1

ean and standard deviation

There is almost always variation in bio logical data. The The normal distribution
amount of variatio n can be show n using a graph called a
frequency di stribu tion . M ost var iatio n gives a bell -shaped mean
frequency d istributio n called the normal distribution . The ~
mean value is in the midd le of the di stribution . The mean of a
set of values is calc ulated by di vid ing the sum of the values
by the numb er of values.
For example, the sum of the valu es 7, 9, 11 and 17 is 44 and as
here are four values, the mean is 44 divided by 4, w hich is 11.
The standard deviation is used to assess how far the values
are spread above and below the mean. It is ca lculated by
entering data into a graphic display or scientif ic calc ulator
and pressing the standard devi ation funct io n key. A high
standard deviation shows that the data are w ide ly spread,
w hereas a low standard devi ation shows that the data are - 2,.0 -1 .0 +1.0 +2.0
cl ustered closely arou nd the mean.
The standard devi ation ca n be used to help decid e wh ether
,-------1------- ~ -------j----~-o~ than 95 % of the

68% of the area is area is betwee n - 2.0

the difference betw een tw o means is likely to be signi fica nt. betwe e n - 1.0 a nd a nd +2.0 standa rd
Tw o examples are describ ed below . + 1.0 sta nda rd deviations. deviation s.

A usefu l rule is that 68% of the values li e w ith in one standard

LEFT AND RIGHT HAND LENGTHS
Thirty teenage boys measured the length of their left and right
hands, to fi nd out w hether they are different. Indivi d ual boys'
left and right hand length varied by as much as 10mm.
The results are shown in the frequ ency di stribu tion below .
deviat ion of the mean in a norm al di stributi on and
approx imate ly 95% of the values lie withi n two standard
devi ati ons of the mean (above).

ERROR BARS
Hand Mean length Standard Bars on graphs extend ing above and below the mean value
deviation
are used to show the variability of the data. They may show
left 188.6 mm 11.0 mm the range of the data, or the standard devi ation .

right 188.4 mm 10.9 mm

HAND AND FOOT LENGTHS

The same thirty teenage boys w ho measured their hand
12
left lengths also measured the length of thei r right foot , to f ind
~
out w hether it was di fferent from their hand lengths.
10
Th e result s are shown in th e f requ ency dis tribu ti on
.--­ below .
G 8
c
<l!
5-
<l!
6 Hand/foot Mean length Standard
Lt: f--- deviation
4 ~
right hand 188.4 mm 10.9 mm
2

o I right foot 262.5 mm 14 .3 mm

12 ~

right G 12
10 c
~ 10 right
g- 8 hand right
G
c
8 I-­
foot
<l!
Lt: 6
5- 6 4
::'
u... f--­
4 ~
2
0' I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
2 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300

o I Length / mm

160 170 180 190 200 210

Because the standard deviati ons are much less than the
Hand Length / mm di fference in mean length, it is very likely that the di fference in
mean length between right hands and right feet is signifi cant.
Because the standard devi ation s are muc h greater than the
di fference in mean length, it is very un likely that the
di fference in mean length between left and right hands is
significa nt.

Statistical analysis 1
 Relationships significance and cause

THE t-TEST Examples of the use of the t-test

On the previous page, sizes of standard deviations were used These examples are based on the data for hand and foot
to assess whether differences between means were likely to be lengths described on the previous page.
significant. Biologists often need to decide more objectively 1. Testing the difference between mean lengths of left and
whether differences between means are significant. One of right hands

the most frequently used methods is called the t-test. Mean length of left hands = 188.6mm

The t-test can be used to find out whether there is a Mean length of right hands = 188.4mm

significant difference between the means of two populations. t = 0.082

A difference is considered statistically significant if the Critical val ue for t = 2.002 (P = 0.05)

probability of it being due to random variation is 5% or less.
t is a statistic that is calculated from the two sets of
measurements. The larger the difference between the two
means, the larger t is. The larger the standard deviations, the
smaller t is. It is not necessary to learn how to calculate t,
The calculated value of t is much smaller than the critical
value, so the difference between the mean lengths of left and
right hands is not sign ificant.
2. Testing the difference between the mean lengths of right
hands and right feet.

because a graphic display calculator or computer is nearly

Mean length of right hands = 188.4mm

always now used.

Mean length of right feet = 262.5mm

t = 23.3

Stages in using the t-test

Critical value for t = 2.005 (P = 0.05)

1. Enter the values in a graphic display calculator or a

The calcu lated val ue of t is much larger than the critical
spreadsheet program, with values for the two populations
value, showing that the difference between the mean lengths
entered separately.
of hands and feet is significant.
2. Use the calculator function keys or computer software to
calculate t. In these two examples, the t-test confirms conclusions that are
3. Find the number of degrees of freedom. This will be the reasonably obvious. In biological research, it is often much
total number of values in both populations, minus two. less clear whether differences between means are significant
4. Find the critical value for teither using computer software and the t-test is therefore very usefu I.
or a table of values of t. The level of significance (P)
chosen shou Id be 0.05 (5%) and the appropriate row
should be selected according to the number of degrees of
CORRELATION AND CAUSE
The scattergraph below shows that there is a positive
freedom.
correlation between the lengths of the right hand and right
5. Compare the calculated value of t with the critical value.
feet of th irty teenage boys - boys with larger hands tend to
If the critical val ue is exceeded, there is evidence of a
have larger feet as well.
significant difference between the means, at the 5%
level.
E 300

Table of critical values of t E 290

..........

~280
.
Level of significance (P) c .. ... ..
~
.. ..
270
0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.002
o
~ 260 .. •t

. ..
t
1
2
3
3.078
1.886
1.638
6.314
2.920
2.353
12.706
4.303
3.182
31.821
6.985
4.541
83.657
9.925
5.841
318.310
27.327
10.215
250
240 ..
.. . ...
4 1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604 7.173
5 1.476 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032 5.893 230
E 6 1.440 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707 5.208 220
0 7 1.415 1.895 2.385 2.998 3.499 4.785
u 8 1.397 1.860 2.308 2.896 3.355 4.501
(J.) 210
i.383 i.833 2.262 2.82i 3.250 4.297
~
9
10 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169 4.144 200 1
'0 160 170 180 190 200 210 220
tJ)
11 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106 4.025

(J.)
(J.) 12 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055 3.930 Hand length / mm
M
(J.)
13 1.350 1.771 2.180 2.650 3.012 3.852
14 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.624 2.977 3.787
0
Although there is a positive correlation between hand and foot
~ 15
16
17
1.341
1.337
1.333
1.753
1.746
1.740
2.131
2.120
2.110
2.602
2.583
2.567
2.947
2.921
2.898
3.733
3.686
3.646
length, we know that increases in the length of the hand do not
cause increases in length of the foot. Instead, both are due to
18 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878 3.610
the factors that control growth in teenage boys. This mistake is

I
19 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861 3.579
20 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845 3.552
30 1.310 1.697 2.042 2.457 2.750 3.385 often made in analysis of data - a correlation between two
40 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.423 2.704 3.307 variables is assumed to show that there is a causal Iink. It is
important to remember that correlation is not proof of cause.

2 Statistical analysis
 2 ._ _' _~:.a.-...;....--L

Cell theory
INTRODUCING CELLS
Cells co nsist of cyto plasm, enclosed in a plasma membrane, usually controlled by a single nucl eus. Two cell types that can be easily
looked at under a light microscope are human cheek cells, scraped from inside the mouth (left) and moss leaf cells (right).

H uman cheek cell M oss leaf cell

plasma cytoplasm chloroplasts

membrane
<::> ' / '.
cell
. '~
wall ~'-./~ . .""-J nucleus
o
o
plasma cytop lasm
<::>
membrane

nucleus sap in vacuole

mitochondria vacuole membrane

UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS THE CELL THEORY

Some organisms such as Amoeba (below), Chlorella and The cell theo ry includ es these statements:
Euglen a have on ly one cell. This single cell has to carry out • living organisms are com posed of cells
all the functio ns of life: • cells are the smallest units of life
metabo lism - chemica l reactions insi de the cell
• cells com e from pre-exi stin g cells.
response - reacting to stim uli
M any o rganisms have been examined and have been found
hom eostasis - co ntrolling co nditions inside the cell
to co nsist of cells, but there are some casesw here the idea of
grow th - increasing in size
li vin g o rganisms co nsisting of tin y box-l ike str uctures does not
reproduction - produ cin g offspri ng
seem to fi t. Fo r example, skeletal muscle is made up of
nutrition - obtaining foo d.
muscle fibres. These are much larger than most ce lls (300 or
more mm long) and co ntain hun dreds of nuclei. Most fungi
co nsist of t hread-like structures called hyphae, w hich in some
Amoeba
species co ntain many nucl ei w ithout d ivid ing wa lls betw een.

'
..
..
Man y tissues, suc h as bo ne, co ntain a greater vo lume of
ext racell ular mater ial (material outside the cell membr ane)

100 urn
-: .. ·:······:···0·:·::".:
/ . .: '.:.'6 : . ~-.: . :.
than of cells. Despite these aw kw ard cases, most living ti ssues
are co mposed of cells. A lso, w hereas cells taken from an
': =::. :'. <:>: ~; :..d-:. organism often survive fo r a time, smaller parts of an
. :(i) :; . .0 . " :''c2 .. ' . . .
organism do not. Cell s do therefore seem to be the smallest
' . :.'. :': · :··~·; o ·: :.:: : .:·::
. .:"",':':'.: :..~ :>~ :: '~::'." .~'. : '.: : ' un its of life that are capable of surv iva l.

:;-:..:.' ');::. ''a~ :.::} .:e,' ~ ';.~ . :'::.::',': . '

There is also evide nce for the th ird part of the cell theo ry.
Some of the classic expe riments in bio logy showed that

~
"
• -. 0--J.·:•• "0""0 I ." 0.:_.
' o ....
, o.•...
, spontaneous generat io n of life is impossible (below). The first
..:o.-.(jJ.
. '.0,
.' .'
. ' c:; .() . 0 .' :
: .. cell s must have been fo rmed in the origin of life from non ­
cell ular material , but today there is no ev idence that cells can
be for med exce pt by cell divi sion.

MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
Mul ticel lular organisms co nsist of many cells. These cells do
not have to carry out many different functions. Instead, they
can become specialize d for one partic ular function and carry it
out very efficiently . Cells in a multice ll ular organism therefore
develop in different w ays. This is called different iation . The
way in w hich this occurs is described on page 4. Steriliz ed soup in Sterilized soup in a
Mu lticellu lar organisms are said to show emergent pr opert ies. an open container sealed container does
decays because not decay as no
This means that the who le organism is more than the sum of
bacteria float in bacteria are present
its parts, because of the co mplex interactions betw een cells.

Cells 3
Stem cells and differentiation

DIFFERENTIATION THERAPEUTIC USE OF STEM CELLS

Cells in a multicell ular organism develop in di fferent ways and
can therefore carry out different functions. This is called
differentiation. The cells need different genes to develop in
different w ays. Each cell has all of these genes, so could develop
in any way, but it only uses the ones that it needs to follow its
pathway of development. O nce a pathway of development has
begun in a cell, it is usually fixed and the cell cannot change to
follow a different pathway. The cell is said to be committed.
The draw ings (below) show three of the hundreds of d ifferent
types of d ifferentiated cells in humans.
In the future, many therapies may invo lve the use of stem
cell s. Some therapeutic uses have already been int roduced.
O ne example is given here.
1. The placenta and umbilical co rd of a baby is used as a
source of stem cells. At the end of childbirth, the placenta
is taken and pl aced on a stand, w ith the umb ilical cord
hanging dow n from it. Blood drains out of the umbi li cal
co rd and is co llected - about 1OOcm 3 . The co rd blood
co ntai ns many hematopoi etic stem cells. These cells can
di vid e and di fferenti ate into any type of blood cell.

H eart muscle tissue

20 urn
i( •

All heart muscle cells contain structures

made from protein fibres that are used to
contract the cell and help to pump blood in
the heart.
Sensory neuron 2. Red blood cells are removed from the cord blood and the
remain ing fluid is t hen tested to f ind its tissue type, checked
for di sease-causing organisms and stored in liquid nitr ogen,
in a specia l bank of cord bloo d.

Beta cell in t he pancreat ic islets

. . -. " . - -.

. ...~
••••.••.
•..
•. ~
3. Cord bloo d can be used to t reat patients, especia lly
child ren, wh o have develop ed certain forms of leukemi a.
Thi s is a cancer in w hich the cells in bo ne marrow div ide
uncont rol lably, produci ng far too many whi te blood cells.
STEM CELLS The patient's ti ssue type is matched w ith co rd blood in the
Stem cell s are defined as cells that have the capacity to self­ bank. If suitable cord blood is available, the patient is given
renew by cell di vi sion and to d ifferentiate. Hum an embryos chemotherapy d rugs that ki ll bone marrow cells, including
consist entirely of stem cells in their early stages, but the cells causing the leukemia.
gradually the cell s in the embryo co mmit themselves to a
pattern of di fferenti ation . O nce comm itted, a cell may still
d ivid e several more t imes, but all of the cells formed w ill
di fferenti ate in the same w ay and so they are no lon ger
stem cells.
Small numb ers of embryonic cells remain as stem cells
how ever and they are still present in the adult bod y. They are
found in most human ti ssues, incl uding bone marrow , skin
and liver. They give some human tissues considerable powers
transfusion of
of regeneration and repair. The stem cell s in other tissues only cord blood
all ow limited repair - brain, kidney and heart, for example.
There has been great interest in stem cells because of their
potential for tissue repair and for treating a variety of 4. The selected co rd blood is taken from the bank, thawed and
degenerative conditions. Fo r example, Parkinson's di sease, intr oduced into the patient's blood system, usually vi a a vei n
mu ltip le scle rosis and strokes all invo lve the loss of neurons in the chest or arm. The hematopoi etic stem cells establish
or other cell s in the nervou s system. A lthough st ill only at the themselves in the pati ent' s bone marrow , w here they divide
research stage, there is the potential to use stem cell s to repeated ly to build up a population of bone marrow cells to
replace them . replace those kill ed by the chemotherapy drugs.

4 Cells
Size in cell biology

LIMITATIONS TO CELL SIZE

Cells do not carry o n grow ing indef initel y. They reach a maxim um size and then may divid e.

If a cell became too large, it w ou ld develop problems because its surface area to vo lume ratio

wo uld becom e too small .

l Ornrn =
A s the size of any obj ect is in creased, the ratio between the surface area and the vo lume
~
I-­
decreases. Con sider the surface area to vo lu me ratio of cubes of va ry ing size as an example.
I-­
The rate at w hich materials enter or leave a cell depends on the surface area of the cell.
I-­
H ow ev er, the rate at w hic h materials are used or produce d depends on the vo lume. A cell
f­
that become s too large may not be able to take in essentia l materials o r exc rete waste

substances qui ckly eno ugh.

1mm
f-

The same prin ciple wo rks for heat. Cells that generate heat may not be able to lose it qui ck ly

f:::
l=f-
eno ugh if they grow very large.

f-
Surface area to vo lume ratios are importa nt in bio logy . They help to exp lain many phenomena
f-
apart from maxim um ce ll sizes.

f-

UNITS FOR SIZE MEASUREMENTS 100 urn f:::

M ost S.1. un its d iffer from each other by a facto r of 1000 . ~
f-
O ne mi ll imetre is a thousand times smaller tha n 1 metre. f-
O ne m icrom etre is a tho usand tim es smaller than 1 mi llim etre. f- cells of
On e nanometre is a thou sand tim es smaller than 1 microm etre. I-
eukaryotes
The mo st useful units for measurin g the sizes of cells and struct ures w ithi n them are
nanometres (nm) and m ic ro metres (IJ m). 10!Am ~
The typi cal sizes of some important structures in bio logy are shown opposite. ~
l-
I- organelles
l-
CALCULATING MAGNIFICATION
I-­
Photographs or d raw ings of structures seen und er the mi croscope show them larger than they
really are - they magnify them. It is useful to know how m uc h larger the image is than the bacteria
1urn l= •
actua l spec ime n. Thi s facto r is calle d the magnif icat ion. It is alwa ys helpfu l to show the (sizes vary )
magnifi cati on on a draw ing of a bio logical structure. ~
l-
Foll ow these in structi ons to calculate magnification . I­

1. Choo se an ob vi o us length, for examp le the maximum di ameter of a cell. M easure it on I-­

the draw ing. f­

2. M easure the same length on the act ual spec imen. vi ruses
3. If the uni ts used for the tw o measurements are different, co nvert one of them into the same 100 nm f::: •
l=f- (sizes va ry)
un its as the other one.
f-
4 . Di vi de the length on the dr awin g by the length on the actual speci men. The result is the I-­
magnif icatio n. f-

I­
Thickness
of cell
Mag nificatio n = size of image
membranes
size of speci men
10 nm
=•
Thi s equat io n can also be used to calc ulate the act ual size of a speci me n if the magnificati on -==
-
and size of the im age are kno wn . -
-

SCALE BARS molecules

A scale bar is a line added to a mi cro graph o r a dr aw ing to hel p to show the actual size of

1 nm
-=• (e.g. DNA
-=
the structures.
molecule is
Fo r example, a 10 IJm bar shows how large a 10 IJ m object w ould appear.
- 2nm in
The figure below shows is a scanning electron mi crograph of a leaf w ith the magnification and a
f- diameter)
scale bar both shown.
I-

0.1 nm ~
Scanning electron micrograph of leaf ( x 480 ) '­

1000 mm == 1 m

1000 IJm == 1 mm

1000 nm == 1 IJm

Cells 5
Prokaryotic cells

ULTRASTRUCTURE OF FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF A PROKARYOTIC CELL

CELLS
From the 1950s onwa rds, ce ll
structure co uld be studi ed in much
greater detai l than before, using
elect ron m icroscop es. W hat was
revealed is ca lled the ultrastructure of
the cell.
Cells were d ivided into two types
acco rding to thei r structure,
prokaryotic and eukar yoti c. The first
cells to evo lve we re prokaryot ic and
many organisms still have prokaryotic
cells, includi ng all bacteri a. These
cells have no nucl eus and the name
prokaryotic means befo re the
nucleus.
The fun ctions of struct ures w ithin
pro karyotic ce lls are shown (right).
Prokaryoti c cells di vid e in tw o by a
Stru cture Function
Cell wa ll Form s a protective outer layer that prevents damage from
outside and also bursting if internal pressure is high .
Plasma Controls entry and exit of substances, pum pi ng some of them in
membrane by active transport.
Cytoplasm Co ntains enzymes that catalyse the chemica l reaction s of
metabo li sm and co ntains DN A in a region called the nucl eo id .
Pili Hair-li ke struct ures proj ectin g from the ce ll w all, that can be
ratcheted in and out; w hen co nnected to anot her bacterial ce ll
th ey can be used to pull cells togeth er.
Flagell a Solid protein structu res, w ith a corkscrew shape, project ing from
the ce ll wa ll, w hich rotate and cause locom ot ion.
Rib osomes Small granular structures th at synthesise prot ein s by translating
messenger RNA . Som e prot ein s stay in the cell and others are
secreted.

