Q)
Solution : We know Heat transfer general equation is

 T14  T2 4 
Q12 
1  1 1 1 2
 
A11 A1F12 A1 2 [From equation No.(6)]
For black body 1   2  1

 Q12   [T14  T2 4 ]  A1F12
= 5.67  108 (1273)4  (773)4   4  F12
Q12  5.14  105 F12 ......(1)
Where F12 – Shape factor for square plates In order to find shape factor F12, refer
HMT data book, Page No.76.
Smaller side
X axis =
Distance between planes
2
=
0.5
X axis = 4
Curve → 2 [Since given is square plates]
X axis value is 4, curve is 2. So corresponding Y axis value is 0.62.

F12  0.62
(1)  Q12  5.14  105  0.62
Q12  3.18  105 W
9. Consider two concentric cylinders having diameters 10cm and 20cm and a
length of 20cm. Designating The open ends of the cylinders as surface 3 and 4,
estimate the shape factor, F3-4(10 marks) [Nov/Dec – 2011]
Given Data:
From data book pg.no 104
r3 = 5cm

r4 = 10 cm; L=20cm
L/r4 = 20/10 = 2; r3/r4 = 5/10 = 0.5
F4-3 = 0.44
A3F3-4 = A4F4-3
A 
F34   4  .F43
 A3 
  102 
= 2 
 0.44  1.76
  5 
Shape factor, F3-4 = 1.76
10. The radiation shape factor of the circular surface of a thin hollow cylinder of
10cm diameter and 10cm length is 0.1716. What respect to itself [Nov/Dec – 2010]
Given data :
r1 =r2 = 10/2 = 5cm, L = 10cm, F1-2 = 0.1716
Here F1-2 = F2-1 as A1 = A2
The shape factor relation between all the three surfaces is given by,
F1-1 + F1-2 + F1-3 = 1 1
F3-3 + F3-2 + F3-1 = 1 2
But F3-1 = F3-2 and F1-1 = F2-2 = 0 3
Substituting (3) in (1)
F3-3 + F3-1 + F3-1 = 1
F3-3=1-2F3-1 4
Also A1F1-3 = A3F3-1
F3-1 = F3-1x A1/A3 = F1-3xπR2
2πrL
F3-1 = F1-3 X r/2L
From equation (1):

F1-3 = 1-F1-2 (F1-1 = 0) = 1-0.1716 = 0.8284 5

F3-1 = 0.8284 x 5/(2x10) = 0.2071
Now substituting F3-1 in eqn. (4)
F3-3 = 1-2 (0.2071) = 0.5858
11. The spectral emissivity function of an opaque surface at 1000K is

approximated as . (Nov/Dec-2015) (12 marks)
1 = 0.4 ,0 ≤  2µm
2 = 0.7 ,2µm ≤  6µ m
3 = 0.3 ,6µm ≤ 
Calculate the average emissivity of the surface and the rate of radiation emission from
the surface in w/m2
SOLUTION:
1T=2x1000=2000 µmK
2T=6x1000=6000 µmK
Average emissivity of the surface,
= 1F0- 1+ 2F 1- 2+ 3F 2- 
= 1F 1+ 2(F 2- 1)+ 3(1-F 2)
= (0.4x0.066728) + (0.7) (0.737818-0.066728) + (0.3) (1-0.73781)

= 0.575
Emissive power, Eb = T4
= 5.67 x 10-8x0.575x10004
Eb= 32.6x103 W/m2

12. Explain briefly the following [ April/May – 2008 ]
(i) Specular and diffuse reflection
(ii) Reflectivity & transmissivity
(iii) Reciprocity rule and summation rule
(i) Specular and diffuse reflection :

Specular and reflection occurs from a surface such as a mirror, which is very
smooth, an image of the source of radiation is projected the angle of reflection is
equal to angle of incidence. Diffuse radiation occurs when the surface is rough
and the reflection from the surface occurs partially in discriminately in all
directions.
(ii) Reflectivity and transmissivity :
ρ = Qρ/Q is the fraction of incident
Radiation reflected and is called reflectivity.
= Q /Q is the fraction of incident radiation transmitted and is called transmissivity.
(iii) Reciprocity rule and summation rule:
If Q be the rate at which a surface receives heat and of this amount Q is reflected,
Q transmitted and Qx absorbed. Then by the principle of conservation of energy,
total sum must be equal to incident radiation.
(i.e) Reflection + Transmission + Absorption = Incident radiation.
Qρ + Q + Qα = Q (or)Qρ/Q + Q /Q + Qα/Q = 1 ρ+ +α = 1
13. Show from energy balance consideration that the radiation heat transfer from
a plane Composite surface area A4 and made up of plane surface area A 2 and A3
to plane surface area A1 is given by,

A4F41 = A3F31 + A2 F21. and F14 + F12 +F13
PROOF :
If two surface A1 and A4
Are parallel and large, radiation
Occurs a gross the gap between them
so that A1 and A4 and all
radiation emitted by one falls on
the other, then
F1-4 = F4-1 = 1
If one of the surface say A4 is divided into subareas A2 and A3 then A1F1-2 = A2 F12 + A3
F13
Thus it the radiant surface is subdivided, the shape factor gore that surface with
respect to the receiving surface is not equal to sum of individual shape factors.
A4F4-1 = A3F31 + A2F21 (or) F41 = F31 + F21
Hence the shape factor from a radiating surface to a subdivided receving surface
is simply the sum of individual shape factors.
14. using the definition of Radiosity and irradiation prove that the radiation heat
exchange between two grey bodies is given by the radiation.
Irradiation (G)

It is defined as the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per unit
area. It is expressed in w/m2.
Radiosity(J)
It is used to indicate the total radiation leaving a surface pre unit time per unit
area. It is expressed in w/m2.
The radiosity(J) consists two parts.
1.Reflected by the surface=  G
2. Emitted by the surface =  Eb
So, J=  G +  Eb  (1)
We know that ,
Absorptivity + Reflectivity + Transmissivity =1
     1
    1 (  0)
 =1-
J  (1   )G   Eb
 
From equ(1) J  (1   )G   Eb  (2)
J   Eb  (1   )G
J   Eb
G  (3)
1 
The net energy leaving a surface is the difference between its radiosity(J) and
irradiation(G).

Q12
 J G
A
 J   Eb 
 J  
 1  
J 1     ( J   Eb )

1   
J  J   J   Eb

1 
 J    Eb

1 
Q12   Eb  J 

A 1 
 A  Eb  J 
Q1 2 
1 
Q1 2 
 Eb  J 
 1  
 
 A 
1 
Where is know as surface resistance of the body.
A
If two bodies which are radiating heat with each other and if the radiating heat of one
body per unit area is not falling on the other and part of it has gone elsewhere, then, it is
taken into account by a factor which is known as shape factor or view factor.
The heat radiated by the first body and received by the second body = J1 A1F12
Heat radiated from second and received by first = J 2 A2 F21
So, net heat loss by the first body,

Q 1 2  J1 A1 F1 2  J 2 A2 F21
= A1 F1 2  J1  J 2  A1 F1 2  A2 F21
J1  J 2
Q 1 2 
1
A1 F1 2
1
Where is know as space resistance of the body.
A1 F12
If two surface resistance of the two bodies and space resistance between them is
considered, then the net heat flow can be represented by an electric circuit.
Eb1  Eb 2
Q1 2  where Eb   T 4
1  1 1 1 2
 
1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2
 T14  T24 
Q1 2 
1  1 1 1 2
 
1 A1 A1 F12  2 A2
Electrical Analogy
15. Two parallel plates of size 3 m  2 m are placed parallel to each other at a
distance of 1 m. One plate is maintained at a temperature of 550C and the other
at 250C and the emissivity’s are 0.35 and 0.55 respectively. The plates are
located in a large room whose walls are at 35C. If the plates located exchange
heat with each other and with the room, calculate.
1. Heat lost by the plates.
2. Heat received by the room.
Given: Size of the plates =3m2m
Distance between plates =1m
First plate temperature T1 = 550C + 273 = 823 K

Second plate temperature T2 = 250C + 273 = 523 K

Emissivity of first plate 1 = 0.35
Emissivity of second plate 2 = 0.55
Room temperature T3 = 35C + 273 = 308 K
To find: 1. Heat lost by the plates
2. Heat received by the room.
Solution: In this problem, heat exchange takes place between two plates and
the room. So this is three surface problems and the corresponding radiation
A1  A 2  6m2
network is given below. Area A1 = 3  2 = 6 m
2
A3  
Since the room is large
From electrical network diagram,
1  1 1  0.35
  0.309
1A1 0.35  6
1   2 1  0.55
  0.136
 2 A 2 0.55  6
1 3
0 [ A 3  ]
3 A3
1 3 1-1 1 2
 0,  0.309,  0.136
 A
Apply 3 3  A
1 1  A
2 2 values in electrical network
diagram.
To find shape factor F12 refer HMT data book, Page No.78.
b 3
X  3
c 1
a 2
Y   2
c 1

X value is 3, Y value is 2, corresponding shape factor [From table]

F12 = 0.47
F12  0.47
We know that,
F11 + F12 + F13 = 1 But, F11 = 0
 F13  1  F12
 F13  1  0.47
F13  0.53
Similarly, F21 + F22 + F23 = 1 We know F22 = 0

 F23  1  F21
 F23  1  F12
F13 = 1 - 0.47
F23  0.53
From electrical network diagram, as shown in Fig.4.6

1 1
  0.314 ....(1)
A1F13 6  0.53
1 1
  0.314 ....(2)
A 2F23 6  0.53
1 1
  0.354 ....(3)
A1F12 6  0.47
From Stefan – Boltzmann law, we know

Eb   T 4
Eb1   T14
= 5.67  10 -8 823 
4
Eb1  26.01 103 W / m2 .....(4)

Eb2   T2 4
= 5.67  10 -8 823 
4
Eb2  4.24  103 W / m2 .....(5)

Eb3   T3 4
= 5.67  10 -8 308 
4
Eb3  J3  510.25 W / m2 .....(6)
[From diagram]
The radiosities, J1 and J2 can be calculated by using Kirchoff‟s law.
 The sum of current entering the node J1 is zero.
At Node J1:
Eb1  J1 J2  J1 Eb3  J1
  0
0.309 1 1
A1F12 A1F13
[From diagram]
26.01 103  J1 J2  J1 510.25  J1