'------_ -----'II
process called binary f issio n.
Nucleoid
L--.-
Regio n of the cyto plasm that contains naked DN A, wh ich is the
genetic in fo rmati on of the cell.
_

Electron micrograph of Escherichia coli (1-2 pm in length )

Drawing to help interpr et th e electron micrograph

nucleoid (region
ribosomes cell wall plasma membrane containing naked DNA)

Electron micrograph of Escherichia coli show ing surf ace features

.' . "

"

6 Cells
EUkaryotic cells

STRUCTURE OF A EUKARYOTIC CELL

Electron mic rograph of a li ver cell ( X 6000) D rawing to interpret parts of t he elect ro n microgra ph

°QCP DoC)
,(O\JY~~
a . .. • -.
.' '

plasma
membrane
free
nucleus ribosomes
mitochondrion

COMPARING PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Feature Prokaryotic cells Eukar yot ic cells

Type of genetic mate ria l A naked loop of D NA Chromosom es co nsisting of strands of D NA associated w ith
protein. Four o r mo re chromosomes are present.

Locat io n of genetic In the cyto plasm in a regio n In the nucl eus inside a do uble nucl ear membrane ca lled the
materi al called th e nucl eo id nucl ear envelope

Mit ochondria Not present A lways present

Ribosomes Small sized - 70S Larger sized - 80S

(S = Svedberg units - related to the size of organelles)

In tern al memb ranes Few or no ne are present M any internal membranes that compartmentalize the cytoplasm
incl udi ng ER, Go lgi apparatuses, Iysosomes

COMPARING PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Feature Ani mal Plant

Cell wa ll No cell w all, o nly a plasma membr ane Cell wa ll and plasma membr ane present
Chl or opl ast s Not present Present in cells th at photosynthesize
Pol ysaccharides Glycogen is used as a storage com po und Starch is used as a sto rage compound
Vacuol e Not usually present Large flu id-fill ed vacuo le often present
Shape Able to change shape. Usuall y rounded Fixed shape. Usually rather regular

Cells 7
Membrane structure and membrane proteins

Fluid mosa ic mod el of a biological membran e

hydrophil ic hydrophobic glycoprotein cholesterol

phosphate head hydrocarbon tail

phospholip id ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

~~~~~ ~~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~
bilayer

integral proteins embedded

in the phospholipid bi layer
peripheral protein
on the surface
~
of the membrane

PHOSPHOLIPIDS FLUIDITY OF MEMBRANES

H ydrophi li c molecu les are attra cted to wate r.
H ydr oph obi c mo lecu les are not att racted to wa ter, but
are attracted to each other. Phospho li pi d mol ecul es are
unu sual because they are partl y hydr oph il ic and partly
hydrophobi c.
The phosphate head is hydr oph ili c and the tw o
hydrocarbon tail s are hydr ophobi c. In w ater,
pho spho lipids form doubl e layers w ith the hydr oph ilic
heads in co ntact w ith w ater on both sides and the
hyd roph obi c tai ls aw ay from w ater in the centre. Thi s
arrangement is foun d in bi ol ogical membr anes. The
attract io n betwee n the hydr oph o bi c tails in the centre and
betw een the hyd rophi li c heads and the surround ing w ater
makes membr anes very stab le.
Phosph ol ipi ds in mem branes are in a fluid state. Thi s allows
me mbranes to change shape in a w ay that wou ld be im po ssible
if they we re sol id. The fluidity also allows vesicl es to be
pin ch ed off from memb ranes or fuse w ith them .
MEMBRANE PROTEINS
Some electro n mi crographs show the positions of pro teins
w ithin membranes. The pro teins are seen to be dotted ove r the
memb rane. This gives the mem brane the appearance of a
mosaic. Because the protein mo lecules fl oat in the f luid
ph ospholipid bilayer, bio log ica l membranes are called fluid
mosaics. The fig ure (above) is a di agram showing the f luid
mosaic model of a bio log ica l membrane. Some of the functio ns
of membrane protein s are shown below.

Funct ions of membran e pro tein s

HO RMO NE CHANN ELS PUMPS

EL ECTRON
BIND ING ENZYMES FOR PASS IVE FOR ACTIVE
CARRIERS
SITES
e TRANSPORT TRANSPORT

~
OUTSIDE O UTSIDE

INSIDE INSIDE

ATP
ADP+ P

A site exposed on Enzymes located in Electron carriers Channels are Pumps release
the outside of the membranes either are arranged in passages through the energy from ATP
membrane allows catalyse reactions chains in the centre of membrane and use it to move
one specific inside or outside membrane so that proteins. Each specific substances
hormone to bind. the cell, dependi ng electrons can pass channel allows one acrossthe
A signal is then on w hether the from one carrier to specific substance to membrane
transmitted to the active site is on the another pass through
inside of the cell inner or outer
surface

8 Cells
Passive transport across membranes

DIFFUSION SIMPLE AND FACILITATED DIFFUSION

Soli ds, liquids and gases co nsist of particles - atoms, ion s and
molecu les. In liqui ds and gases, these particles are in
co nt inual motio n. The d irect ion t hat they move in is rando m.
If particles are evenly spread then their movement in all
directions is even and there is no net movement - they
remain evenly spread despit e co ntinuall y mov ing. Someti mes
particl es are unevenly spread - there is a higher conce ntratio n
in one region than another. This causes di ffusio n.
Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region
of higher conce ntration to a region o f lower co nce ntration, as
a result of the random motio n of particles.
Diffusion occurs because mo re parti cles mov e fro m the
region of higher co ncentration to the region of low er
conce ntratio n than move in the opposite directi on. D iffu sion
can occur across mem branes if there is a conce ntratio n
grad ient and if the mem brane is permeable to the particl e. For
example, membr anes are f reely permeable to oxyg en, so if
there is a low er conce ntration of oxyge n inside a cell than
outside, it wi ll di ffuse into the cell. M embranes are not
perm eable to cellulose, so it does not d iffuse across, even if
there is a hi gher conce ntrat ion o n on e side of a membrane
than the other.
M embra nes all ow some substances to diffuse thro ugh but not
others - they are parti ally permeable. Som e of t hese
substances move betwee n the phospho lipid mo lecules in the
membrane - this is simple diffusion. Other substances are
unable to pass betw een the phospho lip ids. To allow these
substances to d iffuse thro ugh membranes, channel protei ns
are needed . Thi s is call ed facilitated diffusion . Chann el
proteins are speci fic - they o nly all ow one typ e of substance
to pass thro ugh. For example, chlo ride channels only allow
chlo ride ions to pass thro ugh. Cells can con trol w hether
substances pass thr ou gh their plasma membranes by
facil itated diffusio n, by the typ es of channel pro tein that are
produ ced and in serted in to the membrane. Cells cannot
cont ro l the d irectio n of movement. Faci litated d iff usion
alw ays causes parti cles to move from a region of higher
con centration to a region of lower co nce ntratio n. Both simple
and facilit ated diffu sion are passive processes - no energy has
to be used by the cell to make them occ ur.
There are sodium and potassium channel protein s in the
membranes of neuron es that open and close, dependin g o n
the vo ltage across the membrane. They are called vo ltage­
gated channels and are used duri ng the transm issio n of nerve
impulses.

.••••
.••
membrane consisting
of phospholip id bilayer

-.­

higher concentration

.....
lower concentratio n

• ••
• •
membrane containing
channel proteins

. ··1
• ••
• •••• ........ ....• ••· I~·
• ••• ••••
... ··1
•••••
•• ••••
• •
• I • •
·... ... ...
·· .. .. . . ..
• •••
• • •
-~.

Facilitated diffusion through membrane

Solute unablJo diffuse through membrane Solute able to diffuse through membrane containing channel proteins

OSMOSIS Solute molecules cannot diffuse out as

Plasma memb ranes are usuall y free ly perm eab le to the membrane is impermeable to them
wa ter. Th e passive moveme nt of wa te r across memb ranes

.
is different f rom d if fusio n ac ross membran es, because e• • • •
wa ter is th e solvent. A solvent is a liquid in whi ch
part ic les d issolve. D isso lved particles are called solutes.
..'e. .. ~
• • •
<: .. region of low er solute
concentration (in this

~
The direct io n in w hic h w ate r moves is due to t he .
•• • ••• •• • case pure water)
co nce ntr at ion of solutes, rather than t he co ncentrat io n of • •• • •
• • ••• • •
wate r mo lecules, so it is ca ll ed osmosis, rather than
diffusion .

Osmos is is the passive m o vem ent of water mo lecules from

a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher
.\. •
• •••
...••••.•..
• • • • •• • •
• ••
•
•
partially
permeable
membrane

•••••• region of higher

solute conce ntration, across a partially permeable
membrane. ·:Mtf··
•• •
solute
concentration
Attr actio ns betw een solute particles and wate r molecules
~
are the reaso n for w ater mov ing to regio ns wi th a higher W ater molecu les move in and out through the membrane but more
solute co nce ntration. move in than out. There is a net movement from the region of lower
solute concentratio n to the region of higher solute concentration

Cells 9
Active transport across membranes

PUMP PROTEINS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Active transport is th e mo vement of
substances across membranes using
energy fro m ATP. Ac tive tr ansport
can move substances against the
con centr ati on gradient - from a
region of low er to a region of hi gher
co nce ntratio n. Protein pumps in the
membrane are used fo r active
transpo rt. Each pump onl y transports
parti cular substances, so cells can
co ntro l w hat is absorbed and w hat is
expelled . Pump s w ork in a specific
directi on - the substanc e can on ly
enter the pump on one side and can
Particle enters Particle binds to a Energy from ATP is Particle is released on
only exit on the other side.
the pump from specif ic site. Other used to change the the side w ith a higher
the side w ith types of particle shape of the pump concentration and the
a lower cannot bind pump then returns to its
concentration original shape

TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS BY VESICLES IN THE CYTOPLASM

Proteins are Vesicles bud off The Golgi Vesicl es bud off from
synthesized by from the rER and apparatus the Golgi apparatus
ribosomes and then carry the proteins modifies the and carry the modified
enter the rough to the Golgi proteins proteins to the plasma
endoplasmic apparatus membrane
reticulum

ENDOCYTOSIS EXOCYTOSIS

Part of the plasma Vesicles fuse w ith the

membrane is pulled plasma membrane
inw ards

A droplet of fluid
The contents of the
becomes enclosed
vesicle are expelled
w hen a vesicle is
pi nched off The membrane then
flattens out again
Vesicles can then move
through the cytoplasm
carrying their contents

EXTRACELLULAR COMPONENTS
The pl asma membr ane is the barri er that
separates a cell from its surround ings.
Cells somet imes produce com po nents
and then place them outsid e the pl asma
membr ane, using exocy tosis. These are
called extracellular co mponents. Tw o
examples of the rol es of extracellular
components are outli ned here:
Cytoplasm containing
intrace llular components
plasma
Structures outside
membrane
the membrane are
extracellular
1 . Th e plant ce ll wa ll
Plants co nstruct thei r cell w alls by
sy nthesising cellu lose fibres in vesicle s
and add ing them to the inn er surface of
the cell wa ll. O ther substances are
secreted to intercon nect the cellulose
fib res. The strength of the cellulose
allow s plant cell w alls to have these
rol es:
• maintaining the cel l's shape
• allow ing hi gh pressure to bui ld up in
the cell w it hout it bur sting
• high pressure in pl ant cells prevents
excessive wat er uptake by osmosis
• hi gh pressure in plant cells (turgor
pressure) makes the ce ll almost ri gid ,
help ing to support the plant.
2. Gl ycop rot ein s
M any animal cells secr ete
glyc oproteins, consisti ng of a protein to
wh ich carbohydrate is attac hed. Thi s
form s an extracellular matri x. Ti ssues
t hat co nsist of a single layer of cells
pro duce a thi n layer of ext racellular
matri x called the basem ent membr ane,
for example around blood capilla ries
and around alveo li in the lungs. The
matr ix is a gel and has these roles:
• suppo rting single layers of th in cells,
w hich mi ght oth erwi se tear or
perfo rate
• cell to cell ad hesio n, fo r example, a
basement membra ne helps capillary
wa ll cells to adh ere to alveolus wa l l
cells.

10 Cells
Cell division

THE CELL CYCLE IN EUKARYOTES

New cells are produ ced by di vi sion of existing ce lls. If many new cells are
Interphase
needed, cells go through a cycl e of events again and agai n. Th is is called the
cell cyc le. The longest phase in th is cycle is interph ase. Thi s is a very act ive
period, during w hich the cell carries out many biochemi cal reacti on s and
grow s larger. The D NA mo lecu les in the chromoso mes are uncoil ed and the
r Sph,;, '~

'1
genes on them can be transcrib ed, allow ing the protein synthesis that is
G, \
needed fo r grow th. There is an increase in the num ber of mi tochondria and in
plant cells in the numb er of chlo rop lasts. There are three stages in int erph ase:

G 1 - a period of grow th, D NA transcription and protein synthesis cell

The 8!
-,Ei

~
5 phase - the period during w hic h all D NA in the nucl eus is repli cated cycle
G 2 - a period in w hich the cel l prepares fo r divisio n.
~~..r()
-o "Q,
At the end of int erphase, the cell begins mitosis - the pro cess by w hich the /
';0?>"e
nucl eus divides to for m tw o genetically identical nuclei . Tow ards the end of
mitosis, the cytoplasm of the cell starts to di vid e and eventua lly tw o cells are
<, iL-tetaphase t-.0:o.\!\\~~
formed, each co ntaining o ne nucl eus. The process of di vidin g the cyto plasm
to fo rm tw o cells is cytokinesis. The tw o cells begin int erphase w hen mit osis "iL-t,.Itosis and cyto
--fIIIIII'"
. eS\S
\<.\n
and cytok inesis have been completed.

THE PHASES OF MITOSIS

<D Early prophase Q) Late prophase Q) M etaphase
Each chro mosome
Spindle
consists of two
Spindl e microtubules
identical chromatids
m icrotubu les extend from
formed by DNA
are grow ing each po le to
replication in Spin dle
the equator microtubules
interphase and
held together from both po les
by a centromere are attached to
each centromere,
The nucl ear
Chromosomes on opposite sides
membrane has
are becoming broken down and
shorter and chromosom es
falle r by have moved to
superco iling the equator

@ Anaphase Al l chromo somes

~ Early telophase @ Late telophase
have reached

the poles and

nuclear memb ranes

Spindl e
The centromeres for m arou nd them mic rotub ules
have di vided The cel l
break dow n
and the di vi des
chromatids (cytokinosis)
have become Spindle
Chromosom es to form tw o
chromo somes microtubu les
uncoi l and cells w ith
pu ll the
are no longer geneticall y
genetically
indiv idual ly identical
identical
(\.\ \ .11; visib le nucle i
chromosomes
,,~)
to opp osite

poles

USES OF MITOSIS TUMOUR FORMATION

M itosis is used in eukaryotes w henever genetically identi cal
cells are needed :
• du ring grow th
• du ring embryonic developm ent, w hen the large cell
produ ced by ferti lization (zygote) di vid es repeatedly to
produ ce many small er cells
• w hen ti ssues have been damaged and need to be repai red
• to repro du ce asexually.
Som etimes the norm al co ntro l of mitosis in a cell fai ls, due to
a change in the genes of the cell. Thi s cell di vides into two ,
w hic h inh erit the change in the genes. The tw o daughter cells
d ivide to for m fo ur cells. Repeated uncont roll ed di vi sions
soon produ ce a mass of cells called a tu mour . Thi s can
happen in any ti ssue and in any organ. Tumours can grow to
a large size and can spread to other parts of the bod y. The
d iseases caused by the grow th of tum our s are called cancer.

Cells 11
 EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPICS 1 AND 2

The photomi crog raph below shows a transverse sectio n of part of a liver cell.

a) Identi fy the organelles labelled X and Y. [2 ]

b) On the photomicrograph, identify the nucl ear memb rane and show its position w ith a clea r label. [lJ
c) The liver cell show n in the photo micrograph w as making large amo unts of tw o substances.

Dedu ce w hat the tw o substances were, giving reason s for your answe r based o n the o rganelle s visible
in the photom icro graph. [2]

2 The d iagram below represents the f lui d model of a cell memb rane.

III

a) (i) State the name of the mo lecule labelled I. rn

(ii) Label the diagram to show w hich part of mo lecu le I is hydrophobi c and w hi ch part is hyd rophilic. [1]

b) (i) Identi fy w hether mo lecule 1/ is an int egral or a perip heral protei n. [1]

(ii ) Descr ibe the part played by mol ecul e III in active transport. [2]

3 Ten teenage boys, aged 17 or 18, estimated their body fat percentage by measurements of skin fold th ick ness.

The estimates (%) we re: 25.6, 12.9,8.1, 10.2, 10.0,8.9, 8.1, 15.3, 11.2, 13.7 .
a) (i) Calculate the mean est imated body fat percentage. [2]

(ii) Calculate the standard deviatio n. [2]

The boys also measured their blood pressure. The boys w hose estimated body fat percentages we re higher
tended to have higher blood pressure.
b) (i) Wh at is this type of relationship betw een two variables called? [2]

(ii) D iscuss w hether th is relation shi p proves that beco ming obese causes high blood pressure. [2]

12 18 Questions ­ Cells
3
Water
POLARITY OF WATER
W ater mol ecules consist of two hydrogen atom s bonded to an
oxy gen atom. The hydr ogen atoms have a slight positive
charge and the oxyge n atom has a slight negativ e charge. So,
water mol ecul es have two poles - a positive hydr ogen po le
and a negative oxyge n po le (below) . This feature of a mol ecul e
is called polarity.
HYDROGEN BONDING IN WATER
A bond can for m between the positive po le of one wa ter
mo lecu le and the negative po le of another. Thi s is called a
hydrogen bond . In liquid water many of these bonds form,
giv ing w ater pro perties that make it a very useful substance
fo r livin g organisms. The d iagram (below) shows a hydrogen
bond betw een two water mol ecu les.

W ater molecule
hydrogen bond

.L
:JI
l r ""'
Hydrogen Oxygen
pole is } pole is
s lig ~~ Iy slightly
positive negative

THE PROPERTIES OF WATER

Name of the property Outline of the properties of water
Relat ion ship between the properties of water
and it s uses in living or ganisms

Cohesion W ater mo lecu les stick to each other

Stro ng pu llin g fo rces can be exerted to suc k
because of the hydrogen bond s that for m
co lumns of water up to the to ps of the tallest trees
betw een them .
in their transpo rt systems. These co lumns of wa ter
rarely break. W ater is used as a tran sport
medium in the xy lem of plants.

Solvent pr operties M any d ifferent substances di sso lve in wa ter

Most chemica l reacti on s in liv ing o rganisms take
because of its pol arity (below) .
place wi th all of the substances invol ved in the
Ino rganic particles w ith positive o r negative
reactio ns disso lved in wate r. W ater is the medium
charges di ssolve, for examp le sod ium ion s.
for metaboli c reactions.
Or gani c substances with po lar mo lecu les
The so lve nt properti es of w ater allow many
dissol ve, for example glucose.
substances to be carried di ssolved in w ater in the
Enzymes also di sso lve in wate r.
blood of animals and the sap of plants. W ater can
be used as a transport medium .

Thermal properties: W ater has a large heat capaci ty - large

Blood, w hic h is mai nly co mposed of wa ter, can
heat capacit y amo unts of energy are needed to raise its
carry heat from war mer parts of the bod y to coo ler
temperatur e. The energy is needed to break
parts. Blood is used as a transport medium for
some of the hyd rogen bond s.
heat.

Thermal properties: The bo il ing point of wa ter (1OOQC) is high,

W ater is below bo ilin g po int almost everyw here
boiling point because to change it from a li quid to a gas
on Earth, and in most areas it is above freez ing
all of the hydro gen bond s betw een the
po int. As a liquid, rather th an a solid or a gas, it
wate r mo lecules have to be broken.
can act as the medium for metabolic reaction s.

Thermal properties: W ater can evapo rate at tem peratu res below
Evaporatio n of wate r from plant leaves
the coolin g effect bo iling poi nt. Hydro gen bond s have to be
(transpiration) and from the hum an ski n (sweat)
of evaporation broken to do thi s. The heat energy needed
has useful coo ling effects. Wa ter can be used as
to break the bo nds is taken from the liq uid
a coolant.
wa ter, coo ling it dow n.

cg v
cQ;:,

~
,

~rU - -cg
CQi1:',
Ions wit h positive or negative charges dissolve as they
cO ~
are attracted to the negative or positive poles of water M any molecules are polar so are

molecules. attracted to water molecules and dissolve.

The chemistry of life 13

Elements and compounds in living organisms

ELEMENTS IN LIVING ORGANISMS CHEMICAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR ROLES

Living organisms contain many chemical elements, some in
large quantities and some in very small amounts. The four
Element Role in plants, animals and
commonest chemical elements of Iife are carbon, hyd rogen,
and symbol prokaryotes
oxygen and nitrogen. They are part of all the main organic
compounds in living organisms. Examples of other elements Sulphur Needed to make two of the twenty
that are needed are shown in the table opposite. S amino acids that proteins contain

Calcium Acts as a messenger, binding to

ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Ca cal mod u lin and other protei ns that
Living organisms contain many chemical compounds. Some regulate processes inside cells,
of them are organic and some are inorganic. Organic including transcription
compounds are defined as compounds containing carbon that
are found in living organisms. There are a few carbon Phosphorus Part of the phosphate groups in ATP and
compounds that are inorganic even though they can be found P DNA molecules
in living organisms. These are all simple carbon compounds Iron Needed to make cytochromes -proteins
that are also widely found in the environment. Carbon Fe used for electron transport during
dioxide, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are three aerobic cell respi ration
examples of inorganic carbon compounds. All compounds
Sodium Pumped into the cytoplasm to raise the
that contain no carbon are inorganic. Three types of organic
Na sol ute concentration and cause water to
compound are found in large amounts in living organisms ­
enter by osmosis
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.

SUBUNITS OF ORGANIC MACROMOLECULES These elements have other specific roles in some organisms.
The molecules of many organic compounds are large and so
For example, iron is needed to make hemoglobin in many
are called macromolecules.
animals and calcium is needed to make the minerals that
They are built up using small and relatively simple subunits.
strengthen bones and teeth.
Some important subunits are shown below.

Subunits of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids

CH20H O,\- /OH

CH20H 0 H I C
I/~I H c--o H I
H-C-H
I/~ \1C
C C I
1\ H H /1 H-C-H
C H I
H\\ l/oH
C--C I\?H III
OH C - - C OH
H-C-H
I
H-C-H
I I I
OH OH I I H-C-H
H OH I
H-C-H
I
H-C-H
ribose glucose I
(a monosaccharide) (a monosaccharide) H-C-H
I
H-C-H
I
H-C-H
I
H-C-H
H R 0 I
H-C-H
\ I ;f I
H-C-H
N--C--C I
H-C-H
HI I

H
\OH I
H-C-H
I
H

amino acids fatty acids fatty acid

(general structure)
(each of the twenty (number of carbon
amino acids in proteins atoms and bonding
has a different R group) between carbon
atoms varies)

14 The chemistry of life

Building macromolecules

CONDENSATION REACTIONS
In a condensation reaction two molecules are joined together to form a larger molecule. Water is also formed in the reaction.
For example, two amino acids can be joined together to form a dipeptide by a condensation reaction. The new bond formed is
a peptide linkage.
Condensation of two amino acids to form a dipeptide and water

H R 0 H R 0
R 0 R 0

-. I / -, I / H~ I II I /

N-C-C N-C-C----. N-C-C - N - C - C +H0

H/ I -. / I -, H/ I I I -, 2
H OH H H OH H H H OH

Further condensation reactions can link amino acids to either end of the dipeptide, eventually forming a chain of rnany arnino
acids. This is called a polypeptide.
In a similar way, condensation reactions can be used to build up carbohydrates and lipids. The basic subunits of carbohydrates
are monosaccharides. Two rnonosaccharides can be linked to form a disaccharide and more monosaccharides can be linked
to a disaccharide to form a large molecule called a polysaccharide. Fatty acids can be linked to glycerol by condensation
reactions to produce lipids called glycerides. A maximum of three fatty acids can be linked to each glycerol, producing
a triglyceride.

HYDROLYSIS REACTIONS
Large molecules such as polypeptides, polysaccharides and triglycerides can be broken down into smaller molecules by
hydrolysis reactions. Water molecules are used up in hydrolysis reactions. Hydrolysis reactions are the reverse of
condensation reactions.
polypeptides + water ~ dipeptides or amino acids

polysaccharides + water ~ disaccharides or monosaccharides

glycerides + water ~ fatty acids + glycerol

EXAMPLES OF CARBOHYDRATES
Examples Example of use in animals Example of use in plants
Monosaccharides glucose Glucose is carried by the blood to Fructose is used to make fruits
galactose transport energy to cells throughout sweet-tasting, attracting animals
fructose the body to disperse seeds in the fruit

Disaccharides maltose Lactose isthe sugar in milk, that Sucrose is carried by phloem to
lactose provides energy to young rnarnmals transport energy to cells throughout
sucrose until they are weaned the plant

Polysaccharides starch Glycogen is used as a short-term Cell ulose is used to make strong
glycogen energy store in Iiver and in fibres that are used to construct
cellulose muscles the plant cell wall

FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS IN ENERGY STORAGE

• Energy storage - in the
form of fat in humans
and oil in plants
• Heat insulation - a layer
of fat under the skin
reduces heat loss
• Buoyancy - lipids are less
dense than water so help
anirnals to float
Both Iipids and carbohydrates have advantages as energy storage compounds in living
organisrns. Carbohydrates are usually used for energy storage over short periods and lipids
for long-term storage.
Advantages of lipids Advantages of carbohydrates
1. Lipids contain more energy per 1. Carbohydrates are more easi Iy
gram than carbohyd rates so stores digested than lipids so the energy
of lipid are lighter than stores of stored by them can be released
carbohydrate that contain the same more rapidly
amou nt of energy

2. Lipids are insoluble in water, so 2. Carbohydrates are soluble in water

they do not cause problems with so are easier to transport to and
osmosis in cells from the store

The chemistry of life 15

Introducing DNA

THE NUCLEOTIDE SUBUNITS OF DNA

Although DNA is the genetic material of living organisms and is therefore of
immense importance, it is made of relatively simple subunits. These are called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three parts - a sugar (called deoxyribose),
a phosphate group and a base. In diagrams of DNA structure these are usually
shown as pentagons, circles and rectangles, respectively. The figure (below) shows
how the sugar, the phosphate and the base are linked up in a nucleotide.

~ /""....
Pho~~Vi-_I~

I base

sugar

DNA nucleotides do not all have the same base. Four different bases are found ­
adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine. These are usually simply referred to as A,
C, G and T.

BUILDING DNA MOLECULES

Two DNA nucleotides can be linked together by a
covalent bond between the sugar of one nucleotide
and the phosphate group of the other. More
nucleotides can be added in a similar way to form a
strand of nucleotides.

DNA molecules consist of two strands of nucleotides

wound together into a double helix. Hydrogen bonds
lin k the two strands together. These form between the
bases of the two strands. However, adenine only
forms hydrogen bonds with thymine and cytosine
only forms hydrogen bonds with guanine. This is
called complementary base pairing.

DNA REPLICATION
DNA replication is a way of copying DNA to produce new molecules with
the same base sequence. It is semi-conservative ­ each molecu Ie formed
by repl ication consists of one new strand and one old strand conserved
from the parent DNA molecu Ie.

Stage 1
The DNA double helix is unwound and separated
into strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds.
Helicase is the main enzyme involved. \ The two daughter DNA
molecu les are identical in

~ base sequence to each

other and to the parent
molecule, because of
complementary base
pairing (A pairs with T
- - ­ and C with G).
Each of the new strands is
complementary to the
template on which it was
made and identical to the
Stage 2 other template.
The single strands act as templates for new
strands. Free nucleotides are present in large
numbers around the replication fork. The bases
of these nucleotides form hydrogen bonds with
the bases on the parent strand. The nucleotides
are linked up to form the new strand. DNA
polymerase is the main enzyme involved.

Stage 3
The daughter DNA molecules each
rewind into a double helix.

16 The chemistry of life

Transcription and translation

GENES AND POLYPEPTIDES DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA

Pol yp eptid es are lon g c hains of am ino acids. DNA and RNA bo th co nsist of cha ins of nucl eoti des, each co m posed
Ther e are tw enty di fferent am ino aci ds th at can of a suga r, a base and a p hosphate. T here are three differences betwe en
fo rm part of a pol ypepti d e. To make o ne them .
parti cul ar po lyp eptid e, am ino aci ds m ust be
Feature DNA RNA
linked up in a p rec ise seque nce . Genes sto re
th e in form ati on needed fo r makin g umber of strands Two str ands O ne strand o nly
pol yp eptid es. The info rmatio n is sto red in a in the mol ecul e form in g a do ub le
co ded fo rm . The seq uence of bases in a gene heli x
codes for the sequenc e of am ino aci ds in a
Typ e of sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
po lypepti de.
in eac h nucleotid e
The inform ati o n in the gene is decod ed duri ng
th e maki ng of the po lypeptid e. T here are two Typ es o f bases A, C, G and T A, C, G and U
stages in this process: transcr ipt io n and co ntained U racil rep laces
t ranslati on . thym in e

TRANSCRIPTION
Instead of th e D NA of genes bein g used d irect ly 1. The DNA double

to d irect th e synt hesis of po lype pt ides, a copy is helix uncoil s and the

"" "~" . ,. ,.: ;:;: ;: ;: : ;: :; : ;: ;: ;: ,. ,~

made. The cop y is RNA. It carries th e informatio n
Transcription
needed to make a polypepti de out into the moves along in this
cytoplasm, so is ca lled mRNA (messenger RNA). ,,"0 direction.
The copy ing of the base sequence of a gene by
mak in g an RNA mo lecul e is ca lle d t ranscri pt ion .
In transcri pti on , the same ru les of co mp lementary Y
>T T T

base pairi ng are fol low ed as in rep lic atio n,

2. Free RNA ~ 4 . Th e m R NA

-c Y

except that uracil pair s w ith ade nine, as RNA separates from
nucleotides are
does not co ntain th ym in e. The RNA mo lecu le assembled using the DNA.
p roduced therefo re has a base sequence that is one of the two 3. The RNA
com plementary to the transcribed st rand and DNA strands as the
nucleotides are
id entical to th e other D N A stra nd exce pt that temp late (the linked up to form
U rep laces T. transcribed strand). a strand of RNA.

Stages 1, 2 and 3 are all carried o ut by th e enz y me RNA pol ym erase.

TRANSLATION
Translation is ca rried out by ribosomes, using mRNA and tRNA . It is th e genet ic code that is being translated . The genetic co de