   0
0.309 0.354 0.314
J1 J2 J1 J1
 84.17  103     1625  0
0.309 0.354 0.354 0.354
 -9.24J1  2.82J2  85.79  103 .....(7)
At node j2
J1  J2 Eb3  J2 Eb2  J2
  0
1 1 0.136
A1F12 A 2F23
J1  J2 510.25  J2 4.24  103  J2

  0
0.354 0.314 0.136
J1 J2 510.25 J2 4.24  103 J2
     0
0.354 0.354 0.314 0.314 0.136 0.136
 2.82J1  13.3J2  32.8  103 ....(8)

Solving equation (7) and (8),

 -9.24J1  2.82J2  85.79  103 .....(7)
J2  4.73  103 W / m2
 2.82J1  13.3J2  32.8  103 .....(8)
J1  10.73  103 W / m2
Heat lost by plate (1) is given by

Eb1  J1
Q1 
 1  1 
 
 1A1 
26.01 103  10.73  103

Q1 
1  0.35
0.35  6
Q1  49.36  103 W
Heat lost by plate 2 is given by

Eb2  J2
Q2 
 1 2 
 
 2A2 
4.24  103  4.73  103

Q2 
1  0.55
6  0.55
Q2  3.59  103 W
Total heat lost by the plates

Q = Q1 + Q 2
= 49.36  103 – 3.59  103
Q  45.76  103 W ......(9)

Heat received by the room

J1  J3 J2  J3
Q 
1 1
A1F13 A1F12
10.73  103  510.25 4.24  103  510.25

 
0.314 0.314
[ Eb1  J1  512.9]
Q = 45.9  103 W .....(10)
From equation (9), (10), we came to know heat lost by the plates is equal
to heat received by the room.
16. A furnace is approximated as an equilateral triangular duct Fig.4.7 of

sufficient length so that end effect can be neglected. The hot wall of the furnace
is maintained at 900k and has the same emissivity. Find the net radiation heat
blur leaving. The Third wall of the furnace may be assured as a reradiating
surface. Two of the surfaces of a long equilateral triangular furnace are
maintained at uniform temperature while the third wall is reradiating surface.
T2 = 900K
2 = 0.8 2 3 Q1
Eb1
1
T1 = 400K
1 = 0.8
Fig.4.7
The radiation network in Fig.4.8This Case is a simple series parallel Connection.

Q Eb1  Eb 2

A  1 1 1 
R1       R2
 R12 R13 R23 
Q Eb1  Eb 2

A  
1  1  1  1 
  F12   2
1  1

1  2
 
 R13 R23 
F12 = F13 = F23 = 0.5 [Symmetry]
Eb1 = T14 = 5.67 x 10-8 x (400)4 = 1451.52 W/m2
Eb2 = T24 = 5.67x 10-8 x (900)4 = 37200.87 W/m2
Fig.4.8
Q 37200.87  1451.52

A  1  0.8   0.5  1   1  0.8 
   
 0.8   0.5  0.5   0.8 
Q
 17874.674W / m 2
A
Radiation Shields.

17. Emissivity’s of two parallel plates at 800 0C and 3000C are 0.3 and 0.5
respectively. Find the net energy transfer rate per square meter. [ Nov/Dec – 2007
] (Nov/Dec-2015).(May/June 2016)
SOLUTION:
The heat exchange per unit area between two large parallel plates is given by.
Q12 = q12 = (T14 – T24 ) = 5.67 X 10-8 [ 10734 – 5734]

A 1/ 1 + 1/ 2 –1 1/0.3 + 1/0.5 – 1
= 5.67 X 12352 = 16.2 KW/m2
4.33
18. Determine an expression for heat transfer rate by using electrical analogy if
without any shield between 2 parallel plates (ii) with shield in between 2 parallel
plates.
Let us consider two parallel planes 1 and 2 each of area A at temperature T1 and
T2 respectively. A radiation shield is plane in between them.
A T14  T24 
Q12   1
1 1
 1
1 2
Heat exchange between 1 and 3 is
A T14  T34 
Q13    2
1 1
 1
1 3
Heat exchange between 3 and 2 is
A T34  T24 
Q32    3
1 1
 1
3 2

From equation (2)

1 1 
Q13    1
T14  T34    1  3 
A
1 1 
Q13    1
T34  T14   1  3   (4)
A
Substitute equ (4) in (3)

 1 1  
 Q13    1 
  1  3  4
A T1 
4
 T2
 A 
 
 
Q32 
1 1
 1
3 2
1 1  1 1 
Q32    1  A T14  Q13    1  A T24
 3  2   1  3 
1 1  1 1 
Q32    1  Q13    1  A T14  A T24
 3  2   1  3 
Under equilibrium condition

Q13  Q32

 1 1  1 1 
Q13    1     1   A T14  T24 
  3  2    1  3  
A T14  T24 
Q13   (4)
 1 1  1 1 
   1      1  
  3  2    1  3  
Dividing the equation (40 in(1)

1 1 
   1
Q13
  1  3 
Q12  1 1  1 1 
   1      1  
  3  2    1  3  
if 1   2   3
Q13 1

Q12 2
1
Q13   Q12
2
Thus by interesting one shield between two parallel surface the direct radiation heat
transfer between them is halved.
19. Two very large parallel planes with emissivity. 0.5 and 0.5.To minimize the
radiation exchange between the planes, a polished aluminum radiation shield is
placed between them. If the emissivity of the shield is 0.04 on both sides, find the
percentage reduction in heat transfer rate. (10 marks)[Apr/May – 2011]
GIVEN DATA:
Emissivity, 1 = 0.5, 2 = 0.5, 3 = 0.04

To find :

% Reduction in heat transfer rate.

Solution:
Case 1:Heat transfer without radiation shield.
Q12    A T14  T24 
1

1 1
 1
1 2
1

1 1
 1
0.5 0.5
  0.333
Q12  0.033  A T14  T24 
Heat Transfer with radiation shield

A T14  T24 
Q
1 1 2n
   (n  1)
1 2 s
Let n = No. of radiation shield.
A T14  T24 
Q
1 1 2(1)
   (1  1)
0.5 0.5 0.04
A T14  T24 
Q
52
Q  0.0192 A T14  T24 
We know that,
Reduction in heat transfer
Qwithout shield  Qwith shield
due to radiation shield =
Qwithshild

0.333 A T14  T24   0.0192 A T14  T24 


0.333 A T14  T24 
0.333  0.0192

0.333
 0.942  94%
20. Two very large parallel plates are maintained at uniform temperature of T 1=
1000K and T 2= 800K and have emissivities 0.2. it is desired to reduced the net rate
of radiation heat transfer between the two plates to one-fifth by placing thin
aluminum sheet with an emissivity of 0.15 on both side between the plate.
Determine the number of sheet the need to be inserted.(Nov/Dec-2015)
Given:
T1= 1000K and T2= 800K
1= 2=0.2( No Shield)
1= 2=0.15 ( Shield)
Tofind:
Number of sheet
 T14  T24 
Solution: Q12 = ( No Shield)
1 1
 1
1 2
= 3720 W/m2
1/5th of Q12 = 1/5 x 3720= 744W
( )

Nshield= 2.92
Radiation through gases.
21. Considering radiation in gases, obtain the exponential – decay

Formula.[Nov/Dec – 2011]
Consider a beam of monochromatic radiation with an intensity I 0 entering a gas
layer of Thickness I x. As the beam passes through The gas layer, its intensity gets
reduce and the decrease is given by.
dI  ( x)  m I  ( x)dx
Where,
I x – Monochromatic intensity at a distance x
K – Proportionality Constant
Integrating above equation between x=0 and X=L
IL L
dI ( x)
I I ( x)  m 0 dx
0
I 
ln  l    m L
 I o 
I  L  I  o exp( m L)
22. A gas mixture contains 20% CO2 and 10% H2o by volume. The total pressure is
2 atm. The temperature of the gas is 927 0C. The mean beam length is 0.3 m.
Calculate the emissivity of the mixture.
Given :Partial pressure of CO2, = 20% = 0.20 atm
Partial pressure of H2o, = 10% = 0.10 atm.

Total pressure P = 2 atm
Temperature T = 9270C + 273
= 1200 K
Mean beam length Lm = 0.3 m
To find: Emissivity of mixture (ἐ mix).
Solution : To find emissivity of CO2
PCO2  Lm  0.2  0.3

PCO2  Lm  0.06 m - atm
From HMT data book, Page No.90, we can find emissivity of CO 2.
From graph, Emissivity of CO2 = 0.09
 CO  0.09
2
To find correction factor for CO2
Total pressure, P = 2 atm
PCO2 Lm = 0.06 m - atm.
From HMT data book, Page No.91, we can find correction factor for CO 2
From graph, correction factor for CO2 is 1.25
CCO2  1.25
 CO  CCO  0.09  1.25

2 2
 CO  CCO  0.1125
2 2
To find emissivity of :

PH2o  Lm  0.1 0.3
PH2oLm  0.03 m - atm
From HMT data book, Page No.92, we can find emissivity of H2o.
From graph Emissivity of H2o = 0.048
H o  0.048
2
To find correction factor for H2o
PH2o  P 0.1  2
  1.05
2 2
PH2o  P
 1.05,
2
PH2o Lm  0.03 m - atm
From HMT data book, Page No.92 we can find emission of H20
From graph,
Correction factor for H2O = 1.39
CH2O = 1.39
H2O x CH2O = 0.048 x 1.39
H2O x CH2O = 0.066
Correction factor for mixture of CO2 and H2o:

PH2o 0.1
  1.05
PH2o  PCO2 0.1  0.2
PH2o
 0.333
PH2o  PCO2
PCO2  Lm  PH2O  Lm  0.06  0.03
PCO2  Lm  PH2O  Lm  0.09
From HMT data book, Page No.95, we can find correction factor for mixture of
CO2 and
From graph, = 0.002
Total emissivity of gaseous mixture, mix = Co2 x Cco2 + H2O x CH2O –
= 0.1125 + 0.066 – 0.002
mix = 0.1765
PREVIOUS ANNA UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS

PART A
1. Define emissive power [Eb]. (Dec 2005)

2. What is meant by absorptivity? [Dec 2004]
3. What is meant by reflectivity? [Dec 2004]
4. What is black body? [Dec 2005 ]
5. State Planck‟s distribution law? [May 2004 ]
6. Define Emissivity? [Dec 2004]