is a trip let co de - three bases co de for one amino aci d. A group of th ree bases is called a co do n.
1. Messenger RNA binds to the small

subunit of the ribosome. The mRNA

contains a series of codons, each of

w hich codes for one amino acid.

4 . The two amino acids carried by
anticodon the tRNA molecules are bonded

~~
together by a peptide linkage. A
dipeptide is formed, attached to
the tRNA on the right. The tRNA
2. Transfer RNA molecules on the left detaches. The ribosome

are present around the

moves along the mRNA to the

ribosome in large numbers. -----= next codon. Another tRNA

Each tRNA has a special

carrying an amino acid binds. A

triplet of bases called an

chain of three amino acids is

antico don and carries the

formed. These stages are repeated

amino acid corresponding

until a polypeptide is formed.

to this antico don.

amino acid
\ I / J •
~~ direction of movement
~ / of ribosome
small subunit :' . .
of ribosome 3. tRNA molecules bind to the ribosome. Two
can bind at once. tRNA can only bind if it has the
mRNA anticodon that is complementary to the codon on
the mRNA. The bases on the codon and anticodon
link together by forming hydrogen bonds,
following the same rules of complementary base
pairing as in replication and transcription.

The chemistry of life 17

Genes, polypeptides and enzymes

ONE GENE-ONE POLYPEPTIDE HYPOTHESIS Stages in enzyme cata lysis

Genes determ ine th e ami no ac id sequence of pro teins.
How ever, some prot ein s co nta in mo re than o ne typ e of
po lyp ept ide. Hemoglob in is an exa mple of thi s - it co nta ins
two different typ es of po lyp ept ide. It was fo und t hat a substrate
d ifferent gene is needed to make eac h po lyp ept ide.
Further research has shown that there is almost always a
single gene to co de fo r a po lypept ide, w hic h does not code
fo r any other po lypepti de. This di sco very led to an im portant
hyp othesis in mo lecu lar bio logy - the one gene-o ne
po lyp eptid e hypoth esis. There are some excep tio ns to this
general rul e:
• Some genes code fo r transfer RNA o r messenger RNA, not
for polypept ides.
• Some DNA sequences act as regulato rs of gene expression
Substrate molecules are in continual random motion. If one
and are not translated into pol ypeptides. coll ideswith the active site it can bind to it.
• In lymphocytes, pieces of D NA fro m di fferent parts of the
genome are spliced together and t ranscrib ed and translated enzyme-substrate complex
to produce antibod ies. Di fferent lymphocytes produ ce
di fferent antibodies by splic ing together DN A inh erited
from parents, in different way s.

INTRODUCING ENZYMES
Catalysts speed up chemica l reacti on s w ithout bei ng c hanged
themselves. Livi ng organisms make bio logical catalysts called
enzymes.
Enz ymes are globular proteins which act as catalysts of
chemical reactions.
Wi thout enzy mes to catalyse them, many chemica l processes
The substrate fits the active site. If other molecules collide with the
happen at a very slow rate in living organisms. By making active site they do not fit and fail to bind.
some enzy mes and not others, cells can co ntro l w hat
chemica l reactio ns happen in their cytop lasm.
The structure of enzy mes is quite delicate and can be
damaged by vario us substances and co ndit ions. Thi s is called
denaturati on .
Denaturation is changing the structure of an enzyme (or othe r
protein) so that it can no longer carry out its function.
Denaturat io n is usually permanent.

In chemica l react ion s, one or more reactants are conve rted

into one or more products. In reactions catalysed by enzy mes,

the reactants are called substrates.

ENZYME-SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY
M ost enzy mes are speci fi c - they catalyse very few d ifferent The active site catalysesa chemical reaction. The substrates are
turned into products.
reacti ons. They therefore only have a very small number of
possible substrates. Thi s is called enzy me-s ubstrate enzyme
spec ifi ci ty. The substrates bind to a spec ial regio n on the I
surface of the enzy me called the active site. An active site products
is a region on the surface o f an enz ym e to which substrates

~
bind and which catalyses a chemical reaction involving
the substrates.
The active site of an enzy me has a very intricate and precise
shape. It also has d istin cti ve c hemical pro perti es. Active sites
match the shape and c hemica l properties of their substrates.
M o lecules of substrate fit the act ive site and are chemically
att racted to it (right). Other mo lecu les either do not fit
or are not chemica lly attracted. They do not therefore bind
to the act ive site. This is how enzy mes are substrate-specific.
The way in wh ic h the enzy me and substrate fit together is
similar to the way in w hic h a key fit s a lock. The enzyme is The products detach from the active site, leaving it free for more
Iike the lock and the substrate is Iike the key that fits it. substrate to bind.

18 The chemistry of life

Enzymes in action
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
W herever enzymes are used, it is important that they have the
At low substrate concentrations, enzyme activity
co nd itio ns that they need to w o rk effect ively. Temp eratur e,
increases steeply as substrate concentration
pH and substrate concentrat io n all affec t the rate at w hic h
increases. This is because random
enzymes catalyse chem ica l react ions. The fi gures (below and coll isions between substrate and active site
ri ght) show the relatio nship s betwee n enzy me act ivity and happen more frequently with higher
substrate co nce ntratio n, temperature and pH . substrate concentrations.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

Enzyme activity increases as temperature

~
increases, often doubling w ith every 10 °C rise.
.c
This is because col lisions betw een substrate and
:~
active site happen more frequently at higher
uco At high substrate concentrations
temperatures due to faster molecular motion .
(l) most of the active sites are
E occupied, so raising the substrate
>­
N

C
concentration has littl e effect on
LLJ

enzyme activity.

1
.c
:~ Substrate concentration - . .
uco
(l)
E
>­
N

LLJ

LACTASE AND LACTOSE-FREE MILK

Temperature • be co nve rted into glucose and galactose by the enzyme
At high temperatures enzymes are
denatured and stop wo rking. This is
because heat causes vibrations inside
enzymes w hich break bonds needed to
maintain the structure of the enzyme.
Lactose is the sugar that is natur ally present in mi lk. It can
lactase.
lactase
Lactase is obta ined fro m Klu verom yces lactis, a type of yeast
that grow s naturally in m il k. Biotec hnology companies
culture the yeast, extract the lactase from the yeast and purify
it, for sale to food manufa cturin g co mpanies. There are
several reasons fo r usin g lactase in food pro cessing:

EFFECT OF pH • Some peopl e are lactose int ol erant and cannot d rink more
th an about 250 m l of m ilk per day un less it is lactose­
Optimum pH at whi ch enzyme
reduced.
activity is fastest (pH 7 is

optimu m for most enzymes).

• Galactose and glucose are sweeter than lacto se, so less
sugar needs to be added to sweet foods cont aining m ilk,
suc h as mi lk shakes or fru it yog hurt.

• Lactose tend s to crystalli ze du rin g produ ction of ice cream,

givi ng a gritty textur e. Because glucose and galac tose are
mor e soluble than lactose they remain di ssolved, giving a

1
.c
smoo ther textu re.

• Bacteri a ferme nt glucose and galac tose mor e qui ck ly than

:2: lactose, so the production of yog hurt and cott age cheese
u is faster.
'"
(l)
E
>­ Lactase is used in two w ays during food processing:
N

LLJ

1. It can be added to milk. The final produ ct co ntains the

enzym e.
pH ----~.
2. It can be immobi lized on a surface or in beads of a porous
materi al. Th e milk is then allowe d to flow past the
As pH increases or decreases from immobi lised lactase. This avoids contam inatio n of the
the optimum, enzyme activity is produ ct with lactase.
reduced. Both acids and alkalis can
denature enzymes.

The chemistry of life 19

Cell respiration and energy

ENERGY AND CELLS

All living cells need a continual supply of energy. This energy is used for a wide range of processes including active transport
and protein synthesis. Most of these processes require energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is a chemical
substance that can diffuse to any part of the cell and release energy.
Every cell produces its own ATP, by a process called cell respiration. In cell respiration, organic compounds such as glucose
or fat are carefully broken down. Energy from them is used to make ATP. Cell respiration is defined as controlled release of
energy, in the form of ATP1 from organic compounds in cells.
Cell respiration can be aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic cell respiration involves the use of oxygen and anaerobic cell respiration
does not.

THE USE OF GLUCOSE IN RESPIRATION

Glucose is often the organic compound that is used in cell respiration. Chemical reactions in the cytoplasm break down
glucose into a simpler organic compound called pyruvate. In these reactions a smarr amount of ATP is made using energy
released from gl ucose.

Glucose

Small amount of ATP

ANAEROBIC CELL RESPIRATION

If no oxygen is available, the pyruvate remains in the cytoplasm and is converted into a waste product that can be removed
from the cell. No ATP is produced in these reactions. In humans the waste product is lactate (lactic acid). In yeast the products
are ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Humans

Pyruvate --------------------------l.~ Lactate

Ethanol

Yeast
Pyruvate

Carbon
dioxide

AEROBIC CELL RESPIRATION

If oxygen is available, the pyruvate is absorbed by the mitochondrion. Inside the mitochondrion the pyruvate is broken down
into carbon dioxide and water. A large amount of ATP is produced as a result of these reactions. Aerobic cell respiration
therefore has a much higher yield of ATP per gram of glucose than anaerobic cell respiration.

Carbon
dioxide

Pyruvate

Water

Large amount
of AlP

20 The chemistry of life

Photosynthesis

INTRODUCING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process used by plants and some other organisms to produce all their own organic substances (food), using
only light energy and simple inorganic substances. It involves many stages and some complex chemical reactions, but it can be
outlined in a series of statements.
• Photosynthesis involves an energy conversion. Light energy, usually sunlight, is converted into chemical energy.
• Sunlight is called white light, but it is actually made up of a wide range of wavelengths, including red, green and blue.
• Some substances called pigments can absorb light. The main pigment used to absorb light in photosynthesis is chlorophyll.
• The structure of chlorophyll allows it to absorb some colours or wavelengths of light better than others. Red and blue light are
absorbed more than green.
• The green light that chlorophyll cannot absorb is reflected. This makes chlorophyll and therefore chloroplasts and plant leaves
look green.
• Some of the energy absorbed by ch lorophyll is used to prod uce ATP.
• Some of the energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used to split water molecules. This is called photolysis of water.
• Photolysis of water results in the formation of oxygen and hydrogen. The oxygen is released as a waste product.
• Carbon dioxide is absorbed for use in photosynthesis. The carbon from it is used to make a wide range of organic substances.
The conversion of carbon in a gas to carbon in solid compounds is called carbon fixation.
• Carbon fixation involves the use of hydrogen from photolysis and energy from ATP.

MEASURING RATES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Effect of light intensity on photosynthesis

Photosynthesis involves the production of oxygen, the uptake
of carbon dioxide and an increase in biomass. Any of these At high Iight intensities the
can be used as a measure of the rate of photosynthesis. rate reaches a plateau.

I
Production of oxygen
Aquatic plants (e.g. Myriophyllum) release bubbles of oxygen
when they carry out photosynthesis. If these bu bbles are
collected, their volume can be measured.

Uptake of carbon dioxide CJ'l

'Vi
Leaves take in CO 2 from the air or water around them, but Q.)

-£ At low to medium light

this is difficult to measure directly. If CO 2 is absorbed frorn c
>­
CJ'l
intensities the rate is
water, the pH of the water rises. This can be monitored with o directly proportional to
pH indicators or with pH meters.
"0
..c Iight intensity.
0­
'0
Increases in biomass Q.)
~
If batches of plants are harvested at a series of times and the ~

biomass of the batches is determined, the rate of increase in

biomass gives an indirect measure of the rate of Light intensity - ~

photosynthesis in the plants.

Effect of CO 2 concentration on photosynthesis Effect of temperature on photosynthesis

At very high CO 2 As temperature Above the

concentrations the increases the rate optimum
rate reaches a plateau. increases more Optimum temperature the
and more steeply. temperature rate falls steeply.
I

No photosynthesis
at very low CO 2
concentrations.
CJ'l CJ'l
'Vi 'Vi
Q.) Q.)
..c At Jow to fairly high -£
C CO 2 concentrations c
>­
CJ'l >­
.8 the rate is positively CJ'l

.8
o correlated with CO 2 o
..c ..c
Q..
concentration. 0­
'0 '0
Q.) Q.)
~ ~
~ ~

CO 2 concentration ~ Temperature ­ ~

The chemistry of life 21

 EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 3

1 The table below shows the base composition of genetic material from ten sources.

Source of genetic Base composition (%)

material
Adenine Guanine Thymine Cytosine Uracil
Cattle thymus gland 28.2 21.5 27.8 22.5 0.0
Cattle spleen 27.9 22.7 27.3 22.1 0.0
Cattle sperm 28.7 22.2 27.2 22.0 0.0
Pig thymus gland 30.0 20.4 28.9 20.7 0.0
Salmon 29.7 20.8 29.1 20.4 0.0
Wheat 27.3 22.7 27.1 22.8 0.0
Yeast 31.3 18.7 32.9 17.1 0.0
E. coli (bacteri a) 26.0 24.9 23.9 25.2 0.0
human sperm 31.0 19.1 31.5 18.4 0.0
influenza virus 23.0 20.0 0.0 24.5 32.5

a) Deduce the type of genetic material used by

(i) cattle [1 ]

(ii) E. coli [1]

(iii) influenza viruses. [1]

b) Suggest a reason for the difference between cattle thymus gland, spleen and sperm in the measurements of
their base composition. [1]

c) (i) Explain the reasons for the total amount of adenine plus guanine being close to 50% in the genetic material
of many of the species in the table. [3]

(ii) Identify two other trends in the base composition of the species that have 50% adenine and guanine. [2]
d) (i) Identify a species shown in the table that does not follow the trends in base composition described in (c). [1]

(ii) Explain the reasons for the base composition of this species being different. [2]

2 The graph (right) shows the results of a data logging experiment.

I
Chlorell«, a type of alga that is often used in photosynthesis 0... 7.5
experiments, was cultured in water in a large glass vessel. Light
intensity, temperature and the pH of the water were monitored over
a three-day period. The changes in pH were due to changes in 7.0
carbon dioxide concentration. An increase in CO 2 concentration
causes a decrease in pH. 6.5
a) State the relationship shown in the graph between
6.0
(i) Iight intensity and CO 2 concentration [1] ~
..........

(ii) temperature and CO 2 concentration. [1] 30 ~

::J
~
b) Deduce, from the data in the graph, whether the effect of light 20 C3
0...
intensity or temperature on carbon dioxide concentration is 400 E
10 2
greater. [2] 300
x
c) The graph shows both rises and falls in CO 2 concentration. ~ 200
<;
Explain the causes of E 100
.~
(i) rises in CO 2 concentration [2]
2 3
(ii) falls in CO 2 concentration. [2] days

3 The diagram shows the basic structure of amino acids

COOH
I
R-C- H
I
NH 2

22 18 Questions - The chemistry of life

 4 <~[~~~
,., ' J' __

Genes and chromosomes

GENES Sickle cell anem ia - the consequences of a
Genetics is the study of variation and inh eritance. The basic base substitution mutation
un it of in her itance is the gene. A gene is a heritable factor
that contro ls a specific characteristic. Hb is a gene that codes for a polypeptide of 14 6 amino
acids forming part of hemoglobin
A typ ical animal or plant cell nucleus contains thou sands of
genes. The total numb er of genes in humans is not yet known

.:
but is probab ly between 30 000 and 40 000. A ll of the genes of Base
Pa rt of substitution
an organism are known co llectively as the genome. A genome •
H b~~y
y
is the whole of the genetic information of an organism.

~:\%rtof

from A toT

CHROMOSOMES in the triplet

coding for the

Gen es are made of D N A . They are part of mu ch larger D NA sixth amino

Hbs
mo lecu les called chro mo somes. In eukaryotes, prot eins are acid. The

alw ays associated with the D NA in chromosomes. mutation

A typi cal anima l o r plant chromosome co ntains abo ut a changes HbA

into a new

1000 genes, w hic h are arranged in a linear seque nce. In any allele, Hbs

particu lar type of chromosome the same genes are found

arranged in the same sequence. The positi on of a gene o n a
chromosome is call ed the gene locus. Transcription Transcription
ALLELES
A lthou gh one parti cul ar chromoso me type always has the
same genes in the same sequence, the genes themselves
j j
/ /
can vary. D ifferent form s of many genes can be found. These
are called all eles of the gene. An allele is a form of a gene,
differing from oth er alleles of the gene by a few bases at most One codon in

the mRNA is

and occup ying the same locus as the other alleles of that gene. different and

REPLICATION OF CHROMOSOMES therefore one

If a nucleu s is go ing to d iv ide by m itosis or meiosis, all D NA amino acid

in the poly­

in the nucl eus is replicated . W hen m ito sis or meiosis begins, peptide is

each chromo some is v isible as a doub le structure (see below). altered

The tw o parts are called chromat ids and are co nnected by a Translation Translation

$~ j

centrom ere. Som e types of chromoso me have a centrome re

in the centre and others have a centromere nearer to on e end .

~ Q~y

~
V '?­
0

,
Effect on the
I

Effect on the
phenotype

PhTY'"
j

GENE MUTATION
Genes are almost always passed from parent to offsp ring
w itho ut bein g changed. Occasio nally genes do change and
this is called gene mutati on .
":,';

©-, 0©
'I U . . . ,
-.
, ,. ... ,,
~, ./

Normal red blood

, ~
'"
cred~nn~ft~~
hemoglobin

become

sickle shaped

s ~~
blood

cells containing

the altered

Sickle cells
2J
Gene mutation is a change to the base sequence of a gene. cells that carry oxygen may carry oxygen
The small est possible change is w hen one base in a gene is efficiently but are less efficiently but
affected by malaria can give resistance
replaced by another base. Thi s type of gene mutation is ca lled to malaria
a base subst it utio n. A ltho ugh only on e base is changed , the
co nsequences can be very significant. Ma ny gene mut ations
The allele Hb>that causes sickle-cell anemia has
cause a genetic d isease. More than four thousand genetic become quite common in some partsof the world
di seases have been discovered in hum ans. O ne example is affected by malaria. In these regions the malaria
sick le cell anem ia (rig ht). resistance that it causes is an advantage

Genetics 23
Meiosis

HAPLOID AND DIPLOID Chromosomes of a human female

In most ce lls the nucl eus co ntai ns tw o of each type of
c hromo some (right). The cell therefore has tw o fu ll sets of
chromosomes. Th is is called dipl oid . Some cells only con tai n
o ne of each typ e of chromosome and therefore have ju st one
set. This is ca lled hapl oid .
In di ploid ce lls each pair of chromosomes have the same
genes, arranged in the same sequence. Ho wever, they do not
usually have the same alleles of all of these genes. They are
therefore not identi cal but instead are hom ol ogous.
Homologous chromos omes have the same genes as each
other, in the same sequence, bu t not necessarily the same
alleles of those genes.
The numb er of chromoso mes in a cell can be redu ced fro m
dip loid to haploid by the process of meiosis. M eiosis is
describ ed as a redu cti on di vi sion . Livi ng organisms that
reprodu ce sexu ally have to halve their c hromosome number
at some stage in the life cycle because the fusion of gametes
durin g ferti lization doub les it.

STAGES OF MEIOSIS

Prophase I M etaph ase I An aph ase I Each

Chromosom es Nuclea r The pa irs of chromosome
pair up .The membr ane chromoso mes stiIIco nsists
chro moso mes will soo n line up o n of two
in eac h pair break down the eq uator c hromat ids
a re hom ologou s

Spind le Homologous q_--'~

microtubul e s
from the two
poles attac h
chromoso mes
are pu lled to
opposite po les.
l
The cell
Spind le to d ifferent This ha lves mem brane
microtu bu les ch romo somes the c h romo so me a round the
grow from in ea c h pair, num ber equator will
each po le to ens uring that soo n be pu lied
the equator o ne is pulled inward s to
as in mitos is to o ne po le divide the cell
a nd the other
to the othe r pole

Prophase II A naphase II Telo phase II

The ce ntro meres have divided making the chromatids into Each nucl eu s now has ha lf
separate chro mosomes which move to o ppo site poles as many chro moso mes as the
nucleu s of the paren t ce ll

The ce ll has
divided Nuclear
to form two membranes
hap lo id ce lls. reformed
These imm­
ed iately
divide aga in
- meios is
New spind le The ce ll membran e is
invo lves two
microtubules pu lled inwards agai n
di vision s
grow from the to divide the ce lls Both cells have divided
po les to the again to form four
eq uator haploid ce lls

24 Genetics
Karyotypes

KARYOTYPES AND KARYOTYPING ANALYSIS OF KARYOTYPES

The numb er and appearance of the chromosomes in an
organism is called the karyotype. Living organisms that are
members of the same species usuall y have the same
karyotype. The karyotyp e of a human female is shown o n
page 24 .
From a karyotype , the gender of a person can be deduced and
chromosome abno rmalit ies can be detected. The most useful
time to do this is befo re birth. Cel ls have to be obtained from
the fetus. There are two way s of doi ng this:
1. Amniocen tesis
A sample of amniotic fluid is removed from the amniotic sac
around the fetus. To do this, a hypod ermi c needl e is inserted
th rough the wa ll of the mot her's abdo men and wa ll of the
uterus. Am niot ic flu id is draw n out into a syringe. It co ntains
cells from the fetus.
The gender of the fetus can be determin ed from the sex
chromosomes. Gender determ ination is descr ibed o n page 28 .
Karyot ypes can also be analysed to f ind out w hether a fetus
has chro mosome abnormalitie s. Sometimes chromoso mes
that should separate and move to opposite po les during
mei osis do not separate and instead mov e to the same po le.
This can happen in either the first (below left) or the second
div isio n of meiosis (below right). No n-separati on of
chro mosomes is called non-disjunction. The result is that
gametes are prod uced w ith either on e chro mosom e too many
or too few .
Anaphase I Anaphase II

~ ,\ (K? ~
2. Chorionic villus sampling
Cells are removed from fetal tissues in the placenta cal led
chorio nic villi. As wi th amnioce ntesis a hypod erm ic need le,
inserted through the mother' s abdomen and uterus wal l, is

Z-J ~< ~
used to obtain the cells.

Gametes w ith one chromosome too few usuall y qui ck ly d ie.

Gametes w it h one chromoso me too many sometimes survi ve.
W hen they are fertili sed, a zygo te is prod uced w ith three
chromosomes of o ne type instead of two . For example, in the
karyotype (below ) there are 4 7 chromoso mes in total with
three c hromoso mes of type 21, rather than two . This causes
Dow n syndrom e. It can be due either to non-d isj unct io n
d uring the form ati on of the sperm or egg. The chance of
Dow n synd rome increases w ith the age of the parents.

O nce fetal cells have been obtai ned, they are inc ubated w it h
chemicals that sti mulate them to di vid e by mitosis . Another
chemical is used w hic h stops mitosis in metaphase of mitosis.
Chromosomes are most easily visible in metaphase. A f luid is
used to burst the cells and spread out the chromosom es. The
Durst ce lls are examined using a microscope and a
photograph is taken of the chro mosomes from one cell
below). The chromosomes in the photog raph are cut out and
arranged into pairs acco rding to thei r size and struct ure. Th is
is called kar yot yping.

..
.-

Genetics 25
Monohybrid crosses

MENDEL'S MONOHYBRID CROSSES DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN GENETICS

G regor M endel is often regard ed as the father of genetics. He
investigated inheritance by crossing var ieties of pea plants that
had different charac teristic s. For examp le, he crossed a variety
th at had round seeds w ith a va riety that had w ri nk led seeds.
He fo und th at all the offspring (call ed the F1 generatio n) had
the same characte ristic as o ne of the parents. He all owed the
F1 generatio n to self-fertilize - each plant prod uced offspr ing
by ferti lizi ng its female gametes w ith its ow n male gametes.
The offspri ng (call ed the F2 generat io n) contained bot h of the
original parental typ es. The characteristic that di sap peared in
the F, generation reappea red in a qu arter of the F2 generatio n.
M endel dedu ced that inh eritance is based o n factors that can
be passed on from generat io n to generatio n. W e now ca ll
these facto rs genes. Di fferent fo rms of a gene are called alle les.
The figur e below shows an examp le of M end el's mon oh yb rid
cro sses.
There are tw o pairs of terms that are often used by geneticists :
• Hom ozygou s - having two iden tical alleles of a gene.
A ll the gametes of a homozygote have the same allele.
• Hetero zygou s - having two differen t alleles of a ge ne.
Half of the gametes of a heterozygote have one of the
alleles and half have the other allele.
• Do mi nant alle le - an allele that has the same effect on the
phenotype in a heteroz ygous ind ividual (w here it is com bined
w ith a recessive alle le) as in a homoz ygou s individual
(where there are tw o co pies of the dominant alle le).
• Recessive allele - an allele that only has an effect on the
p he no type in hom oz ygou s individ uals (w here the re are
two cop ies of the rece ssive alle le). In hetero zygous
ind ivi d ua ls the recessive allele is hidden by the domi nant
al le le.

Monohybrid cross between smooth and wrinkled seed pea plants

P = parental Seed shape is determined by a
generatio n.
P genotype - - ­ ss ss single gene. O ne alle le of this

Genotype = the
alleles possessed
by an organism.
phenotype - - ­ o
smooth
!.I

w rinkled
gene (S) gives smooth seeds and
the other (s) gives w rinkled
seeds. The pea plants are
dip loid so they have two copies
seed seed
of each gene. The parental
Phenotype = the
characteristics
of an organism.
1 1
varieties are both homozygous.

gametes ___
® s

F1 = the first fil ial

generatio n- the
offspri ng of the P
generation.
F, genotype ___
phenotype ___
Vo ss
Gametes are produced by
meiosis so are haploid and only
have one copy of each gene.

F, plants are smooth

heterozygous seed W hen the F1 hybrid plants
but all have smoot h produce gametes, the two
seeds because S is the
domin ant allele and
s is recessive.
gametes - - ­
/\
alle les separate. This is called
segregation.

Segregation occ urs during

meiosis. The two alle les of a
gene are located on
hom ologous chromosomes
w hich move to opposite poles,
causing the segregation
F2 genotypes ~_ (see below).
The grid show n and phenotypes ~
here is called a

0@
Punnett grid. It
is used to show all - ---jf-- - - - - - - - - <.
the possib le outcomes
in a cross. In this
case both the male
and female gametes
can be ® or O ,
giv ing four possible
F2 genotypes. There is a 3:1 rati o of smooth and w rinkled seed F2 plants.

Crosses between two heterozygous individuals give a 3:1

ratio if one of the all eles is dom inant and the other is recessive.

26 Genetics
Inheritance of blood groups

The principles of inheritance discovered by Mendel in pea plants also operate in other plants and in animals. There are,
however, sometirnes differences and two of these are demonstrated by the inheritance of ABO blood groups in humans ­
codominance and multiple alleles.

CROSS INVOLVING CODOMINANT ALLELES

P phenotype ) Group A X Group B IA is the allele for blood group A

and I B is the allele for blood
genotype ) IAI A 181 B group B. Neither allele is
recessive, so both are given

1
upper case letters as their symbol.
1
gametes )

0 0
<, .> If IA and 18 are present together,
they both affect the phenotype

F1 genotype

phenotype
)

)
IAIB

Group AS
--­ because they are codom inant.
Codominant alleles are pairs of
alleles that both affect the phenotype
when present together in a heterozygote.

CROSS INVOLVING MULTIPLE ALLELES

P phenotype )
Group A Group S The gene that controls ABO
blood groups has a third allele: i
genotype ) IAi IBi If there are more than two alleles

(~0
IA 18

0/) of a gene, they are called multiple

alleles.

gametes

(encircled)
~

8 Group AS
8 A 8
8 IAi ... j is recessive to both I and 1
1 i
... so IA i gives blood group A and
_ Group S Group A 18 i gives blood group O.
F1 genotypes ~

and phenotypes
shown on
"<
ii
Punnett grid
Group 0 " Individuals who are homozygous
for i are in blood group O.

DEDUCING GENOTYPES FROM

PEDIGREE CHARTS 0~® §J~@
:\ pedigree chart shows the members of a family and how
they are related to each other. Males are shown as squares
and females as circles. If the phenotypes of the rnembers of
the family are known, the genotypes can often be deduced.
The figure (right) is a pedigree chart that shows the blood
group of each individual. All of the genotypes can be
x® @]x
deduced. It is also possible to deduce the probabi Iity of the
first child of the parents in the third generation being blood
group A, B, AB and O.
x

Genetics 27
--~-
- - - -

~~~~====::=::===

Genes and gender

SEX CHROMOSOMES AND GENDER Inheritance of gender in humans
• Two chromosomes determine the gender of a child (whether ¥
it is male or female). These are called the sex chromosomes. xx

..
• The X chromosome is relatively large and carries many genes.
• The Y chromosome is much smaller and carries only a few
genes.
• If two X chromosomes are present in a human embryo and
no Y chromosome, it develops into a girl.
• If one X chromosome and one Y chromosome are present, x
a human embryo develops into a boy.
• When women reproduce, they pass on one X ch romosome
in the egg.
• When men reproduce, they pass on either one X or one Y
chromosome in the sperm, so the gender of a child depends xx Xy xx Xy
on whether the sperm that fertilizes the egg is carrying an X cf
or a Y chromosome (right).
¥ cf ¥
¥ = Female
cf = Male
SEX LINKAGE CHOOSING SYMBOLS FOR ALLELES
If a gene is carried on the X chromosome, the pattern of These rules are usually followed when choosing symbols for
inheritance is different for males and females - there is sex alleles:
Iinkage. Sex linkage is the association of a characteristic with 1. One dominant and one recessive allele of a gene
gender, because the gene controlling the characteristic is A letter is chosen. The dominant allele is shown with the
located on a sex chromosome. Sex-linked genes are almost upper case, and the recessive allele with the lower case
always located on the X chromosome. Females have two X letter (e.g. A and a)
chromosomes and therefore have two copies of sex linked 2. Co-dominant alleles
genes. Males on Iy have one X ch romosome and therefore A letter is chosen. This letter and a superscript letter
only have one copy of sex linked genes. In humans, represent each allele. (e.g. CW and C')
hemophilia (below) and red-green colour blindness are 3. Sex-linked dominant and recessive alleles
examples of sex-I inked characteristics. The letter X is used to show the X chromosome. Each allele
is shown superscript. (e.g. X H and Xh)

Example of a cross involving sex linkage

The diagram below shows how two parents,

neither of whom have hemophilia, could have
a hemophiliac son.
The mother is heterozygous but is not a KEY
hemophiliac because H is dominant H
and h is recessive. She is a carrier of X X chromosome carryi ng
the allele for hemophilia. the allele for normal
blood clotting
A carrierhas a recessive allele of a gene x" X chromosome carrying
but it does not affect the phenotype the allele for
because a dominant allele is also hemoph ilia.
present.

1---+----- The Y chromosome does not

carry either allele of the gene.

There is a 50% chance of a son

carrier normal being hemophiliac as half of
the eggs produced by the
None of the female offspring are mother carry Xh.
hemoph iliac because they all '>----+---- The chance of a daughter
inherited the father's X chromosome hemophiliac being hemophiliac is 0 % , so
wh ich carries the allele for normal the overall chance of offspring
blood clotting (H), but there is a 50%
ef being hemophiliac is 25%.
chance of a daughter being a carrier.

28 Genetics
Deducing genotypes

USING PEDIGREE CHARTS USING TEST CROSSES

Pedigree charts can be used to deduce w hether a character is
caused by a dom inant or recessive allele and w hether it is
sex-linked or not. They can also be used to deduce the
genoty pes of ind ividuals. The f igures (below) are pedi gree
charts that each show a di fferent pattern of in herit ance.
Squares represent males and ci rcles represent females.
Shaded symbols represent ind iv idua ls affected by the
co nd itio n and unshaded symbo ls represent unaffected
indiv iduals. The probab ili ty of the different phenoty pes in the
offspring of some of the co up les in the pedigrees (marked
w ith an asterisk *) can be determin ed.
MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
A berdeen Angus catt le have blac k heads caused by a
It is not always possible to di scover w hether an ind ividu al has
a gene, or does not have it, by looking at the indi vidu al's
phenotyp e. If one alle le of a gene is domin ant and another
alle le is recessive, an individu al w ith two co pies of the
dominant alle le has the same phe noty pe as an indi vidu al w ith
one domin ant and one recessive all ele. These two genotypes
can be di stinguished by carryi ng out a test cross.
In a test cross an individual that might be heteroz ygous is
crossed with an individual that is hom oz ygous recessive.
Example of a test cross
A farmer is unsure wh ether his bull is a pur ebred Hereford or
w hether it is a Hereford x Abe rdeen A ngus hybr id . Hereford
catt le have a w hite head caused by a domi nant alle le (H).
recessive alle le of the same gene (h). The farmer crosses
his bu ll with 100 Aberdeen An gus cows . The fi gures below
show the possib le outco mes.

x
Whit e-headed bull Black-headed cows

n
6 2J
WW

j
ww

ALBINISM @ e

Ww
All offspring have
w hite heads

HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE x
W hite-headed bull Black-headed cows

Ww ww

/\e
@ e
j

Ww ww
1:1 ratio of wh ite
and black heads

Genetics 29
DNA profiling

PCR - POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION GEL ELECTROPHORESIS

In the po lym erase chain reacti on, D NA is co pied again and
again to produ ce many co pies of the o rigi nal mo lecu les.
Mi lli on s of cop ies of the D NA can be produ ced in a few
hour s. Thi s is very usefu l w hen very small qu antities of D NA
are fo und in a samp le and larger amounts are needed for
analysis. DN A fro m very small samples of semen, blood or
other tissue or even from long-dead speci mens can be
amplifie d using PCR.
PCR is carried out at high temperatures using a D NA
po lym erase enzy me from Thermu s aquaticus, a bacterium
that lives in hot springs.
Gel electro phoresis is a method of separating mi xtur es of
protein s, DN A or other mo lecu les that are c harged. The
mixtur e is pl aced o n a thin sheet of gel, w hic h acts like a
mo lecu lar sieve. An electric fi eld is applied to the gel by
attaching electrodes to both ends. Dependin g on w hether the
particl es are posit ively or negati vely charged, t hey mov e
tow ards o ne of the electro des or the other. The rate of
movement depends o n the size and charge of the mo lecul es ­
small and highl y charged mo lecules move faster than larger
or less charged ones.

DNA PROFILING
Hum ans and ot her o rganisms have short seq uences of bases that are repeated many tim es ca l led satelli te D N A . This satel lit e
DNA vari es great ly between different indi vidu als in th e number of repeats. If it is co pied using PCR and then c ut up into short
fragments using restr ict io n enzy mes, th e lengths of th e fragments vary greatly betw een individu als. Ge l elect ropho resis ca n be
used to separate fragmented pieces of D NA acco rd ing to th eir c harge and size . The patte rn of band s o n the gel is very
unli kely to be t he same for any two individ uals. This techniqu e, ca lled DN A prof i ling o r D NA fi ngerprinting has many
app licatio ns, in cludin g forensi c inv estigations (o bta ining ev ide nce to use i n court cases) and investigating paternity (w ho the
father of a c hi ld is).

For en sic use of DNA profiling Testing paternit y using DN A p rofiling

a b s c d e s F G
kb

"I - 20

- 10

The f irst use of DN A profi ling was in the Enderby doub le

murder case. The D NA profil es show cl early w hether the
prim e suspect was guilty .

a = hair roots from the first victim

b = mi xed semen and vaginal flui ds fro m the f irst
The D NA profi les of a fami ly of dun nock s (Prunella
victim

modu laris) are show n above. Dunnocks are small bird s

c = blood of second victim

fo und in Europe, North Afri ca and Asia. The tracks from

d = vaginal swab from second victim

left to right are: the female, tw o resident males that mi ght

e = semen stain o n second victim

have been the father of the offspring and four offspring.

s = blood of prim e suspect.

The resuIts show that the f3 maIe fathered three of the

The tw o bands indi cated by arrows are from DNA in the fo ur offspri ng (D , E and F), despite bein g less domin ant
culprit's semen. than the a male.

30 Genetics
Genetic modification

GENETIC MODIFICATION AND ITS USES

The genetic code is universal, so genes can be tr ansferred from one organism to anoth er, even if they are members of different
speci es. A gene codes for a po lypeptide with the same am ino aci d sequ enc e, w hether it is in a hum an cell, a bacterium or any
oth er cell. Org ani sms that have had genes transferred to them are called genetically modifi ed or gani sms (GM O) o r tr ansgenic
organi sms. The process of tr ansferrin g genes is calle d genetic mo dif icatio n. O ne exam ple is the transfer of a gene for factor IX (a
blood cl ottin g factor) from hu mans to sheep, w here it is produc ed in th e sheep's milk . An other example is the transfer of the gene
fo r resistance to the herbicid e glyphosate from a bacterium to cro p plants, so that the crop can be sprayed w ith the herbicid e.

Techniques used for gene transfer into bacteria

Plasmids are small loops Human insulin
of DNA found in bacteria.

oj
The E. coli bacteria start
to make human insul in,
which is extracted, purified
Messenger RNA coding
for insulin is extracted
from human pancreas

1 and used by diabetics.