7. What is meant by grey body? [ April 2005]

8. State Kirchhoff‟s law of radiation? [April2010, Jun2006]
9. Define intensity of radiation (Ib) ?[Nov 99]
10. Define irradiation (G)? [May/June 2013]
11. What is radiosity (J)? [May/June 2013]
12. What is meant be shape factor and mention its physical significance? [June09]
12. Discuss the radiation characteristics of carbon dioxide and wate vapour?[Dec
2005]
13. Name the laws of variations used in heat transfer analysis ?[ May 2012]
14. Two parallel radiating planes 100 X 50 cm are separated by a distance of 50 cm
what is the radiation shape factor between the planes? [ May 2012]
15. What is thermal radiation and what is its Wave length band [May/June 2013]
16. Find the temperature of the sum assuming as a block body, if the intensity of
radiation is maximum at the wavelength of 0.5 .[ Apr, May – 2010]
17. Assuming the sun to be a black body emitting radiation with maximum intensity at
= 0.49 m, calculate the surface temperature of the sun.[ Nov/Dec 2008]
18. What are radiation shields? (Nov/Dec-2011,Nov/Dec 2014 )
19. Explain electrical analogy? [ May/June 2007]
20. Define irradiation and emissive power. (May/June 2014)
21. Write down any two shape factor algebra (May/June 2014)
22. What are the factors involved in radiation by abody? (Nov/Dec 2014)
PART B
1. Calculate the following for an industrial furnace in the form of a black body and
emitting radiation at 2500 0C [ May/June 2012] (8 marks)
(v) Monochromatic emissive power at 1.2 m length
(vi) Wavelength at which the emissive is maximum
(vii) Maximum emissive powers

(viii) Total emissive power

2. Two parallel plates of size lm x lm spaced 0.5m apart are located in very large room,
the walls are maintained at a temperature of 27°C. One plate is maintained at a
temperature of 900°C and the other at 400°C. Their emissivities are 0.2 and 0.5
respectively. If the plates exchange heat between themselves and surroundings, find
the heat transfer to each plate and to them. Consider only the plate surface facing
each other. (16 marks)[May/June 2012]
3. Derive Wien‟s displacement law of radiation from plank‟s law. (May/June 2012)
4. (a)Find The energy emitted by a black body at 700°C [ Nov/Dec-2011]
(b) A furnace is approximated as an equilateral triangular duct of sufficient length so that
end effect can be neglected. The hot wall of the furnace is maintained at 900k and has
the same emissivity. Find the net radiation heat blur leaving the wall. Third wall of the
furnace may be assured as a reradiating surface.
Two of the surfaces of a long equilateral triangular furnace are maintained at uniform
temperature while the third wall is reradiating surface. (May/June 2013)
5. a) Considering radiation in gases, obtain the exponential – decay Formula.
[Nov/Dec – 2011]
b) Consider two concentric cylinders having diameters 10cm and 20cm and a length of
20cm. Designating The open ends of the cylinders as surface 3 and 4, estimate the
shape factore, F3-4
(10 marks)[Nov/Dec – 2011]
6. A double walled cylindrical vessel used for storing liquid oxygen at -18°c The inner
wall is coated with a point with = 0.02. The temperature of the inner surface of the
outer wall is 2°c. It is also coated with same painting. The inner wall surface area is 80%
of outer the inner wall surface area is 0.15 m2. Determine heat radiated. (Nov/Dec
2013)

7. Two very large parallel planes are respectively. 0.8 and 0.3. To minimize the
radiation exchange between the planes, a polished aluminum radiation shield is placed
between them. If the emissivity of the shield is 0.04 on both sides, find the percentage
reduction in heat transfer rate. (10 marks)[Apr/May – 2011]
8. Define the Following [ Nov/Dec – 2010]
(i) Black body (ii) Grey body (iii) Opaque body (iv) White body
9. The radiation shape factor of the circular surface of a thin hollow cylinder of 10cm
diameter and 10cm length is 0.1716. What respect to itself?[Nov/Dec – 2010]
14. Discuss briefly the variation of black body emissive power with wave length for
different temperatures [ Apr/May – 2008]
11 Explain briefly the following [ April/May – 2008 ]
(i) Specular and diffuse reflection
(ii) Reflectivity &transmissivity
(iii) Reciprocity rule and summation rule
12. (a) Emissivities of two parallel plates at 800°C and 300°C are 0.3 and 0.5
respectively. Find the net energy transfer rate per square meter.[ Nov/Dec – 2007]
b) Show from energy balance consideration that the radiation heat transfer from a plane
Composite surface area A4 and made up of plane surface area A2 and A3 to plane
surface area A1 is given by, A4F41 = A3F31 + A2 F21. and F14 + F12 +F13
c) Using the definition of radiosity and irradiation prove that the radiation heat exchange
between two grey bodies is given by the radiation

UNIT-V
MASS TRANSFER
Two Mark Questions:-
Basic Concepts
1. What is mass transfer?

The process of transfer of mass as a result of the species concentration
difference in a mixture is known as mass transfer.
2. Give the examples of mass transfer.
Some examples of mass transfer are
1. Humidification of air in cooling tower
2. Evaporation of petrol in the carburetor – IC Engine
3. The transfer of water vapour into dry air
Diffusion Mass Transfer
3. What are the modes of mass transfer? (June-06)
There are basically two modes of mass transfer
1. Diffusion mass transfer
2. Convective mass transfer
4. What is molecular Diffusion? (Nov/Dec-08) (May/June – 2009)
The transport of water on a microscopic level as a result of diffusion from
a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration in a mixture of
liquids (or) gases is known as molecular diffusion.
5. What is Eddy Diffusion?
When one of the diffusion fluids is in turbulent motion, eddy diffusion
takesplace.
6. What is convective mass transfer? (June-06)

Convective mass transfer is a process of mass transfer that will occur

between a surface and a fluid medium when they are at different concentrations.
7. Define the following
(i) Mass Concentration
(ii) Molar Concentration
(iii) Mass fraction
(iv) Mole fraction
(i) Mass concentration con mass density: (Nov/Dec-2004) (Dec-05)
Mass of a component per unit volume of the mixture. It is expressed in kg
/m3
Mass concentration = Mass of a component
Unit volume of mixture
(ii) Molar concentration (or) Molar density:(Apr/May 2010)
Number of molecules of a component per unit volume of the mixture. It is
expressed in kg mole /m3
Molar concentration = Number of moles of component
Unit volume of mixture
(iii) Mass fraction:

The mass fraction is defined as the ration of mass concentration of
species of the total mass density of the mixture.
Mass fraction = Mass concentration of species
Total mass density
(iv) Mole fraction:

The mole fraction is defined as the ratio of mole concentration of species
to the total molar concentration
Mole concentration = Mole concentration of a species
Total molar concentration
Fick’s Law of Diffusion

8. State Fick’s Law of Diffusion :- (May-2012) (May-2008) (May/June 2016)
The diffusion rate is given by the Fick‟s Law, which states that molar flux
of an element per unit area is directly proportional to concentration gradient
ma= Dab dCa
dx
Where,
ma - molar flux – kg – mole
s-m2
Dab – Diffusion Co-efficient of species a and b,m2/ s
dCa – Concentration gradient kg 1m3
dx.
Steady state Molecular Diffusion
9. What do you meant by equimolar counter diffusion? (Nov-Dec-2008)
Consider two large chambers a and b connected by a passage as shown
in fig.5.1
Na and Nb are the steady state molar diffusion rates of components a and
b respectively.
Equimolar diffusion is defined as each molecules of „a‟ is replaced by each molecule of

„b‟ and vice versa. The total pressure P=Pa+Pb
Convective Mass Transfer
10. What is free convective mass transfer? (May -2007)

If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from

concentration gradients, the mode of mass transfer is said to be free (or) natural
convective mass transfer
Example: Evaporation of alcohol
11. Define forced convective mass transfer? (May -2007)
If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external force like a
blower (or) fan, that type of mass transfer as convective mass transfer
Example: The evaporation of waterfrom an ocean when air blows over it.
12. Define Schmidt Number? (April/May -2008) (May-2011)
It is defined as the ratio of the molecular diffusivity of momentum to the molecular
diffusivity of momentum to the molecular diffusivity of mass.
SC = Molecular diffusivity of Momentum
Molecular diffusivity of Mass
13. Define Sherwood Number? (May-2004)(May/June-2012)
It is defined as the ratio of Concentration gradients at the boundary.
Sh =
hm x
Dab
hm - Mass Transfer Co-efficient, m/s
Dab - Diffusion Co-efficient, m2/s
x - Length, m
14. Explain mass transfer co-efficient (May-June-07)
It is the amount of total molar transfer rate on the surface area as per unit
concentration difference
15. What is mass average velocity? (Dec – 2010)
The bulk velocity of a mixture, in which different components may have
different motilities, is computed either on mass average (or) molar average basis. In a
are the mean velocities, then the mass average velocity is defined by
Umass = ρAuA + ρBuB
ρA+ρB

16. What is the physical meaning of lewis number? (Nov/Dec-2011) (Nov/Dec-

2015)
Lewis number (Le) is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of
thermal diffusivity to mass diffusivity. It is used to characterize fluid flows where there is
simultaneous heat and mass transfer by convection.
Lewis Number, Le =α /Dab
Where,
α – thermal diffusivity
Dab– Diffusion coefficient
17. What does the view factor represent? When the view factor from a surface to
itself is zero? (April / May – 2011) (May/June 2015)
The view factor (or) shape factor is defined as, the fraction of the radioactive
energy that is diffused from are surface to other surface directly without reflection is
called as view factor.
18. What is the physical meaning of Schmidt Number? (April / May-2011)
Schmidt number is of significance in problems involving both momentum
and convection mass transfer. Sc=v/Dab.
19.What is the driving force for (Nov/Dec-2015)
(a) Heat transfer?

Temperature difference
(b) Mass transfer?
Concentration difference
PART B (16 MARK QUESTIONS) (or) 8 MARK QUESTIONS):
Basic Concepts

1. Derive the general mass transfer equation in Cartesian coordinates :[ Nov/Dec

–2008]
General mass transfer equation in Cartesian co-ordinates :
Consider a homogenous medium consisting of binary mixture of species A and
B. Let the medium be stationary(i.e., the mass average or molar average velocity of the
mixture is zero) and mass transfer may occur only by diffusion .Now consider a
differential control volume dx.dy.dz as shown fig.(i)
Fig (i) Control volume for species conservation equation.

The mass balance of species A diffusing through the control volume in the stationary
medium B is given by,
Along X – Direction :
Mass influx at the left face = NA.x.dy.dz [ Where NA = ma/A ]
Mass efflux at the light face = NA.x+dx.dy.dz
= NA.x .dy.dz + / x [ NA.x dy.dz ] dx
= [ NA.x + / x (NA.x) dx ] dy.dz
Accumulations of mass of species A in the control volume due to its mass
diffusion in the X – direction is given by the difference between the mass influx and
mass efflux.
Mass of species Aaccumulated /Stored, due to diffusion within the control
volume
= NA.x dy.dz – [ NA.x + / x (NA.x)dx ] dy.dz
= - / x (NA.x) dx.dy.dz
Along Y – Direction :
= - / y (NA.y ) dx.dy.dz
Along Z – Direction :
= - / y (NA.z) .dx.dy.dz

Total (or) net accumulation of mass of species A

= - [ / x (NA.x) + / y(NA.y) + / z (NA.z) ] dx.dy.dz …………. (1)
As a result of volumetric chemical sections occurring throughout the medium,
there may be a generation of species A within the control volume, which may be
expressed as
mA.g = NA.gdx.dy.dz ……… (2)
Where, NA.g= Rate of increase of the mass of species A due to chemical
equation per unit volume of the mixture, Kg/s-m3.
The Total mass of species A accumulated in the control volume total mass diffusion
along the coordinate axes (Equation (1) and the mass generated within the control
volume (Equation (2) serves to increase the mass concentration of species A. This
increase is reflected by the time rate of change in mass concentration of species A in
the control volume and is
= CA . dx.dy.dz
Now, from mass – balance considerations, we have.

[ / x (NA.x) + / y (NA.y) + / z(NA.z) ] dx.dy.dz + NA.g. dx.dy.dz = CA . dx.dy.dz
………… (3)
Dividing both sides by dx.dy.dz, we get

- [ / x (NA.x) + / y (NA.y) + / z(NA.Z)] + NA.g = CA
For a stationary medium, using Fick‟s law above equation reduces to

- / x [ DAB ( CA/ x) ] + / y [( CA/ y)] + / z[( CA/ z)] + NA.g = CA …. (4)
If DAB and C are constant, the above equation becomes

2
CA/ x2 + 2
CA/ y2 + (NA.g/DAB) = 1/DAB( CA/ ) ….. (5)

Diffusion Mass Transfer
2. Explain briefly the modes of mass transfer [April/May – 2004]
(i) Modes of mass transfer:-
There are basically two modes of mass transfer given below that are similar to
the conduction and connection modes of feat transfer.
1. Diffusion mass transfer

2. Connection mass transfer
(ii) Diffusion mass transfer:
It May be classified into two types.
1. Molecular diffusion
2. Eddy diffusion
(iii) Molecular diffusion:
The transfer of water on a microscopic level as a result of diffusion from a lesion

of higher concentration to ma legion of lower concentration a mixture of liquids (or)
gases is known as molecular diffusion.
(iv) Eddy Diffusion:
When one of the diffusion fluids are in turbulent motion, eddy diffusion takes
place. Mass transfer is more liquid by eddy diffusion than by molecular diffusion.
(v) Convective mass transfer:
Convective mass transfer is a process at mass transfer that will decor between a
surface and a fluid medium when they are at different concentrations.

Types of convective mass transfer:
1) Free convective mass transfer

2) Forced convective transfer
1) Free convective mass transfer:
If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from concentration
gradients, the mode of mass transfer is said to be free or natural convective mass
transfer.
Example: Evaporation of alcohol
2) Forced convective mass transfer:
If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external force like a blower or
fan, that type of mass transfer is known as forced convective mass transfer.
Example: The evaporation of water from an ocean when air blows over it.
3. The molecular weights of the two components A and B of gas mixture are 24
and 48 respectively. The molecular weight of gas mixture is found to be 30. If the
mass concentration of the mixture is 1.2 kg m3, determine the following.
(i) Density of Component A and B

(ii) Molar fractions
(iii) Mass fractions
(iv)Total pressure if the temperature of the mixture is 290K (April/May-2004)
Given data:-
Molecular weight of component A, MA = 24
Molecular weight of component B, MB = 48
Molecular weight of gas mixture, M=30
Mass concentration, P = 1.2 kg/m3
Temperature T=290K
To Find :-
1. Density of component A and B, ρA, ρB

2. Molar fractions xA, and xB
3. Mass fractions, mA, and mB
4. Total Pressure P

Solution :-
Molar concentration of the mixture

C = ρ/M
= 1.2
30
C = 0.04
We know that
CA + CB = C
CA+CB = 0.04 ……….. (1)
We know that
ρA = mA CA
ρA = 24 CA ( MA = 24)
ρB = mB CB
ρB = 48CB (MB=48)
We know that,
ρA+ρB=ρ
24CA+48CB=ρ ………… (2)
Sowing equation (1) and (2)
CA = 0.03 kg mole /m3
CB = 0.01 kg mole /m3
(i) Density :
Density, ρA= 24CA

= 24x0.03

ρA = 0.72 kg/m3
Density, ρB = 48CA
= 48x0.01
ρB = 0.48 kg/m3
(ii) Molefractions :
XA= CA/C = 0.03/0.04 = 0.75
XB= CB/C = 0.01 / 0.04 = 0.25
(iii) Mass fractions :
mA = ρA/ρ = 0.72/1.2 = 0.6
mB = ρB/ρ = 0.18/1.2 = 0.4
(iv) Total Pressure at 290 K :
Gas law, PV = mRT
P =(m/V )RT [R=G/M]
= ρRT
= ρ x(G/M)x T [G = 8314 ] /Kg mole-K]
= 1.2 x 8314/30 X 290
P = 96442 N/m2
P = 96.442 kN/m2
Result :
1. ρA = 0.72 Kg/m3
ρB= 0.48 Kg/m3
2. xA = 0.75
xB = 0.25

3. MA = 0.6
MB = 0.4
4. P = 96.442 KN/m2
4) A mixture of O2 and N2 with their partial pressures in the ratio 0.21 to 0.79 is in
a container at 250C calculate the molar concentration, the mass density the mole
pressure of 1 bar. What would be the average molecular weight of the mixture? –
[Nov/Dec 2005]
Given data:
Partial pressure of O2. PO2 = 0.21 x Total Pressure
= 0.25 x 1 bar
= 0.21 x 1x 105 N/m2
Partial Pressure of N2, PN2 = 0.79 x Total Pressure
= 0.79 x 1 bar
= 0.79 x 1x 105 N/m2
Temperature T = 250C + 2513
= 298 K
To Find:
1. Molar concentrations, CO2, CN2
2. Mass densities ρO2, ρN2
3. Mass fractions mo2, mN2
4. Average molecular weight, M
Solution :
We know that,
Molar concentration, C = P/GT
Co2 = PO2/GT
= 0.21 x 1 X 105 [G= 8314 KJ – mole – K]
8314 x 298
CO2 = 8.476 x 103kg – mole/m3
CN2 = PN2/GT
= 0.79 x 1x 105

8314 x 298
CN2 = 31.88 x 10-3 Kg-mole / m3
We know that,
Molar concentration, C = ρ/M
ρ=CxM
ρO2= CO2 x MO2
= 8.476 x 10-3 x 32 [ MO2 = 32]
ρO2 = 0.271 Kg / m3
ρN2 = CN2 x MN2
= 31.88 x 10-3 x 28 [ MN2 = 28]
ρN2 = 0.893 Kg/m3
Overall density, ρ = ρO2 + ρN2
= 0.271 + 0.893
ρ = 1.164 kg/m3
Mass fractions:
mO2 = ρ O2 = 0.271
ρ 1.164
mO2 = 0.233
mN2 = ρN2 = 0.893 = 0.7671
ρ 1.164
Average Molecular Weight,

M = ρO2MO2 + ρN2 MN2

= 0.21 x 32 + 0.79 x 28
M = 28.84
Result :
1. Co2 = 8.476 x 10-3 Kg-mole / m3
CN2 = 31.88 x 10-3 Kg-mole / m3
2. PO2 = 0.271 Kg / m3
PN2 = 0.893 Kg / m3
3. MO2 = 0.233
MN2 = 0.767
4. M = 28.84
Fick’s Law of Diffusion
5)Explain Fick’s first and second laws of diffusion. [ June2008 ]

Consider a system,partition separates the two gases, a andb. When the partition
is removed the two gases diffuses through one other until the equilibrium is established
throughout the system.
The diffusion rate is given by the Fick‟s law, which states that molar flux of
an element per unit area is directly proportional to concentration gradient.
ma α dCa
A dx
ma = - DabdCa
A dx
Na = ma = - Dab dCa ……… (5-1)

A dx
Wherew,
Na = ma =molarflux – Unit is Kg – mole
A s-m2
Mass flux – unit – Kg
S/m2
Dab – Diffusion Co – efficient of species a and b – m2 / S

dCa – Concentration gradient

dx
Fick’s second law of Diffusion :
It is applicable to gases. It states that,
2ρA = 0 and 2 CA = 0.
6. A thin plastic membrane separate hydrogen from air. The molar concentration
of hydrogen in the memberane at the inner and outer surface are determine to be
0.045 and 0.002 kg mole/m3. The binary diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in the
plastic at the operation temperature is 5.3x10 -10m2/s. Determine the mass flow rate
of hydrogen by diffusion through the membrane under steady condition if the
thickness of the membrane is 2mm and 0.5mm. (Nov/Dec 2015)
Given:
Ca1=0.045 kgmole/m3,Ca2=0.002 kgmole/m3
Dab=5.3x10-10m2/s.
L1=2mm=2x10-3m and L2=0.5x10-3m.
Tofind:
Mass flow rate
Solution:
Molar flux, Na = ma = Dab[Ca1 – Ca2]
A (x2-x1)
= Dab [ Ca1 – Ca2 ]
L1
= 5.3x10 -10
[ 0.045 – 0.002]
0.002
=1.139x10-8 kg-mole/sm2
= Dab [ Ca1 – Ca2 ]
L2
= 5.3x10-10 [ 0.045 – 0.002]