1
~~
cells that make insuli n. Plasmids are

cut open using Restriction enzymes The genetically

restricti on cut DNA at specific modi fied

~~
DNA copies of the enzymes. base sequences. E. coli are
messenger RNA are cultured in a
made using the
j fermenter.
enzyme reverse
transcriptase.

-j U
Sticky ends are The recombinant
made by adding
Sticky ends are plasmids are mixed
made by adding extra C nucleotides w ith the host cells.
extra G nucleotides to the ends of
The host cells
to the ends of the cut plasmid. absorb them.
the gene. A suitable host cell is

CJ
chosen to receive the
~ gene, in this case a
strain of E. coli
bacteria.
The insulin gene and

~~
the plasmid are mixed. The plasmid
They link by complementary w ith the human
base pairing (C - G), between DNA ligase seals up I insulin gene

d h",''h" b:"c=r
the sticky ends. the nicks in the DNA inserted is called
by making sugar- a recomb inant

~&

mid

BENEFITS AND RISKS OF GENETIC MODIFICATION

The production of hum an in sulin using bacteri a has enormous benef its and no obv iou s harmfu l effects. Th ere are oth er examp les
of genetic mod ifi cation that are mo re controversial. M aize crop s are often seriously damaged by corn borer insects. A gene from
a bacterium (Baci ll us thuringiensis) has been transferred to maize. Th e gene codes for a bacte rial prot ein called Bt to xin that kills
corn borers feedin g on the maize.

Pot enti al benefits of Bt maiz e Possibl e harmful effec ts of Bt maize

1. Less pest dam age and therefor e hi gher cro p yields to 1. Huma ns o r farm anima ls th at eat the genetica lly
help to reduce food shortages modi fi ed maize m ight be harmed by the bacterial DNA
in it, or by the Bt to xin

2. Less land needed fo r crop prod uct ion , so some co uld
becom e areas for w ild li fe con servation
2. Insects that are not pests co uld be ki ll ed. M aize pollen
containing the tox in is blown ont o wild pl ants grow ing
near the maize. Insects feedin g on the wi ld plants,
in clud ing M on arch butt erf ly caterpill ars, are therefor e
affected even if they do not feed on the maize

3. Less use of insecti c ide sprays, w hic h are expensive
and can be harmfu l to farm w o rkers and to w iJdJife
3. Populatio ns of w ild plants m ight be changed.
Cross-po lli natio n wiJl sp read the Bt gene into some wi ld
plants but not others. These plants wo uld then produ ce
the Bt toxin and have an advantage over other wi ld
plants in the struggle for survival

Genetics 31
Cloning

CLONES AND CLONING PLANT AND ANIMAL CLONING

Clo ni ng is produ cin g identi cal co pies of genes, cells or
organisms. The produ cts of cloning are called a clone.
A clo ne is a gro up of genetica lly identical organisms or a
gro up of genetica lly identical cells derived from a single
parent cell .
Cloning is very useful if an organism has a desirabl e
combinatio n of c haracteristics and mo re organisms with the
same characterist ics are wa nted - th is is reprodu ctive cl on in g.
Sometimes cl oning is used to produ ce skin or other tissues
needed to treat a pat ient - this is therapeutic cl on ing.
Most pl ants can be clon ed qui te easily from pieces of root,
stem or leaf. A nimals cannot be cl oned in the same way from
parts of thei r bodi es. If animal embryos are di vided up at an
early stage into several pieces, each piece can develop into a
separate anima l. (This happens natu rall y w hen identica l tw ins
are fo rmed .) However, it is hard to predict w hic h em bryos
w ill develop into animals w ith desirabl e c haracteristics and
should therefore be clo ned. The first successful reprodu cti ve
clon ing of an adult w ith kno wn characteristics produ ced
Doll y the sheep (below).

Techniques for cloning using differentiated cells

The egg cells
w ithout nuclei were
fused wi th the donor
cells using a pulse of
electricity. The fused cells
developed like

Udder cells were taken from a

t
zygotes and

became embryos.

:'U ······ · C>V

~
donor sheep. The cells were .

cultured in a low nutrient The nucleus . . _. oJ

medium to make them switch off was removed i ·' .

_ I" ~ _•.
their genes and become dormant. from each egg ,
cell using a •.
micropipette.
.~
."0'/

One lamb was born

successfulIy and was

named Doll y. Doll y is

genetically identical to

the sheep w hose udder

cells were used.

Unfertili zed egg cells were The embryos were imp lanted into another
taken from another sheep. sheep who became the surrogate mother.

THERAPEUTIC CLONING IN HUMANS

Techniqu es are bein g developed to create hum an embryos, from w hic h emb ryonic stem cells can be obt ain ed for medical use.
These stem ce lls have the capac ity to di vid e and differenti ate into any ty pes of hum an ce ll. They co uld be used to repl ace t issues
o r even o rgans that have beco me damaged o r lost in a pati ent. There are many ethica l issues inv olv ed and research into
therapeutic cl onin g has been banned in some co untries.

Arguments for therapeutic cloning Arguments against therapeutic cloning

1. Embr yoni c stem cells can be used for therapies th at save 1. Every hum an embryo is a potenti al hum an being, w hic h
lives and reduce suffering. should be give n a chance of developi ng.

2. Cells can be removed from embryos that have stopped 2. M ore embryos may be produ ced than are needed, so
develop ing, so would have di ed anyway. some may have to be ki lled .

3. Cells are removed at a stage w hen embryos have no 3. There is a danger of embryo nic stem cells developin g
nerve cells and cannot feel pain. into tumour cells.

THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
The hum an genome has been estimated to co nsist of between
25 000 and 30 000 genes. The Human Genom e Proj ect aims
to fi nd the location of all of these genes on the hum an
chro mosomes and the base sequence of all of the DN A that
makes them up. The project is an internation al coo perative
one, w it h labor atori es in many co untries invol ved .
The sequencing of the enti re human geno me w ill make it
easier to study how genes influence hum an developm ent. It
wi ll allow easier identif ication of genetic di seases. It wi ll
allow the produ cti on of new dru gs based on DN A base
sequences of genes o r the structur e of prot eins coded fo r by
these genes. It w il l give us new insights into the o rigins,
evo lution and migrations of hum ans.

32 Genetics
EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 4

In hum ans the blood groups A, B, AB and 0 are determ ined by three alleles of an autosomal gene: lA, IB and i. A lleles lA and
IB are codo minant and allele i is recessive. The phenotypes of some ind ivid uals in the pedigree below are show n.

B
2
D
~
0/ = male

3
o = female

a) Exp lain the co ncl usio ns th at can be drawn abo ut the genotypes of the indi vid uals in the ped igree in
generatio ns 2 and 3. [3]

b) Exp lain to w hich blood groups the parents of t he bl ood group 0 female in the pedi gree co uld have belonged. [3J
c) Suggest o ne reason for testing the blood groups in humans. [1 ]
2 W hen red and w hite flowered Mirabilis jalapa plants are crossed together, all the offspring have pink f lowers .
The symbo ls for the two alle les invo lved are C' (red) and CW(w hite).

a) State the genotypes of the red- and w hite-flowered parents and the pi nk-flowere d offspring. [1J

b) W hen Me ndel c rossed red- and w hite-flowe red pea plants together, all of the offspring had red f lowe rs.
Suggest a reaso n for the difference in results betwee n pea plants and Mirabilis jalapa plants. [1]

c) Predi ct the outco me of a cross betwee n tw o pi nk-flowered Mirabilis jalapa pl ants, using a Punnett grid. [3]
3 a) Defi ne clo ne. [1]

b) O utli ne one tec hnique fo r clo ning animals, using differentiated cells. [2] 1 2 U C D 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111 2
kb
The D NA profiles of sheep are show n (right).
•
U = d ifferenti ated cells taken fro m the udder of a sheep that was used in
cl onin g experiments <;
.t;.. - 12
C = cells in a culture derived fro m the udder cells
- 10
D = blood cells taken from Do lly the sheep

1-12 = resuIts from 12 other sheep.

c) (i) Explain w hether DNA fragments in the prof iles had moved upw ards - 8
or down w ards. [2J
(ii) Expl ain the co ncl usions that can be draw n from the DNA profil es of the
-6
sheep. [3J

18 Questions - Genetics 33
 5
Identifying living organisms

USING KEYS TO IDENTIFY ORGANISMS Constructing a key

The first stage in many eco logica l investigations is to find The five animals shown below are fo und in beehives. It wo uld
out w hat spec ies of orga nism there are in the area bein g be usefu l to co nstruct a key to allow a beekeeper to identify
studie d. Thi s is called species identifi cati on . Th is can be them, as some of them are ve ry harmful and others are
don e using keys. harmless to hon ey bees.
Keys fo r species identification are usual ly co nstructed in
thi s way:
• the key consists of a series of num bered stages
• each stage co nsists of a pair of alternative characteristics
• some alternatives give the next stage of the key to go to
• some alternat ives give the ident ifi cation .

Identifying aquarium plants using a key Galleria mellonella

M any aquatic plants in aquariums in biology labo rator ies
belong to one of these fo ur genera:
• Cabo m ba
• Ceratophyllum
• Elodea
• M yriophyllum
A ll of these plants have cy lindr ica l stems with w horls of
le aves. The shape of fo ur leaves is shown in the figure (left).
A key can be used to ident ify w hic h of the fo ur genera a
plant belon gs to, if it is known to be in one of them.

1. Simp le undi vid ed leaves .Elodea

Le aves forke d o r divid ed into segments 2 Acarus siro Braula caeca

2. Leaves forke d once or twi ce to fo rm

tw o or fo ur segments Ceratophyllum

Le aves di vid ed into mo re than four segments 3

3. Leaves d ivid ed int o many fl attened segments .. . . Cabo mba

Leaves d ivi ded into many

f ilamento us segments Myr iophyllum

Some species of Elodea have recently been mo ve d by

taxo nomists to other genera:

Elodea den sa is now Egeria den sa.

Elodea crispa is now Lagarosiph on m ajor.

Acarapis woodi Varma jacobsonii

Leaves of aquarium plants

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
In the cl assificat ion of living organisms, the basic group is the
species.
A species is a group of organisms w ith simi lar characte ristics,
which can interbreed and produ ce fertile offs pring.
Every specie s is cl assified into a genus. A genus is a gro up of
simi lar species.
Each specie s needs an international name, so that bio log ists
throu ghout the wo rld can refer to it. The naming of species is
called nom enclature. The nom enclature th at bio logists use is
called the bin omial system because two names are used to
refer to each species. The key features of the bin omial system
of nomencl ature are:
• the first name is the genus name
• the genus name is given an upper case first letter
• the second name is the species name
• the specie s name is given a lower case fir st letter
• itali cs are used w hen the name is prin ted
• the name is underli ned if it is hand-written.

34 Ecology and evolution

Classification of plants and animals

CLASSIFICATION FROM SPECIES TO KINGDOM

A group of organisms, suc h as a species or a gen us is ca lled a taxon . Species are
classified into a se ries of taxa, eac h of w hich incl udes a wider range of species than
the previou s one . This is ca lled the hierarchy of taxa.

Animal exa mple Plant example

Balaen optera musculu s
Balaenoptera musculus
- th e blue wh ale (left)
Species that are similar a re gro uped into a ge nus Ge nus Balae nop tera
Genera that are simila r a re gro uped into a famil y Fa mily Balae no pte ridae
Families th at are simila r are gro uped into an ord er Or de r Cetacea
Orders that a re similar are grouped into a cla ss Class Mamm a lia
Cla sses th at ar e simila r ar e gro uped into a ph ylum Phylu m Cho rda ta
Phyla that are similar ar e grouped int o a kingdom Kingdo m Anima lia
Sequoia sem pe rvirens
- the coast redwood (right)
Ge nus Seq uo ia
Fam ily Taxod iaceae
O rde r Pina les
Class Pinop sida
Phylum Co nifero phyta
Kingdom Plan tae

Plant classification
There are four main phyla of plan ts, w hich ca n be easi ly distingu ished by studyi ng their external structure.
Root s, lea ves and stems
Bryophyte s Bryo phytes have no roots, on ly struc tu res
- mo sses sim ilar to root hairs ca lled rhizoids
Mosses have sim ple leaves a nd stems
Liver worts consist of a flatt en ed tha llus
Filicinophyte s Fern s have roots, leaves a nd short
- fern s non -wood y ste ms. The leaves are usual ly
c urled up in bu d a nd a re ofte n pinn ate ­
div ided into pai rs of leaf lets
Coniferophytes Co nife rs are shrubs o r trees w ith roots,
- conifers leaves a nd woody stems . The leaves are
often na rrow w ith a thick waxy c uticle
Ang ios pe rmo ­ Flowe ring p lants are very va riab le but
ph ytes ­ usu a lly have roots, leaves a nd ste ms . The
flow ering plants ste ms of flowe ring plan ts tha t deve lop
into shrubs a nd trees a re woody
Ma ximum height Repr oductive structu res
0 .5 met res Spores are produ ced in a ca psu le. The
ca psu le deve lops at the e nd of a sta lk
15 met res Spores are pro d uced in spora ngia, usua lly
o n the un derside of the leaves
100 met res Seeds are produced. The seeds deve lop
from ov ules o n the surface of the sca les of
fema le cones. Ma le co nes pro d uce po llen
100 metres Seeds a re prod uc ed . The see ds deve lop
from ov ules inside ova ries. The ova ries
a re pa rt of flowers. Fruit s deve lop from
the ovaries, to dispe rse the seed

ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION
There are ove r th irty ph yla of a nima ls. The exte rna l recogni tion fea tures of six of these ph yla a re shown here .

Pori fera Cnid aria

• no clea r symmetry • radia lly symmetric
• attac hed to a surface • te ntacl es
• pores th ro ugh bo dy • sting ing ce lls
• no mouth o r a nus • moutn but no an us
Exam p les : spo nges Examp les: jellyfish, corals,
sea anemo nes
Plat yhelminths Annelida
• bilate ra lly symmetric ~-;; • b ilatera lly symmetric
• flat bod ies / / • bristles ofte n prese nt
• un segment ed r- ----:/",;:::;:'// • seg me nte d
• mouth but no a nus
Exam ples: Planaria,
I .. ...r~/ »> • mou th a nd anus

Examp les: earthwo rms,

tapeworms, liverflukes leeches, ragworms

Mollu sca Art h ro poda

• muscu lar foot a nd man tle ~ -",. • bilate rally symmetric
• she ll usu ally present //1 . /" '. ':~\
• segmentation not visible
• mo uth and anus
\. /'
:--.'----r-r>- .-
/1
• exoskeleto n
• segme nted
• jo inted appendages
Exam p les: slugs, snails, Examples: insects, spiders,
clams, squids crabs, m illipedes

Ecology and evolution 35

Population dynamics

CHANGES TO THE SIZE OF A POPULATION

A popu latio n is a gro up of organisms of the same species, who li ve in the same area at the same time .
There are four ways in which the size of a population can change:
• Offspring are produced and are added to the populatio n - natality.
• Individuals die and are lost from the population - mortality.
• Individuals move into the area from elsew here and are added to the population - immigration.
• Individuals move out of the area to live elsew here - emigration .
Populations are often affected by all four of these things and the overall change can be calcu lated using an equation :
Population change = (natality + immigration) - (mortality + emigration)

POPULATION GROWTH CURVES

If the size of a popul ation is 2. Transitional phase

measured regular ly, a curve
can be plotted. W hen a The natal ity rate starts to fall and/or the
species spreads into a new morta lity rate starts to rise. Nata lity is still
area, the pop ulation growth hig her than mortality so the popu latio n still
curve is often sigmoid (S­ rises, but less and less rapidly.
shaped). The three phases
of this curve are exp lained
by changes in natal ity and

\
morta lity.

1. Exponential phase

The population increases

expo nential ly because the

natal ity rate is higher than Natali ty and mortali ty are equal so the .

the mortality rate. The .. popu lation size is constant. Something

resources needed by the has lim ited the pop ulation such as:

pop ulatio n such as foo d are

abu ndant, and di seases and o shortage of resources, e.g. food.

predators are rare. o mo re predators.

o more disease or parasites.

Q)
N
' Vi All of these factors lim it population
C
o increase because they becom e more
.~ intense as the po pulation rises and
::l becomes more crow ded. They eit her
Q.
o reduce the natality rate or increase the
c,
mortality rate.

If the pop ulation is lim ited by a shortage

of resources, it has reached the carrying
capacity of the environme nt. The
carryi ng capacity is the maximum
population size that can be supporte d by
the environment.

Time - - -- - +

36 Ecology and evolution

Evidence for evolution

EVOLUTION OF POPULATIONS HOMOLOGOUS ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES

The wo rd evo lutio n has several meani ngs, all There are also remarkable similariti es betw een some groups of organisms in
of w hic h involve the gradual developm ent their structure. For example, bon es in the limbs of vertebrates are strik ingly
of things. In bio logy, the wo rd has come to similar, despite being used in many di fferent ways (below) . The structure is
mean the changes that occur in livin g ca lled the pentadactyl li mb.
o rganisms, ove r many generations. Evolu ti o n
hi ~--<;
happens in popu lation s of livi ng o rganisms. It
only happens w ith characterist ics th at can be
in herited .
Evolution is the cu mulative change in the Hum an
k,,\.
•
Po rp oi se

~
M O I ' ~~
I
( ~
.
~ fH
heritable characteristics of a population.
A lthough it is not possib le to prov e, using the f' ~~ t:~~.V ~
scientific method, that the organisms on Earth (~
~, ~~~ ~
Bat
today are the result of evolutio n, there is
much ev ide nce that makes it very li kely.
Three types of evidence are illu strated on
th is page.
The most likely explanation for these structural similarities is that the organisms
have ev olved from a commo n ancesto r. Structures that have developed from
the same part of a common ancesto r are called homol ogous structures.

THE FOSSIL RECORD - PALAEONTOLOGY

Fossil of Acanthostega The existe nce of fossils is ve ry diffi cult to explain w itho ut
evo lution . A n example of this is Acanthostega. The figure (left)
is a d raw ing of a 36 5 mill ion year o ld fossil of Acanthos tega.
It has similarities to other vertebrates, with a backbone and
Eight fingers fou r limbs, but it has eig ht fingers and seve n toes, so it is not
\ identical to any existi ng organism. Th is suggests that
verte brates and other organisms change over tim e.
A canthostega is an example of a " missing li nk" . A lthough it
has fou r legs, li ke most amp hibians, rept iles and mammals, it
also had a fish-like tai l and gi lls and lived in wa ter. This
shows that land vertebrates co uld have ev o lve d from fi sh via
"<, Seven toes
an aquatic animal w ith legs.

SELECTIVE BREEDING OF DOMESTICATED ANIMALS

The breeds of ani mal that are
reared for human use are I
/ /.~

clearly related to w ild species

and in many cases can sti ll
interbreed w ith them . These
dom esticated breeds have
been developed fro m w ild
speci es, by selecting
indi vid uals w ith desirable
traits, and breedin g from them .
The strik ing d ifferences in the
heritable character ist ics of
dom esticated breeds give us
evidence that spec ies can
evo lve rapid ly .

Spanish, Hamburgh and Polish Fowl, illustrated in Breeds of Animals and Plants under
Domestication by Charles Darwin

Ecology and evolution 37

Natural selection

DARWIN , WALLACE AND EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION

Charles Darwi n developed the theory that evo lution occ urs as a result of natur al selectio n. He
exp lained his theory in The Origi n of Species, pub lished in 1859. He had do ne many years of
research and had collected much evidence fo r the theo ry befo re then.
Darwi n delayed pub lication of his ideas fo r many years, fearing a hostil e reactio n. He mi ght
never have pub li shed them if another bi ologist, A lf red W allace, had not w ritten a letter to him
in 1858 suggesting very sim ilar ideas.
The theory of evo lut ion by natural select ion can be explained in a series of observations
and deduct io ns.
The photograph on the right shows a statue of Charles Darwin at Shrewsbury Schoo l, w here
he was a pupi l from 1818 to 1825.

Ob servati ons Deduct ions

* Populatio ns of livin g organisms tend

* Mo re offspring are produced

to increase expo nentially

than the enviro nment can suppo rt

* Yet, on the w hole, the numbe r of

* There is a struggle for existence

ind ividuals in popul ations remains

in w hich some ind ivid uals

nearly constant
survive and some di e

* Living organisms vary. The members

of a species are di fferent from each

other in many ways

* The better adapted ind ividuals tend

* Some indi vidu als have characterist ics

to surv ive and reproduce more than

that make them we ll adapted to their

the less we ll-adapted ind ividu als

enviro nment and other ind ivid uals have

This is natural selection

characteristics that make them less

we ll adapted to their environment

* Mu ch variatio n is heritable -it can be

* The better-adapted indi viduals pass on

passed o n to offspring
their characteristic s to mo re offspring

than the less we ll adapted ind ivid uals.

The results of natural selectio n

therefore accumulate

* As one generatio n fo llow s another,

the characteristics of the species

gradually change - the species evo lves

In 1828 Darwin, as a yo ung man was struggling to learn enough mathematics to pass a unive rsity exam.
The extract below is from a letter that he w rote to Charles W hitley, a fr iend and emi nent mathematic ian.
, I am as idle as id le can be: one of the causesyou have hit on, viz irresol ution the other being made full y aware that my noddl e is
not capacio us enough to retain o r co mprehend M athematics. - Beetle hunting & such thi ngs I grieve to say is my prop er sphere... r

(1
!
a,.A..... ~ a--- L~ ~ C.o-- t..... . ~
f-
~ ~
r LA- Lr ""l~ ~
-If-
v -...-v ~ i. ~ rx.. .. L.... H ~ .. 7Cz
? ~~ c:.. -ut- c"'-r- u.:.- ~ri
.L..
t-< £
i11.. t..~ U '!Jl~_ ~ L.z;;
1
of /.....-J.. CL..".4 ~~ t:: jay l,
I ~ f'/A ~

38 Ecology and evolution

Evolution in action
EN~RONMENTALCHANGEANDEVOLunON
Since D arwin developed hi s theo ry of evo lut io n by natur al
selectio n, c hanges have been ob served in some species . In
eac h case, th e evo lut io n has been in respon se to
env iro nme nta l change .
Two exa mp les are descri bed here - th e devel opment of
ant ibio tic resistance in bacteri a and melani sm in ladybu gs.
Other exa mp les include the devel opm ent of metal tol erance
in pl ant s grow ing on was te m ateri al fro m minin g metal ore s,
and cha nges to th e beaks of finc hes on th e Ga lapagos Island s
in respon se to EI N ino eve nts.
All these recent cases of obse rved evo lutio n in vol ve rel ati vely
sma ll cha nges, but th ey do non eth eless add to the ev ide nce
for evolution .
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND EVOLUTION
Vari ation is essentia l for natur al selec tio n and therefor e fo r
evo lutio n. Althou gh mu tation is th e o riginal so urce of new
genes or alleles, sexual repr odu cti on prom otes va riatio n by
allowing the fo rmatio n of new co mbinatio ns of alleles. Tw o
stages in sexu al repr odu cti on pr om ote var iatio n.
1. M eio sis allows a hu ge va riety of genetica lly differen t
gametes to be produ ced by eac h individu al.
2. Fertilizati on allows alle les from tw o different indi vidu als
to be bro ught togeth er in o ne new indi vidu al.
Prokaryotes do not reprodu ce sexua lly but have other ways
to prom ot e variatio n by exc hang ing genes.
Some species of or gani sms o nly repr odu ce asexually.
Mutationsstill produce some variation in these species, but
w itho ut sexua l repr odu cti on th e variatio n and th e capaci ty
for evo lutio n is less.

Multiple antibiotic resistance in bacteria Evolution of melanism in ladybugs

Antibiot ics are used to co ntrol di seases caused by bacteria Adalia bipunctata, th e tw o- spot lad ybu g (o r ladybird ), is a
in humans. There have been increasing probl ems wi th di sease­ sma ll beetl e, which usuall y has red w ing cases w it h tw o bl ack
causing bacteria being resistant to antibiot ics. The figure belo w spots. Th e red co lo ur wa rns pred ator s th at it tastes unpleasant.
shows the percentage of casesof gonorrhea (a sexually transm itted Me lanic form s also ex ist, w ith bl ack w ing cases. The mel ani c
di sease) in the United States that we re caused by antibiotic ­ fo rm abso rbs heat more eff ic ie nt ly th an th e red form . It
resistant strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae between 1980 and therefor e has a selec tive adva ntage w hen sunlig ht level s are
1990. The trend w ith many other di seases has been sim ilar. low and it is difficul t for ladybu gs to wa rm up . Th e mel ani c
fo rm of Adalia bip un ctata becam e co mmo n in industri al areas
of Brit ain , but declin ed again after 1960 . Th e decline
co rrelates w ith decreases in smo ke in th e air (be low) . In air
9 dark ened by smo ke, th e melani c fo rms wi ll be able to wa rm
8 up more quickl y, but if th e smo ke is no lon ger present thi s
~

-c o~ 7
adva ntage is lost and wa rn ing co lo uratio n is mor e im po rta nt.
t1 'E 6

.V; 0
~ § 5
~ oo
:;'i 4 75
~o 3 '"
OJ)
::J
° frequency of melani c forms

~l
~50
u ,
M

'"
1;;
z1
oI =;= =~
,
c;Jc;Jc;J1 II • , 1[ , W,H [I , I ~ 40
c
annual average 50 E
OJ)
I I I I o , »>: summer levels ::l.
19801 9811 9821 9831 984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
"*E 30 e-- 0 of smo ke '<,
<1J
Year
"0 20 "'0
25
-'"
~
Vl
We
Gen es th at give resista nce to an antib iotic ca n be fo und in
~ 10 0 0 O<D
<1J
th e m icro-or gani sms that natur all y m ake that antib iotic.
~ 0
c,
1
I ii ' I ' i1 10

Th e evo lutio n of multiple antib io tic resistan ce in vol ves th e

1960 1970 1980

follo w in g steps.
Year
o A gene that gives resistance to an ant ibiotic is transferred to
a bacterium by mean s of a pl asmid or in so me ot her way.
There is th en va riatio n in thi s typ e of bact erium - so me of
the bacteri a are resistant to th e ant ibiotic and some are not.
o Doctors o r vets use the ant ibio tic to co ntro l bacteri a.
Na tural selec tio n favours the bacteri a that are resistant to it
and kill s th e non-resistant o nes.
o Th e antib iot ic -resistant bacteri a repr odu ce and spread,

repl acin g th e non-resistant on es. Eventu all y, mo st of th e

bacteri a are resistant.

o Docto rs o r vets change to a different antibiotic to co ntro l

bacter ia. Resistance to this soo n develop s, so anothe r
Adalia 2-punctata Adalia 2-punctata
antibiotic is used, and so on until mu ltipl y resistant bac teria (f. typical (f. quadrimaculata)
have evo lve d . 2-spo t ladybird (typi cal) 2-sp ot ladybird (melani c)
Th e mor e an anti bio t ic is used, th e mor e bacteri a resistant to

it th ere w ill be and the fewe r non-resistant.

Ecology and evolution 39

Trophic levels

Popu lation s do not li ve in isolatio n - they li ve together w ith other popu lation s in communities. A community is a group of
populations li ving together and interacting w ith each other in an area.
There are many types of interac tio n betw een popu lations in a community. Trophi c relation ships are very im port ant - w here
one pop ulation of organisms feeds o n another pop ulatio n. Sequences of troph ic relationships, w here each membe r in the
sequence feeds on the previou s o ne, are called food chains.

An example from rainfor est at Iguazu in north-east Argenti na.

Passion flow er Helico nius butterfly tegu lizard jag uar

(Passiflora (He lico nius erato) ..... (Tup inambis (Panthera
schummania na) tegu ixin ) onca)

An example f rom chalk grassland and th e air above it in Euro pe.

carrot plant ..... carro t fly..... flycatcher ..... sparrowhawk goshaw k

(D aucus (Psila (M usci capa (A ccip iter (A ccip iter
carota) rosea) striata) nisus) gentilis)

The first organism in a food chain does not feed on ot her organisms so must be a pro ducer - an organism that makes its ow n
foo d . The ot her organisms are al l co nsumer s and are called primary, secondary , tertiary and so on, depend ing on thei r positi on
in the chain.
Produ cer, primary co nsumer, seconda ry co nsumer and terti ary co nsumer are examples of trophic levels. The trophic level of an
organism is its posi tio n in the foo d chain.

Exampl e:
Produ cer Prim ar y consumer ------. Second ar y consumer ------. Tertiary consumer
Sea lettuce M arine iguana Galapagos snake Galapagos haw k
(Ulve lactuca) (Ambly rhyncus cristatus) (Dromiscus biserialis) (Buteo galapagensis)

A food chain show s only some of the trophi c relatio nships in a community. Organi sms rarely feed on only one ot her o rganism
and are usually fed o n by more than o ne organism. The complex network of trop hic relationship s in a co mmunity is show n in
full in a co mp lex d iagram called a food web . An examp le of a food web is shown on page 42 .

40 Ecology and evolution

Energy flow

AUTOTROPHS
The organisms in a co m munity all need a Energy flow through producers
supply of energy . Organisms are div ide d in to
tw o groups acco rding to their source ­ heat
autotrophs and heterotrophs.
A utotrophs are organisms that synthes ize Release of energy by
their own organic molecu les (food) from cell respiration for
simple inorganic substances . use in the producer
then loss as heat.
A utotrophs make their ow n food , so are also
called producers. O ak trees, ma ize plants,
J . 1energy in organic energy in organic matter
algae, blue-green bacteria are examples. matter in producers \ in prim ary consumers
Al l food chains start w ith a produce r. In
alm ost all comm uni ties, the produ cers make Death of the
organic matter by phot osynt hesis. producer so the E

energy passes to n.ergy passes to a

Light is therefor e the initial energy source for detritivores and pn m a ~y consumer

the w ho le com munity. Producers co nve rt when It eats the

saprotrop hs w hen
light energy int o the chem ical energy of they digest the producer.
sugars and ot her o rganic compo unds. Thi s producer
energy trap ped by the produ cers eventua lly
energy in organic matter in
leaves them in one of thr ee ways, show n in
detri tivores and saprotrophs
the f low c hart (rig ht).

HETEROTROPHS
Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain Energy flow through consum ers

organic molecu les (food) from othe r

organisms . heat

There are three types of heterot roph:

Release of energy by cell respiration
con sumer s, detritivores and sapro t rophs.
for use in the primary consumer then
Consumers are organisms that ingest organic loss as heat.
m atter that is living or recently killed. energy in organic energy in organic
energy in organic
Prim ary co nsume rs eat prod ucers and so matter eaten by I .1 matter in the matter eaten by
obtain energy from them . The y do not absorb primary consumers , tissues ofprimary \ secondary
all of the energy in the food that they eat. consumers consumers
The energy that they do not take into thei r En ergy passes to a secondary consumer
tissues leaves them in one of th ree ways, Some organic w hen it eats the primary consumer.
show n in the flow chart (right). There are matter is not
digested, so
sim ilar energy losses from seco ndary and
energy is lost in
tertiary co nsumers in the food chain. Locu sts,
feces and passes
sheep and lion s are examp les of co nsumers. to detrit ivores and
Oetritivores ingest dead organic matter. saprotrophs.
Dun g beetles and earthworms are examples
of detritivores.
\1 energy.in organic
"---­ matter In
detritivores and
Saprotrophs live on or in dead organic sap rotrop hs
matter, secreting enzymes into it and
absorbing the produ cts of digestion.
Bread mou ld and mushrooms are examp les Energy flow through a food chain

~
of saprotro phs.

The energy that passes to detritivo res and

c~z l
saprotrophs is eventua lly released by cell
respiratio n and lost as heat. In most
photosynthesis
comm unit ies all the light energy that was
trapped by prod ucers is ultimatel y lost as t
heat after fl ow ing through the food chain. cell
A sum mary of energy flow for a three-stage respiration
food chain is show n (right).

death, loss of ti ssues and feces

__________ r--
~---'---
4c ---L--- ,

I detritivores and saprotrophs

Ecology and evolution 41

Food webs and energy pyramids

FOOD WEBS
A food we b is a d iagram that shows all the feedin g relation ships in a co mmunity . The arrows indicate the direction of energy
f low. Co mplete foo d we b di agrams are very co mp lex. The figu re (below) shows a simp lified food web for a com mun ity that lives
in an area of Ar cti c tundra in Ogo to ruk Valley.

Food web for Arctic tundra

EJ EJ B ~
r ,

Secondary Owls and Grizz ly

Wolverines [ W. ., I,
consumers haw ks bear

"\
\

Primary Voles and \ Ground

Caribou \
consumers lemmings \ squirrels
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

Plants
Producers
(mainly cotton sedges)

ENERGY PYRAMIDS Energy py ramid fo r a stream

Energy pyramid s are di agrams that show how much energy
fl ow s throu gh each trophi c level in a co mm un ity . The
amo unts of energy are shown per square metre of area
occupi ed by the com munity and per year (k] m -l year" ). tertiary consumers 67
The figure (right) is a pyr amid of energy for Silver Springs, a
stream in Flo rida.
secondary consumers 1602
The f igure (below right) is a pyramid of energy for a salt marsh
in Geo rgia. Pyram ids of energy are always pyramid shaped ­
each level is smaller than the one below it. Thi s is because less primary consumers r l 14 000
energy flows through each successive troph ic level. Energy is
lost at each trophic level, so less remains for the next level.
Note that mass is lost as we ll as energy, so the energy co ntent
producers I
L...­
I 87 000
----J

per gram of the t issues of each successive troph ic level is

not low er.
Energy is lost in vario us ways. In each of the f irst three ways
the energy is not co mplete ly lost from the co mmunity as it
passes to detritivores and saprotrop hs.
• Some organisms die before an organism in the next trophi c Energy pyr amid for a salt marsh
level eats them .
• Some parts of organ isms such as bones or hair are not eaten.
• Some parts of organisms are indi gestible and pass out as feces.
• M uch of the energy absorbed by an organism is released
in cell respiratio n. The energy, in the for m of ATP, is used in secondary consumers 117
processes suc h as muscle co ntractio n or active transport
that require energy. These processes invo lve energy
transfo rmations, w hic h are never 100% effic ient. Some of primary consumers 1278
the energy is co nverted to heat. 10- 20% is a typi cal
efficiency level. Most of the energy released by ce ll producers I 1 152 000
respiration is lost from the organism as heat.
'----- - - -- - -- -----'
Energy absorbed by li ving o rganisms is only availab le to the
next troph ic level if it remains as chemica l energy in the
growt h of the organism. Thi s is only a small prop o rtion of
the energy absorbed .