0.5x10-3
=4.558x10-8 kg-mole/sm2
7) Consider air inside a tube of surface area 0.5 m2 and wall thickness 10mm. The
pressure of air drops from 2.2bar to 2.18 bar in 6 days. The solubility of air in the
rubber is 0.072 m3 of air per m3 rubber at 1 bar. Determine the diffusivity of air in
rubber at the operating temperature of 300K if the volume of air in the tube is
0.028 m3 [ May/June – 2009]
Given :
A = 0.5m2
L = 10mm = 0.010m
Pi = 2.2 bar = 2.2 x 105 N/m2
Pd = 2.18 bar = 2.18 x 105 N/m2
S = 0.072 m3
T = 300 K
` V = 0.028 m3
To Find :
Diffusivity of air in rubber [Dab]
Solution :
Initial mass of air in the tube,
Mi= PiV = 2.2 x 105 x 0.028
RT 287 x 300
Mi = 0.0715 kg
Final mass of air in the tube
Md= PdV = 2.18 x 105 x 0.028
RT 287 x 300
Md= 0.07089 kg
Mass of air escaped = 0.0715 – 0.07089 = 0.00061kg

The mass flux of air escaped is given by

Na = ma = mass of air escaped
A Time elapsed x areas
= 0.00061
(6 x 24 x 3600 x 0.5)
Na = 2.35 x 10-9 kg/s-m2
The solubility of air should be calculated at the mean operating pressure,
1.2 + 2.18 = 2.19 bar
2
The solubility of air (i.e.) volume at the mean inside pressure
S = 0.072 x 2.19
= 0.1577 m3 / m3 of rubber
The air which escape to atmosphere will be at 1 bar pressure and its solubility will
remain at 0.072 m3 of air pre m3 of rubber
Ca1 = P1V1 = 2.19 x 105 0.1577
RT1 287 x 300
Ca1 = 0.4011 Kg / m3
Ca2= P2V2 = 1 x 105 x 0.072
RT2 287 x 300
Ca2 = 0.0836 kg/m3
The diffusion flux rate of air through the rubber is given by
Na = ma = Dab[Ca1 – Ca2]
A (x2-x1)
= Dab [ Ca1 – Ca2 ]
L
=> 2.35 x 10-9 = Dab [ 0.04011 – 0.0836]

0.01
D = 0.74 x 10-10 m2/S
Result :
The diffusivity of air in rubber
Dab = 0.74 x 10-10 m2/S
Steady state Molecular Diffusion
8) Explain the phenomenon of equimolar counter diffusion drive an expression

for equimolar counter diffusion between two gases (*or) liquids [May/ June -
2013] (May/June 2016)
Consider two large chambers and b connected by a passage as shown in fig.5.2

Na and Nbare the steady state molar diffusion rates of components a and b
respectively.
Equimolar diffusion is defined as each molecular of „a‟ is replaced by each

molecular of „b‟ and vice versa. The total Pressure p = p a +pb is uniform throughout the
system
p = pa + p b
Differentiating with respect to x
dp = dpa + dpb
dx dx dx

Since the total pressure of the syste3m remains constant under steady
state conditions
dp = dpa + dpb = 0
dx dx dx
dpa = - dpb ……… (1)
dx dx
Under steady state condition, the total molar flux is zero
Na +Nb = 0
Na = - Nb
 - Dab[A /GT][dpa/dx] = Dba[A/GT][dpb/dx] ………. (2)
[ fromFick‟s law,
Na = - Dab[A/ GT][dpa / dx]
Nb = - Dab[A/GT][dpb/ dx ]
We know,
dpb = - dpa [ From equation no. 1]
dx dx
Substitute in equation (2)
Dab[A / GT][dpa/dx] = - Dba[A/GT][dpa/dx ]
Dab = Dba = D
So, Na = - Dab[A/GT][dp a/dx]
Na = ma = - D [A/GT][dpa/dx]
Na = ma/A = - [D/GT][dpa/dx]
Integrating,
Na = ma/A = - [D/GT] ∫ 21[]dpa /dx]
Molar flux, Na = ma = D Pa1 – Pa2 ………. (5-6)
A GT x2-x1
Similarly,

Molar flux, Nb= mb = D Pb1 – Pb2

A GT x2-x1 …………. (5-7)
Where,
ma – Molar flux, Kg – mole
A s-m2
D- Diffusion Co – efficient – m2/s
G – Universal gas Constant – 8314 J/Kg – mole – K
A – Area – m2
Pa1 – Partial pressure of constituent at in N / m2
Pa2 – Partial Pressure of constituent at in N/m2
T- Temperature – K.
9) An open pan 20cm in diameter and 8 cm deep contains water at 250C and is
exposal to day atmospheric air. It the late of diffusion of water vapour is 8.54 x 10 -
3
Kg/s.Estimate the diffusion coefficient of water in air. [ April / May –
2005 ]
Given data:
Diameter, d = 20cm = 0.20m
Length ( x2-x1 ) = 8cm = 0.08m
Temperature, T = 250C + 273 = 298 K
Diffusion rate (or) Mass rate of water vapour = 8.54 x 10 -4 Kg/h
= 8.54 x 10-4 Kg
3600 s
= 2.37 x 10-7 Kg/s
To Find:
Diffusion Co – efficient, Dab
Solution:
We know that,

Molar late of water vapour,

ma = Dab P x ln P – PW2
A GT (x2-x1) P – PW1
ma = Da AP x ln P-PW2
GT (x2-x1) P-PW1
We know that,
Mass late of water vapour = Molar rate of water vapour x Molecular weight of steam
 2.37 x 10-7 = Dabx A x p x ln P- PW2 x 18.016
GT (x2-x1) P- PW1
Where,
Area, A = π d2
4
= π (0.20)2
4
A = 0.0314 m2
G – Universal gas constant = 8314 J

Kg – mole – K
P – Total Pressure = l atm = 1.013 bar
= 1.013 x 105 N/m2
PW1– Partial Pressure at the bottom of the test tube correspondingto saturation
temperature 250C at 250C
PW1= 0.03166 bar
PW1 = 0.03166 x 105 N/m2
PW2 – Partial Pressure at the top of the pan. thereforein air there is no water vapour so,
PW2 = 0
PW2 = 0
(1) 2.37 x 10-7 = Dab x 0.0314 x 1.031 x 105

8314 x 298 0.08
x ln 1.013 x 105 – 0
1.013 x 105 – 0.03166 x 105 x 18.016

Dab= 2.58 x 10-5 m2/S

Result:
Diffusion Co – efficient, Dab = 2.58 x 10-5 m2 / s
10. The diffusivity of CC14 in air is determined by observing the steady state
evaporation of CC14 a tube of 1 cm diameter exposed to air. The CC1 4 liquid level
is 10 cm below the top level of the tube. The system is held at 250°C and 1 bar
Pressure. The saturation pressure of CC14 at 250°C is 14.76 KPa. If it is observed
that the late of evaporation of CC14 0.1 g / hour determine the diffusivity of CC14
into air.[May / June – 2006]
Solution :
Molar mass of CC14 is 154 g/ mole
Molar rate of CC14, ma = 0.1 x 1
154 3600
ma = 0.180 x 10-6 g-mole / s
We know that, for isothermal evaporation,
Molar flux, ma = Dab p ln P – Pw2
A GT (x2-x1) P- Pw1
Where, A = Area = π d2
4
= π (0.01)2
4
A = 7.85 x 10-5m2
G = Universal gas constant = 8314 J /Kg – mole – K
T = 250C + 273 = 298 K
p = Total Pressure = 1 bar = 1 x 105 N/m2
Pw1 = Partial Pressure at the bottom of the tube
= 14.76 KPa (Given)

= 14.76 x 103 Pa
= 14.76 x 103 N/m2
Pw2 = Partial Pressure at the top of the test tube which is hero
Pw2 = 0 x2-x1 = 10 cm = 0.10m
mA = Dab P ln P- Pw2
A GT (x2- x1) P- Pw1
0.180 x 109 = Dab x 1 x 105 ln 1 x 105 - 0
7.85x 10-5 8314 x 298 0.10 1 x 105 – 14.76 x 103
Dab = 35.57 x 10-6 m2/s
Result:
Diffusivity of CC14 = 35.57 x 10-6 m2/s
11. Evaporation process in the atmosphere [April /May – 2011]
Consider the isothermal evaporation of water from a water surface and its diffusion
through the stagnant air layer over it as shown. The free surface of the water is exposed
to air in the tank
For the analysis of this type of mass diffusion following assumption,
1. The system is isothermal and total pressure remains constant
2. System is in steady state condition
3. There is slight air movement over the top of the tank to remove the
water vapour which diffuses to that point.
4. Both the air and water vapour behave as ideal gases.
From Fick‟s law of diffusion, we can find,
Molarflux, Ma = Dab P ln Pa2 ……. (5.8)
A GT (x2-x1) Pa1
Molar flux, Ma = Dab P ln P-Pw2 ……. (5.9)

A GT (X2-X1) P-Pw1

Where,
Ma –Molar flux – Kg – mole
s- m2
A – Area m2
Dab – Diffusion Co – efficient – m2/S
G – Universal gas constant – 8314 J /kg – mole – K
T – Temperature – K
P – Total Pressure in bar
Pw1 – Partial Pressure of water vapour Corresponding to saturation
temperature in N / m2
Pw2 – Partial pressure of dry air at 2 in N/m2
12. CO2 and air experience equimolar counter diffusion in a circular tube whose
length and diameter are 1 m and 50mm respectively the system of total pressure
of 1 atm and a temperature of 25°C the ends of the tube are connected to large
chambers in which the species concentration are maintained at fixed values. The
partial pressure of CO2 at one end is 190mm of Hg while at the other end is 95mm
Hg. Estimate the mass transfer rate of CO2 and air through the tube [ May / June
– 2012 ] (May/June 2016)
Given Data :
Diameter, d = 50mm = 0.050m
Length, (X2-X1) = 1m
Total Pressure = 1 atm = 1 bar
Temperature = 25°C 25 + 273 298 K
`Partial Pressure of CO2 at one end [ 1 bar = 760 mm of Hg ]
Pa1 = 190 mm of Hg = 190/760 bar
Pa1 = 0.25 x 105 N/m2
Partial Pressure of CO2 at other end

Pa2 = 90mm of Hg = 95/760 bar

Pa2 = 0.125 x 105 N/m2
To find :
1. Mass transfer rate of CO2
2. Mass transfer rate of air
Solution :
We know, that, for equimolar counter diffusion
Molar flux, ma= Dab Pa1 – Pa2
A GT x2-x1 …….. (1)
Where,
Dab – Diffusion coefficient – m2/s
The diffusion coefficient for CO2 – Air combination is 11.89 x 10-6 m2/s
[From HMT Data book Pg.No.181 ]
Dab = 11.89 x 10-6 m2/s
G – Universal Gas constant – 8314 J /Kg-mole-K
A = Area =  /4 (d)2
= /4 (0.050)2
A = 1.9634 x 10-3 m2
Ma = 11.89 x 10-6 (0.25 x 105 – 0.125 x 105)
1.9634 x 10-3 8314 x 298 1
Molar transfer rate of CO2, ma = 1.778 x 105kg-mole /s
We know, [Molecularweight of CO 2 = 44.01][HMT Data Book for
pg.no.182]
Mass transfer rate of CO2 = Molar transfer rate x molecular weight of CO2
= 1.1778 x 10-10 x 44.01
Mass transfer rate of CO2 = 5.18353 x 10-9 Kg/s
We know,

Molar transfer rate of air mb = -1.1778 x 10-10 Kg-mole /s

[ ma = -mb]
Mass transfer rate = Molar transfer rate x molecular weight of air
= -1.1778 x 10-10 x 29
Mass transfer for rate of air = -3.41562 x 10-9 Kg/s
Result :
1. Mass transfer rate of CO2 = 7.85 x 10-9 Kg/s
2. Mass transfer rate of air = -5.176 x 10-9 Kg/s
13.A 3cm diameter stefen tube is used to measure the binary diffusion coefficient
of water vapour in air at 20°C at an elevation of 1600m where the atmospheric
pressure is 83.5 kpa. The tube is partially filled with water, and the distance from
the water surface to the open end of the tube is 40cm. Dry air is blown over the
open end of the tube.so that water vapour rising to the top of is removed
immediatly and the concentration of vapour at the top of the tube is zero. In 15
days of continuous operation at constant pressure and temperature, the amount
of water that has avaporated is measured to be 1.23 g. Determine the diffusion
coefficient of water vapour in air at 25°C and 83.5kpa. (Nov/Dec 2015)
Given:
Diameter (d)= 3cm(or)0.03m
Toatl Pressure P=83.5kpa=83.5x103N/m2
Temperature=25°C (or) 298K
Mass transfer rate of water vapour=1.23g/15 days
= 1.23x10-3 kg/s
15x24x3600

=9.49x10-9 kg/s
To find:
Diffusion coefficient (Dab)
Solution:
Molar transfer rate of water= Mass transfer rate of water vapour
Molecular weight of water vapour
= 9.49x10-9 kg/s
18
=5.272x10-11 kg-mole/s
Molar transfer rate of water mA = Dab P ln P- Pw2
A GT (x2- x1) P- Pw1
G – Universal Gas constant – 8314 J /Kg-mole-K
A = Area =  /4 (d)2
= /4 (0.040)2
A = 1.256 x 10-3 m2
Saturation Pressure of water at 25 °C ( SteamTable,Pg.no 1 )
Pw1 = 0.03166 bar = 0.03166 x 105 N/m2
Pw2 – Partial pressure at the top of tube.Here open to the
atm so Pw2=0
5.272x10-11 = Dab x83.5x10 3 x ln 83.5x103-0
1.256 x 10-3 8314x298 83.5x103-0.03166x105
Dab=2535
Convective Mass Transfer
14) Air at 1 atm and 250C containing small quantities of iodine flow with a velocity
of 6.2 m/s inside a 35mm diameter tube, calculate mass transfer co– efficient for
iodine. The thermo physical properties of air are

ῠ= 15.5 x10-6 m2/s
D = 0.82 x 10-5 m2/s [April / May – 2004]
Given data:
Pressure P = 1 atm = 1.103 bar
Fluid temperature, T∞ = 250C
Velocity, V = 6.2 m/s
Diameter, D = 35mm = 0.035m
Kinematic viscosity, ῠ = 15.5 x10-6 m2/s
Diffusion Co- Efficient, Dab = 0.82 x 10-5 m2/s
To Find :
Mass transfer Co – Efficient, (hm)
Solution : We know that,
Reynolds number, Re = VD/ῠ
= 6.2 x 0.035
15.5 x 10-6
Re = 14000 > 2000
Since Re > 2000, flow is turbulent.
For turbulent, Internal flow
Sherwood Number (Sh) = 0.023 (Re)0.83 (Sc)0.44 ………….. (1)
Where,
Sc – Schmidt number = ῠ/Dab
Sc = 15.5 x 10-6

0.82 x 10-5
Sc = 1.890
Substitute Sc, Re value in equation (1)
(1)
Sh = 0.023 (14000) 0.83 (1.890) 0.44
Sh = 84.07
We know that,
Sherwood number, Sh = hmD
Dab
84.07 = hmx 0.035
0.82x 10-5
Mass transfer Co – Efficient hm = 0.0196 m/s
Result :
Mass transfer Co – Efficient,hm = 0.0196 m/s
15) Atmospheric air at 400C flows over a wet bulb thermometer and it shows 250C.
Calculate the concentration of water vapour in the free stream and also its
relative humidity. Take D (Air – water) = 0.256 x 104 m2/ S. It temperatures of dry
and wet bulb are 300°C and 250°C respectively. What would be the corresponding
values? [Nov/Dec-2005]
Given data:
Case (i) :We know that‟s,

Rate of heat transfer from air to the= Heat removed by evaporation

web cotton cloth from the cover
=>hm A ( T∞- Twb) = Km A ( Cw - C∞) hfg …………. (1)

We know that, hm= ρCpLe 2/3
Km
Where,
Le = α/D
hm = ρCp (α/D ) 2/3
Km
Substitute hm/Km value in equation (1)
(1) ρcp (α/D) 2/3 ( Tα – Twb) = (Cw – C∞) hfg ……….. (2)
Properties of air at 40 + 25 = 32.50C
2
ρ = 1.156 Kg/m3
Cp = 1005 J/Kg – K
α = 23.22 X 10-6 m2/S
Refer steam stable (R.S. Khurmi), Pge No.2
Specific enthalpy, hfgat 400C = 2406.9 x 103 J/Kg
hfg = 2406.9 x 103 J/Kg
Specific volume of water vapour at 250C
Vg = 43.402 m3 / Kg
Cw = 1/vg = 1
43.402
Cw = 0.02304 Kg/m3
Substituting ρ, Cp, d, D, T∞, Twb, Cw and hfg values in equation (2),
1.156 x 1005 23.22 x 10-62/3 ( 40 - 25) = ( 0.02304 - C∞) x 2406.9 x 103
0.256 x 10-4

=>16329.14 = (0.02304 - C∞) x 2406.9 x 103

6.784 x 10-3 = 0.02304 - C∞
C∞ = 0.01625 Kg/m3
Specific volume of water vapour at 400C [ From steam table ]

3
vg = 19.546 m /Kg
Csat = 1 = 1
Vg 19.546
Csat = 0.05116 Kg/m3
Relative humidity, RH = C∞
Csat
= 0.01625
0.05116
Relative humidity = 0.317 (or) 31.7 %
Case (ii):
If Tdb = 300C, Twb = 250C
Film Temp, Tf = Tdb+ Twb = 30 + 25
2 2
Tf = 27.50C
Properties of air at 27.50C [ From HMT data book No . 33 ]
ρ = 1.1746 Kg / m3
α = 22.138 x 10-6 m2 / S
Cp = 1005 J/Kg – K
Specific enthalpy, hfg at 300C [From HMT data book]
hfg = 2430.7kJ / Kg
hfg = 2430.7 x 103 J / Kg
Substituting ρ,Cp, , D, T∞, Twb, Cw and hfg values in equation (2)

(2) ρ Cp (α/D ) 2/3 ( Tαb – Twb) = ( Cw – Cα) hfg

1.1746 x 100522.138 x 10-62/3 (30-25) = ( 0.02304 - C∞) x 2430.7 x 103
0.25 x 10-4
5357.457 = ( 0.02304 - C∞) x 2430.7 x 103
0.00220 = 0.02304 - C∞
Concentration of water vapour C∞ = 0.0208 Kg/m3
Specific volume of water vapour at 300C [ From steam table ]
vg = 32.929 m3/Kg
Csat = 1 = 1 = 0.0304
vg 32.929
Csat = 0.0304 Kg/m3
R.H = C∞ = 0.0208
Csat 0.0304
R.H = 0.684 (or) 68.4%
Result :
Case (i)
1.
C∞ = 0.01625 Kg/m3
2. RH = 31.7 %
Case (ii)
1. C∞ = 0.0208 Kg / m3
2. RH = 68.4%
16. Dry air at 200C [ρ = 1.2 Kg/m3, V = 15 x 10-6 m2 18, D = 4.2 x 10-5 m2/s] flows
over a flat plate of length 50cm which is covered with a thin layer of water at a
velocity of 1m/s. Estimate the local mass transfer Co – efficient at a distance of
10cm from the leading edge and the average mass transfer Co – efficient. [ April /
May – 2006 ] (Nov/Dec-2015)

Given data:
Density, ρ = 1.2 Kg/m3
` Kinematic viscosity, ʋ = 15 x 10-6 m2/S
Diffusion Co – efficient, Dab = 4.2 x 10-5 m2/s
Length L = 50cm = 0.50m
Velocity, U = 1m/S
Distance X = 10cm = 0.10m
To Find :
1. Local mass transfer Co – efficient, hx at distance of 0.10m
2. Average mass transfer Co – efficient, hm, for entire length
Solution :
Case (i): Local mass transfer Co – efficient at x = 0.10cm, we know that,
Reynolds number, Re = Ux/ʋ
= 1 x 0.1
15 x 10-6
Re = 6666.67 < 5 x 10-5
Since Re < 5 x 10-5, flow is laminar
For Laminar flow, flat plate
Local Sherwood number, sh = 0.332 (Re) 0.5
(SC) 0.33……. (1) [From HMT book pg.I15]
Where, Sc = Schmidt number = ʋ /Dab
Sc = 15 x 10-6
4.2 x 10-5
Sc = 0.357
Substitute Sc, Re values in equation (1)
Sh = 0.332 (6666.67)0.5 (0.357)0.33
Sh = 19.24

We know that,
Sherwood number, Sh = hx.x
Dab
19.24 = hX x 0.1
4.2 x 10-5
hX = 8.08 x 10-3m/s
Local mass transfer Co – efficient at x = 0.1m is 8.08 x 10-3 m/S
Case (ii) :
Average mass transfer Co – efficient hm, for entire length
We know that
Reynolds number, Re = UL /ῠ
= 1 x 0.50
15 x 10-6
Re = 3.33 x 10-4 < 5 x 10-5
Since Re < 5 x 10-5, flow is laminar,
For flat plat laminar flow,
Sherwood number, Sh = 0.664 (Re) 0.5 (Sc) 0.333 …… (2)
Substitute Re and Sc values.
0.5
Sh = 0.664 (3.33 x 104) (0.357) 0.333
Sh = 85.99
We know that,
Sh = hmL
Dab
85.99 = hm x 0.50
4.2 x 10-5
hm = 0.007 m/s
Average mass transfer Co – efficient for entire length is 0.007 m/s

Result :
2. hx = 8.08 x 10-3 m/s
3. hm = 0.007 m/s
17) The temperature recorded by a thermometer whose bulb covered by a wet

wick in a dry air at atmospheric pressure is 22 0C.Estimate the true air temperature
[ April / May – 2010 ]
Solution:
The relevant equation is,
h ( T∞-Ts) = hfg MAhm (CAS - CA∞) (or)
(h/hm) (T∞-Ts) = MAhfg (CAS - CA∞) ……… (1)
We know that,
h/hm = ρ CP [ Sc/Pr]2/3 = ρ CP (α/D ) 2/3
(1) ρ CP (α /D) 2/3 (T∞-Ts) = MAhfg (CAS - CA∞) ……… (2)
ps = 2617 N/m2
hfg = 2449 KJ/kg
MA CAS = ρAS = pS/RTS
= 2617 X 18
8315 X 295
MA CAS= ρAs= 0.01920 kg/m3
The other properties are
CA∞ = 0 [ For dry air ]
ρ = p/RT
= 1.0132 x 105
287 x 295
P = 1.198 kg /m3
From table, CP = 1.008 KJ /Kg.K , α = 26.2 x 10-6 m2/s

= 1008 J/KgK
From table
DAB = 0.26 x 10-4 m2 /S
α= 26.2 x 10-6 1
D 0.26 x 10-4
(2) T∞ - TS = hfgMA CAs
ρCP (d/D) 2/3
= (2449 x 103) x (0.01920)
1.198 xx 1008 x 1
T∞ = 39.03 + 22
T∞ = 61.030C
18) Dry air at 300C and one atmospheric pressure flows over a flat of 600mm long
at a velocity of 55m/s calculate the mass transfer Co – efficient at the end of the
plate.[ May – 2010]
Given:
Velocity, U = 55m/s
Length, x = 600mm = 0.6m
To Find:
Mass transfer co – efficient (hm)
Solution:
Properties of air at 300C [From HMT data book pg.no. 33 ]
Kinematic Viscosity, ʋ = 16 x 10-6 m2/S
W.K.T
Reynolds Number, Re = Ux

D
= 55 x 10-6
16 x 10-6
Re = 2.06 x 10-6> 5 x 105
Since, Re > 5 x 105, The flow is turbulent
For combined laminar – turbulent flow, flat plate,
Sherwood number (sh) = [0.037( Re) 0.8 – 87 ] Sc0.333….(1) [From HMT data
book pg.no. 176 ]
SC – Schmidt number = ʋ /Dab
Dab – Diffusion – Co – efficient at 300C  260C
= 25.83 x 10-6 m2/S [ From HMT Data book Pg.no.180]
Dab = 25.83 x 10-6 m2/s
( 2) => Sc = 16 x 10-6
25.83 x 10-6
Sc = 0.619
Substitute Sc, Re values in eqn. (1)
(1) =>Sh = [ 0.037 (2.06 x 10-6 )0.8 – 871] (0.619) 0.333
Sh = 2805.13
We know that,
Sherwood number, Sh = hmx
Dab
2805.13 x 25.83 x 10-6 = hm x 0.6
Mass transfer co – efficient, hm = 0.121 m/s
Result :
Mass transfer co – efficient, hm = 0.121 m/s

19. Air at 20°C ( ρ = 1.205 Kg/m3 ; ʋ = 15.06 x 10-6 m2/s ; D = 4166 x 10-5 m2/s ) flows
over a tray ( Length = 32cm ; width = 42cm ) full of water with a velocity of 2.8
m/s.The total pressure of moving air is 1 atm and the partial pressure of water
present in the air is 0.0068 bar. If the temperature on the water surface is 15°C
calculate the evaporation rate of water [May/June – 2012]
Given :
Temperature T∞ = 20°C
ρ = 1.205 Kg/m3
U = 15.06 x 10-6 m2/s
D = 4.166 x 10-5 m2/s
Length L = 32 x 10-2 m
Width W = 42 x 10-2 m
Velocity V = 2.8 m/s
Total Pressure P = 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
= 1.01325 x 105 N//m2
Partial Pressure of water Pw2 = 0.006 bar = 0.0068 x 105 N/m2
Water surface temperature, Tw = 15°C
To find :
Evaporation rate of water (mw)
Solution :
Film temp, Tf = Tw + T∞
2
= 15 + 20
2
Tf = 17.5°C
Reynolds numbers Re = Ux

V
Note : Air direction is always long side so x = 42 x 10 -3 m
2.8 x42 x 10-2

=
15.06 x 10-6
Re = 78.08 x 103< 5 x 105,So it is laminar
For laminar, Schmidt number, Sc = ʋ
Dab
= 15.06 x 10-6
4.166 x 10-5
Sc = 0.361
Sherwood number, Sh = 0.664 (78.08 x 10 3 )0.5 (0.361 ) 0.333
Sh = 132.16
Sh = hmx
Dab
132.16 = hm x 42 x 10-2
15.06 x 10-6
Mass transfer co efficient hm = 4.73 x 10-3 m/s
Evaporation rate of water , mw = hm x A [ Pw1 – Pw2 ]

1.73 x 10-3 x (42 x 10-2 x 32 x 10-2) [ 1.01325 x 105 – 0.0068 x 105 ]
A=WxL
mw = 63.98 kg /s
20) Air at 1.01 bar and 30°C flows past a tray full of water a velocity of 2m/s. The
partial pressure of a water vapour is 0.7 KPa and the saturation pressure is 3.17
kPa. The tray measures 40cm along the flow direction and has a width of
20cm.Calculate the evaporation rate of water if the temperature on the water
surface is 25°C. Assume the following properties for air density, ρ = 1.2 kg/m 3,
Kinematic viscosity, ʋ = 15 x 10-6 m2/s and diffusivity, D = 0.145m2/h.
Given :
Pressure, P = 1.01 bar
Fluid Temperature, T∞ = 30°C = 303K

Velocity U = 2m/s
Partial Pressure of water vapour = 0.7kPa
Saturation Pressure of water = 3.17 kPa
Width = 20 x 10-2 m
Direction x = 40 x 10-2 m
Temperature on water surface, T w = 25°C
Density ρ = 1.2 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity,ʋ = 15 x 10-6 m2/s
Diffusion Co – efficient (or) diffusivity, D = 0.145 m2/h = 0.145/3600 = 4.0277 x
10-5 m2/s
To Find :
Evaporation rate of water, (mw)
Solution :
Film temperature, Tf = Tw + T∞= 25 + 30
2 2
Tf = 27.5°C
Roynodls number, Re = Ux
ʋ
= 2 x 40 x 10-2
15 x 10-6
Re = 53.333 x 10 < 5 x 105 , So flow is laminar
3
For flat plate, laminar flow,

Sherwood number, Sh = 0.664 (Re) 0.5 (Sc) 0.3333 [HMT data book, Pg.no.176]
Schmid number, Sc = ʋ /D = 15 x 10-6 = 0.372 [ HMTdata book, Pg.No.112]
4.0277 x 10-5
Sh = 0.664 (53.33 x 103) 0.5 (0.372) 0.333
Sh = 110.361
Sherwood number, Sh = hmx [ HMT data book, Pg.no.112]
D
110.361 = hmx 40 x 10-2

4.0277 x 10-5
hm = 0.0111 m/s
Mass transfer co – efficient based on pressure difference,hmp = hm [R = 0.287
kJ/Kg-K]
RTw
= 0.0111 m/s
0.287 x 103 x (25+273)
hmp = 1.299 x 10-7 m/s
Saturation Pressure of water at 250C ( SteamTable,Pg.no 1 )
Pw1 = 0.03166 bar = 0.03166 x 105 N/m2
Evaporation rate of water,mw2 = hmp x A ( Pw1 – Pw2)
A = Wx X
1.299 x 10-7 x ( 20 x 10-2 x 40 x 10-2 ) x ( 0.03166 x 105 -0.7 x 103)
mw = 2.562 x 10-5kg/s
Result :
Evaporation Rate of water,mw = 2.562 x 10-5kg/s
Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer Analogy

21.Analogy between Momentum heat and mass transfer: (Nov/Dec 2015)
(May/June 2016)
In has been seen there is a marked similarly between the law of governing the
boundary layer growth of the three transport phenomena of the momentum heat
and mass. These equations for a laminar boundary layer over a flat plat are
Momentum transfer,u u + v u = ʋ 2u
x y y2
Heat transfer, u T + v T = 2
T
x y y2
Mass transfer, u Ca + v Ca = D 2Ca

x y y2
that the momentum and thermal boundary layers are include for ʋ= or when prandtl
number is unity i.e.
Pr = ʋ/ = 1
The velocity and concentration profile will have same shape when ʋ =Dab. The
dimensionless ratio ʋ/ Dab
Is called Schmidt number Sc= ʋ/ Dab
The Schmidt number is important in problems involving both momentum and convection
mass transfer. It assume the same important in mass transfer as does the prandtl
number in convection heat transfer problems. Obviously the temperature and
concentration profile will be similar when  = Dab. The dimensionless ratio Le= / Dab
is called Lewis number.
The Lewis number is a significance problem involving both heat and mass transfer. All
the three boundary layer profile will become identical when
Pr = Sc = Le = 1
Just like the Nusselt number in convection heat transfer we define a non-dimensional
parameter called Sherwood number as
Sh = hmx / Dab
Where x is a characteristic length.
Similarly corresponding to Stanton number
St = Nu / Re .Pr
= h / ρ u∞CP
We have a dimensionless number in mass transfer Stm given by
Stm = Sh / Re.Sc
= hm / u∞
The forced heat transfer correlations are of the form
Nu = Nu (Re,Pr)

Likewise in forced convection mass transfer the correlation would be of the form
Sh = Sh (Re,Sc)
The free convection heat transfer correlation have been seen to be of the form
Nu = Nu (Gr,Pr)
Where Gr = ρ2βgL3 T / µ2
We need to define a new mass Grashof number Gr m because the density variation in
mass transfer is due to concentration difference and non temperature difference. The
buoyancy force in mass transfer is given by
g / ρ∞ (ρ- ρ∞ )= -g βm(ma-ma∞)
Convective Mass Transfer Correlations

22. Write a note on convective mass transfer coefficient for liquid and gases.
(May/June 2016)
The convective mass transfer coefficient h m may be defined in a manner similar to
convective heat transfer coefficient h as q = h (T s-T∞). Imagine a fluid of species molar
concentration CA∞ flowing over the surface at which the species concentration is C As, As
long as CAs = CA∞ mass transfer by convection will occur. The molar flux of species A
NA(k mole / s.m2) may be written as
NA = hm(CAs- CA∞)
The total molar transfer rate or the mass current Q mA( k mole/s) on the surface of area
As then becomes
QmA = hm As(CAs- CA∞)
Where hm is the average mass transfer coefficient. Comparing the above equation the
average and local mass transfer coefficient are replaced by
hm = 1/As ∫

The units of mass transfer coefficient can be derived from the equation 1
hm = NA / (CAs- CA∞) (m/s)
thus the units of hm are those of velocity. Obviously mass transfer coefficient can also
be expressed in term of mass flux nA(kg/sm2) and mass concentration ρA, as
nA=hm(ρAs- ρA∞)
The value of the concentration CAs or ρAs at the surface is determined by the fact that the
gas would remain in equilibrium in the solid or liquid phase. In other words the density at
the surface would be determined from the knowledge of the surface temperature T s
which is equal to the temperature of the saturated vapour. The perfect gas law CAs can
also be determine as
CAs = Psat/ RTs
Where Psat is the saturated vapoure pressure corresponding to temperature Ts, use
can also be made of to determine ρAs from CAs as
ρAs = MACAs
ANNA UNIVERSITY PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

PART A
1. What are the modes of mass transfer? (June-06,Nov/Dec 2014)
2. What is molecular Diffusion? (May/June – 2009)
3. What is convective mass transfer? (June-06 ,Q.No.6 , Pg.No.1)
4. State Fick‟s Law of Diffusion? (May/June 2013, May/June 2014, Nov/Dec 2014)
5. Define Schmidt Number? (May-2011)
6. Define Sherwood Number? (May/June-2012)
7. Give two examples of convective mass transfer (May -2007)

8. Explain mass transfer co-efficient (May/June-2013)

9. What do you meant by equimolar counter diffusion? (Nov-Dec-2008)
10. What is mass average velocity? (Dec – 2010)
11. What is the physical meaning of lewis number? (Nov/Dec-2011)
12. What is the physical meaning of Schmidt Number? (April / May-2011)
13. What does the view factor represent? When the view factor from a surface to itself is
zero? (May – 2011)
14. Write down the analogous terms in heat and mass transfer (May/June 2014)
PART B
1. The molecular weights of the two components A and B of gas mixture are 24 and 48
respectively. The molecular weight of gas mixture is found to be 30. If the mass
concentration of the mixture is 1.2 kg m3, determine the following.
(i) Density of Component A and B
(ii) Molar fractions
(iii) Mass fractions
(iv)Total pressure if the temperature of the mixture is 290K. [April/May-2004]
2) Explain briefly the modes of mass transfer. [April/May – 2004]
3) Air at 1 atm and 250C containing small quantities of iodine flow with a velocity of 6.2
m/s inside a 35 mm diameter tube, calculate mass transfer co– efficient for iodine. The
thermo physical properties of air are
ῠ= 15.5 x 10-6 m2/s
D = 0.82 x 10-5 m2/s [May/June 2013]
4) A mixture of O2 and N2 with their partial pressures in the ratio 0.21 to 0.79 is in a
container at 250C calculate the molar concentration, the mass density the mole pressure of
1 bar. What would be the average molecular weight of the mixture? .[Nov/Dec 2005]

5) An open pan 20cm in diameter and 8 cm deep contains water at 250C and is exposal to
day atmospheric air. It the late of diffusion of water vapour is 8.54 x 10 -3 Kg/s. Estimate the
diffusion coefficient of water in air. [ April / Ma 2005]
6) Atmospheric air at 400C flows over a wet bulb thermometer and it shows 25 0C.
Calculate the concentration of water vapour in the free stream and also its relative
humidity. Take D (Air – water) = 0.256 x 104 m2/ S. It temperatures of dry and wet bulb are
300°C and 250°C respectively. What would be the corresponding values? [Nov/Dec-
2005,]
7)The diffusivity of CC14 in air is determined by observing the steady state evaporation of
CC14 a tube of 1 cm diameter exposed to air. The CC1 4 liquid level is 10 cm below the top
level of the tube. The system is held at 250°C and 1 bar Pressure. The saturation pressure
of CC14 at 250°C is 14.76 kPa. If it is observed that the late of evaporation of CC1 4 0.1 g /
hour determine the diffusivity of CC14 into air.[May / June 2006]
8. Dry air at 200C ,[ ρ = 1.2 Kg/m3, V = 15 x 10-6 m2 18, D = 4.2 x 10-5 m2/s] flows over a
flat plate of length 50cm which is covered with a thin layer of water at a velocity of 1m/s.
Estimate the local mass transfer Co – efficient at a distance of 10cm from the leading edge
and the average mass transfer Co – efficient May 2006]
9) Explain Fick‟s first and second laws of diffusion.[June 2008]
10) Explain the phenomenon of equimolar counter diffusion drive an expression for
equimolar counter diffusion between two gases (*or) liquids? [May/ June - 2013,]
11) Derive the general mass transfer equation in Cartesian coordinates.[Nov/Dec –2008]
12) Consider air inside a tube of surface area 0.5 m2 and wall thickness 10mm. The
pressure of air drops from 2.2 bar to 2.18 bar in 6 days. The solubility of air in the rubber is
0.072 m3 of air per m3 rubber at 1 bar. Determine the diffusivity of air in rubber at the
operating temperature of 300K if the volume of air in the tube is 0.028 m3 [May/June –
2009]

13) The temperature recorded by a thermometer whose bulb covered by a wet wick in a
dry air at atmospheric pressure is 220C. Estimate the true air temperature . [April / May
2010]
14) Dry air at 300C and one atmospheric pressure flows over a flat of 600mm long at a
velocity of 55m/s calculate the mass transfer Co – efficient at the end of the plate. [
May2010]
15) Write short notes on the following.
(i) Analogy between heat and mass transfer
(ii) Evaporation process in the atmosphere [May/June 2013]
16. CO2 and air experience equimolar counter diffusion in a circular tube whose length and
diameter are 1 m and 50mm respectively the system of total pressure of 1 atm and a
temperature of 25°C the ends of the tube are connected to large chambers in which the
species concentration are maintained at fixed values. The partial pressure of CO 2 at one
end is 190mm of Hg while at the other end is 95mm Hg. Estimate the mass transfer rate
of CO2 and air through the tube .[ May / June – 2012]
17) (b) Air at 20°C ( ρ = 1.205 Kg/m3 ; ʋ = 15.06 x 10-6 m2/s ; D = 4166 x 10-5 m2/s ) flows
over a tray ( Length = 32cm ; width = 42cm ) full of water with a velocity of 2.8
m/s.The total pressure of moving air is 1 atm and the partial pressure of water present in
the air is 0.0068 bar. If the temperature on the water surface is 15°C calculate the
evaporation rate of water. [May/June – 2012]


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S.K.P.

Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai V SEM

SKP Engineering College

ME6502- HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Mechanical Engineering Department 1 Heat And Mass Transfer

This is to Certify that the Electronic Study Material

Subject Code: ME 6502

Subject Name: ME6502- HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Signature of the Author

Name: Mr.A.Jayaveeran ,Mr. K.Venkatesan,Mr.G.Karthikeyan,Mr.R.Sridharan

Designation: Assistant Professor

This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr.A.Jayaveeran ,

Signature of HD Signature of the Principal

Name: Dr.J.Kuberan Name: Dr.V.Subramania Bharathi

Mechanical Engineering Department 2 Heat And Mass Transfer

ME 6502 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Lecture : 3 hrs/Week Internal Assessment: 20 Marks

Mechanical Engineering Department 3 Heat And Mass Transfer

Mechanical Engineering Department 4 Heat And Mass Transfer

 NPTEL TUTORIALS (Internal Server)

Mechanical Engineering Department 5 Heat And Mass Transfer

S.No Particulars Page

3 Unit – III 159

Mechanical Engineering Department 6 Heat And Mass Transfer

Mechanical Engineering Department 7 Heat And Mass Transfer

7. Give some examples of heat generation application in heat conduction.

8. State Fourier’s law of heat conduction. [CO1-L1-May/June 2013, Nov/Dec 2013,

dx dT/dx- Temperature gradient, k/m

Q= -kA dT k- Thermal conductivity, w/mk

9. Discuss the mechanism of heat conduction in solids. (May/June 2009)

In solids, heat is conducted by following the mechanisms

10. Explain the significance (physical meaning) of Fourier number.

Mechanical Engineering Department 8 Heat And Mass Transfer

Heat transfer by convection is given by Newton‟s law of cooling

A – Area exposed to heat transfer in m2 ,

h - heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K

Ts – Temperature of the surface in K,

T - Temperature of the fluid in K.

Then the general equation becomes Poisson‟s equation as

Mechanical Engineering Department 9 Heat And Mass Transfer

ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION – PLANE AND

19. List down the three types of boundary conditions.

21. What is Periodic heat flow and non-periodic heat flow?

Mechanical Engineering Department 10 Heat And Mass Transfer

L – Length of cylinder, K – Thermal conductivity, r2 – Outer radius , r1 – inner radius

Mechanical Engineering Department 11 Heat And Mass Transfer

25. Define overall heat transfer co-efficient.

26. A 3 mm wire of thermal conductivity 19 W/mK at a steady heat generation of

Radius of wire, R = 3mm = 3× 10-3 m

Thermal conductivity, k = 19 W/mK

Heat generation = 500 MW/m3

Outside temperature = 25 =298 K

Mechanical Engineering Department 12 Heat And Mass Transfer

Tr=0 = Tw + (0.0032- 0) =250.87

CONDUCTION WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION

In many practical cases, there is a heat generation within the system.

(a) Electric coils

In electric coil and resistance Heater, heat is generated due to electric

28. What is sensitivity of a thermocouple? (Nov/Dec 2007)

The time required by a thermocouple to reach 63.2% of the value of initial

29. What are the factors affect thermal conductivity?

Rough surfaces have higher thermal contact resistance. Air is trapped