42 Ecology and evolution

Nutrient recycling

ECOSYSTEMS, ECOLOGISTS AND ECOLOGY NUTRIENT RECYCLING IN ECOSYSTEMS

Cornrnunities of living organisms interact in many ways with The recycling of nutrients is one example of the interactions
the soil, water and air that surround them. The non-living between living organisms and the abiotic environment in an
surroundings of a community are its abiotic environment. ecosystem. Energy is not recycled. It is suppl ied to ecosystems
A community and its abiotic environment function together in the form of light, flows through food chains and is lost as
as a system called an ecosystem. An ecosystem is a heat. Nutrients are not usually resupplied to ecosystems - they
community and its abiotic environment. must be used again and again by recycling. Carbon, nitrogen,
Ecologists study the complex relationships within ecosystems. phosphorus and all the other essential elements must be
This area of study is called ecology. Ecology is the study of recycled. They are absorbed from the environment, used by
relationships in ecosystems - both relationships between living organisms and then returned to the environment.
organisms and between organisms and their environment. The processes involved in the carbon cycle are shown below.

The carbon cycle

combustion -----~ CO 2
,
--------------
' ............... in air and water
C
in fossiI fuels,
e.g. coal, oi I ~"""
and gas ,,
,,
~\ '\ combustion
\
\
cell '\ in forest
\
\
respiration \ , fires
\ ,,
\
\ ,
incomplete \
\
\
,
\

decomposition \ cell \
\
\
and fossiIization \ respiration \
\
\ \
\ \
\ \
\
\
cell \
\
\ \
\ respiration \
\ \
\ \
\ \
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
C \
\

in organic compounds
in saprotrophic
bacteria and fungi
C
in organic compounds
in producers

death
C feeding
in organic
compounds in
consumers

feeding

THE ROLE OF SAPROTROPHS IN RECYCLING OF NUTRIENTS

Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi have an essential role in nutrient cycles. They feed by secreting digestive enzymes into dead
organic matter, including dead plants and animals and feces. The enzymes gradually break down the organic matter and the
nutrients that were locked up in complex organic compounds are released. The saprotrophs absorb the substances that they
need from the digested organic matter.

Without saprotrophs, nutrients would remain locked up permanently in dead organic matter and organisms that need the

nutrients would soon become deficient.

Ecology and evolution 43

Global warming and the greenhouse effect

RISING CARBON DIOXIDE LEVELS Gr aph of at mospheric CO 2 co ncent rat io ns

The carbo n dioxid e concentration of bubb les of air
trapped in Antarct ic ice at d ifferent dates have been Mauna Loa observatory, Hawaii
measured. These show that for two thousand years monthly average carbon dioxide concentration
befo re 1880 the carbon d ioxide co ncentratio n of the E 390
0­
0­
atmosphere remained fairl y co nstant at about 270 <,
c 380
parts per millio n (ppm). .g
['! 370 If/JlV\
Fro m 1880 o nwards the co ncentratio n rose. Since c'l) 360 VV '
1958, the co ncentratio n has been monitored u
c: .yNVWyVV
continuo usly at M auna Loa, Haw aii (right). There is an 0
u 350

annual fluctuatio n, but the overall trend has been ON

340 WVI'llif/i

• VI
upw ards and the co ncentrat ion is now mor e than
100ppm higher than in 1880.
U
330
ttlNVV .

V/W0iWVVIfl
320

GREENHOUSE GASES year

Carbon di oxid e is one of a group of gases that cause
heat to be retai ned in the Earth' s atmosphere: Cause of th e greenho use effec t
• carbo n di oxi de

Light from the su n has Gree nho use gases in the

• methane
short wave lengths an d ca n
atmo sphe re inclu ding CO 2 ,
• oxides of nitrogen (NO X)
mo stly pass through the met hane, wate r vapo ur
• sulfur dio xide
atm osphere a nd sulfur d ioxide trap
some of the long-wave
Heat retent ion by gases is called the greenhouse

effe ct. The processes invo lved are show n in t he f igure

. I'. +'. -. -. .
" . -. " . -. . "'w " rad iation , ca using the Earth
'. .
"' ~
to be wa rmer than if the
radiat io n esca ped.
(right).

" I\~;"\'/ ~' J'~'<

The greenhouse effect is not a new phenom enon .

Natural processes prod uce greenhouse gases, so they

are a natural part of the Earth' s atmosphere. The

c hange in recent years is that human activities have

increased the productio n of greenhouse gases and so

Sunlight wa rms up the
thei r atmospheric conce ntratio ns and their
surface of the Earth w hic h
co ntribut ion s to the greenhouse effect have been
em its lo ng-wave rad iation
rising (below right). Th is is cor related w ith rising

temp eratures on Earth - global w arming.

Incre ases in effect s of greenhouse gases

2.0
RISING GLOBAL TEMPERATURES
Temperatu re record s have been analysed to find the Increase in 1.5

mean for th e w ho le w or ld in each year from 1850 t he warmin g

o nwa rds. The figure (right) show s the di fference effect of th e

1.0
gas betw een

betw een t he mean temp erature for each year and an

1750 and

ov erall mean temp eratu re for the years 1961-1 990 .

2000/ Wm -2 0.5

The trends are th at

• From 1856 unt il about 1910 temp eratures we re 0-'-- ' - --'--<----1---1-_ --'---'- - ­
relatively stable. CO, halo N,o

• From 1910 unt il 1940 temperatur es rose and we re carbo ns

t hen stable.
A nnual glo bal t emperatures 1850- 200 5
• From 1970 th ere has been a rapid ri se.
• A ll ten of the hottest years since records began in 0.6
1850 have been since 1990. Annual average
• 1998 was the hottest year in that period and 200 5 0.4 Long-term trend
wa s the seco nd hott est year.
• Over the past centu ry, global temp eratures have 0.2
risen by O.7°C on average, w hic h takes us out of
0.0
the range of average temp eratur es experienced on
Earth ove r the last 1000 years.
- 0.2
These c hanges in temp erature are statistically
significant. There co uld be variou s causes, but the - 0.4
most likely cause is an increased greenhouse effect,
du e to human acti vities. -0.6

- 0.8
1850 1872 1894 1916 1938 1960 1982 2005

44 Ecology and evolution

Responses to global warming

HABITATS
The Earth provides places for millions of livi ng organisms to
ex ist. These places are called habitats.
A habitat is the environment in which a species normally
lives or the location o f a living organism .

CONSEQUENCES OF GLOBAL WARMING

The effects of glo bal wa rming are already being felt,
but they are likely to becom e much more extreme du ri ng
the 21't century. Habitats thro ugho ut the w orld w ill be
affected, but the effects on Arcti c ecosystems co uld be
parti cu larly catastrop hic.
• Glaciers w ill melt and po lar ice sheets w ill break up into
icebergs, w hic h w ill also eventually melt. The Arc tic ice
cap may d isappear complete ly .
• Permafrost w ill melt dur ing the summer, increasing the Ice sheet br eakin g up, with Gr eenland
rates of decomp osit ion of trapped organic matter, in the background
includ ing peat and detrit us. This w ill cause release of
carbon d ioxid e, fu rther inc reasing atmospheric
concentrations.
• Species adapted to temperate co nd itio ns w ill spread
no rth, altering food chai ns and affecting anim als in the
higher tro phic levels.
• M arin e species of animal in Arct ic waters may becom e
ext inct, as they can be very sensitive to temperatu re
changes in seawater.
• Po lar bears and ot her animals w ill lose their ice habi tat,
w here they feed and breed.
• Pests and d iseases may becom e more prevalent, w ith
wa rmer temperatures.
• Sea levels wi ll rise and low- lyin g areas of land w ill be
f lood ed.
• Extreme weather events, such as storms, wi ll becom e
more frequent, w ith harmfu l effects on species that are
not adapted .
Mu sk ox (O vibos moschatus) a speci es of mamm al w hic h nearly
became extinct through over-hunting in the early 20 th century.
Protection by the Canad ian government has allowed them to
THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE increase, w ith the populatio n now over 60 000 . They have a
In a co urt of law , prosecuto rs try to prove that the
very thic k coat and are adapted to the co ld co nditions of Arcti c
defendant is gui lty . If they cannot do this, the defendant is
regions. The co nsequence of global w arming fo r musk ox can be
assumed to be innocent. Wh en the precautio nary princ iple
deduced fro m the distrib ution map (below) .
is fo ll ow ed, the opposit e po licy is adopted - people
plann ing to do something must prove that it w ill not do
harm, before actually do ing it. The precauti onary principle
should be fo ll owed w hen the possib le co nsequences (risks)
of hum an actio ns are very large or co uld even be
catastrop hic.

A lthough there is strong evidence that greenho use gas

emissio ns are causing glo bal w arming, there is no pro of.
Some po liticia ns and business leaders have argued against
measures to combat global wa rmi ng, because it is not
ce rtain that greenho use gasesare causing it. Oi l compa nies
and airlines in parti cu lar have vo iced opposition.

M any scie ntists have argued that if w e wa ited for proof of

the effects of greenhouse gas emissions befo re reactin g, the
co nsequences w ould probably have reached a catastrop hic
level. The risks are so great that the precautio nary pr incip le
should be fo ll owe d : anyone advoc ating co ntinuing to emit
greenhouse gases at current levels, or even to increase
emissio ns, should be requir ed to prove that thi s wi ll not
cause a damaging increase in the greenhouse effect. Di stribution map of mu sk ox in the Arctic

Ecology and evolution 45

EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 5

The graph below shows the growth of a population of ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) on Protection Island off
the north west coast of the United States. The original population released by the scientists consisted of two male and eight
female birds. Two of the females died immediately after release.

-E 2250 [Source of data: Elinarson A. S., Murrelet, (1945) 26:

:..0 pages 39-44]
'0 2000
Q:j

..D.

E 1750 /
:J

C
I
'Vi-
C 1500 V
~
/
ro
Q)
1250 /
..c
0. I
uQ)
1000 /
..::L.

Q)
/
C
750 I
0.0

.~
C
1/
'0 500
/
c
1/
o

~ 250
/
1/
--
:J
0. V
et 0 ~

o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time/years
a) State the term used to describe the shape of a growth curve of this type. [1 J

b) (i) The scientists predicted that the population would reach its carrying capacity of 2000 by year 8.
Draw a line on the graph to show the population growth between years 6 and 10. [2J

c) (i) Predict how the population growth would change if all the female birds in the original sample had survived. [1 ]

(ii) Predict the effect on the carrying capacity if all the female birds in the original sample had survived. [1 J

2 The diagram below shows in simplified form the transfers of energy in a generalized ecosystem.
Each box represents a category of organisms, grouped together by their troph ic position in the ecosystem.

Sun

~""""'I--------.-------~ III
u
c
ro QJ

~""""'1---- --------..
tJl :....
..c 0
0.>
e :-2
II
e~
0.0
ro
Cf)

~"""",j------~

a) Deduce the trophic levels of the organisms in boxes I, II and III. [3J

b) State the form in which energy enters organisms in box 1. [1]

c) Identify which arrow represents the greatest transfer of energy per unit of time. (Add a large X to the arrow). [1 ]

d) Explain what is represented by the dotted arrows leaving each box. [3]

3 Methane acts as a greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. The main sources of methane are the digestive systems of cattle
and sheep, bacterial action in rice paddies, burning of biomass (e.g. forest fires), bacterial action in swamps and
marshes, burning of coal and release of natural gas.

a) Discuss whether methane emissions from these sources will cause a change in the Earth's temperature. [3J

b) Discuss whether release of methane is a natural process or an example of a human impact on the environment. [3J

c) Suggest measures that could be taken to reduce the emission of methane. [3J

46 18 Questions - Ecology and evolution

6
Digestion

TAKING IN FOOD THE NEED FOR DIGESTION

Hum ans take foo d into their di gestive system The food that humans eat co ntains substances made by oth er organisms,
throu gh the mou th and the esophagus. many of w hich are not suitab le for hum an tissues. They must therefore be
How ever, this foo d is not truly inside the body broken dow n and reassembled in a form that is suitable.
unti l it has passed th ro ugh a layer of cells into A second reason for di gestion is th at many of the mo lecu les in food s are too
the body' s ti ssues. This happ ens in the small large to be absorbed by the villi in the small intest ine. These large mol ecu les
intestines and is called absorpt io n. Small have to be broken dow n into small molecu les th at can then be absorbed by
finger-like proj ecti o ns from the w all of the di ffu sion , faci litated diffusion or acti ve tra nsport. The thr ee main types of
small intestine called vil li are speci ally foo d mo lecu le that need to be di gested are starch, protein and triglycerides
adapted to absorb foo d mol ecul es. The (fats and oils).
structure of a vill us is show n below . After food Di gesti on of these large mol ecul es happens naturall y at body temperature,
has been abso rbed it is assimilated - it but only at a very slow rate. Enzym es are essential to speed up the process.
become s part of the ti ssues of the body.
Enzym es of digest ion
Structure of a vill us
Amylase Protease Lipase
Example of this Salivary Pepsin Pancreatic
enzyme amylase lipase
Source Salivary glands Wall of Pancreas
stomach
Substrate Sta rch Proteins Triglycerides
lacteal (fats or oils)
(a branch Products Maltose Small Fatty Acidsand
of the polypeptides Glycerol
lymphatic Optimum pH 7 pH 1.5 pH 7
system) pH

The hum an digestive system

goblet
cells
(secrete
mucus)

esophagus
stomach

RElATIONSHIP BETWEEN
STRUCTURE OF A VILLUS
AND ITS FUNCTION
• Vil li increase the surface area over w hich
foo d is absorbed.
• An epithelium, co nsisting of o nly o ne thin
layer of cells, is all that food s have to pass
through to be absorbed .
• Prot rusions of the exposed part of the plasma
memb ranes of the epithelium cells increase
the surface area fo r absorption. These
projectio ns are called microv illi.
• Protein channels in the mi crovill i FUNCTIONS OF THE STOMACH
mem branes allow rapid absorptio n of foods
AND INTESTINES
by faci litated di ffusion and pump s allow
Di gestion of proteins begins in the stomach, catalysed by pepsin. Bacteria,
rapid absorptio n by active transport.
w hic h could cause food poison ing, are mostly ki lled by the acid co nditions
• M itocho ndria in epithelium cell s provid e the
of the sto mach. The aci dity also prov ides opti mum co nditions for pepsin
ATP needed fo r active transport.
to w ork.
• Blood capillaries inside the villus are very
Enzymes secreted by the wa ll of the small intestine complete the process of
close to the epithelium so the di stance for
di gestion . The end prod ucts of digestion are absorbed by the villi protruding
diffusion of foods is very small.
from the wa ll of the small intestine.
• A lacteal (a branch of the lym phatic system)
The indi gestible parts of the food, together w ith a large volume of w ater, pass
in the centre of the vil lus carries awa y fats
on into the large intestine. W ater is absorbed here leaving solid feces, w hic h
after abso rptio n.
are eventually egested through the anus.

Human health and physiology 47

The cardiovascular system
HEART STRUCTURE
The heart is a do ub le pump , w ith
the right side pumpi ng blood to
the lungs and the left side
pumpi ng bloo d to all other
o rgans. The wa lls of the heart are
composed of card iac muscle.
Contr act io n of cardiac muscle is
myogenic - it can co ntract on its
ow n, w itho ut being st imulated by
a nerve. There are many
capi llaries in the muscu lar wa ll
of the heart. The blood running
th rough these capillaries is
supp lied by the coronary arteries,
w hic h branc h off the ao rta, c lose
to the semilunar valve. The blood
brou ght by the coronary arteries
brings nutrients. It also brings
oxygen fo r aerob ic cell
respiration, w hic h provides the
energy needed fo r cardiac
muscle contractio n.
BLOOD VESSELS
Arteries
Thick outer
layer of
longitudinal
collagen and
elastic fibres to
avoid bulges
and leaks
Thick wall to
w ithstand the
high pressures
Veins
Thin layers w ith a
few ci rcular elastic
and muscle fibres
because blood
does not flow in
puIses so the veins
wall cannot help
pump it.
Wide lumen is needed ~~~~v
to accomodate the slow-
flowing blood
N.B. veins have valves to prevent back-flow
Capillaries
Wall consists of a
single layer of t hi n~
cells so the distance
for diffusion in or out • atrium . Each tim e the pacemaker sends out a signal the heart
is small.
~/~
~ only about 1Ourn
~)
Pores between cells in I I ac r~ss s.o that.
the wall allow some of
the plasma to leak out
and form tissue fluid. / '
Phagocytes can also
squeeze out.
48 Human health and physiology
Structure of the heart
aorta
vena cava
(superior)
left atrium
right
atrium .--:-::::",---_ _ ~ pulmonary
veins
semil unar atrio-ventricular
valves-- - \-T-- - '
valve
vena cava
(inferior)
atrio-ventricular left ventricle
valve
right ventricle
THE ACTION OF THE HEART
The atria are the co llecti ng chambers - they co llec t blood from
the veins. The ventr icles are the pumpin g chambers - they
./ Thick layers of pump blood out into the arteries at high pressure. The valves
. / circular elastic and
ensure that the blood alwa ys f lows in the co rrect d irecti on.
muscle fibres to
help pump the Every heartbeat consists of a sequence of action s.
blood on after 1. The wal ls of the atria contract, pushing blood from the
each heart beat atria into the ventricles thro ugh the atriove ntricular valves,
w hic h are op en. The semilunar valves are cl osed, so the
ventricl es fi ll with blood .
Narrow lumen to 2. The wa lls of the ventricl es co ntract pow erfull y and the
help maintain the
blood pressure rapid ly rises inside them. This rise in
high pressures
pressure first causes the atriove ntr icular valves to close,
preventing back-fl ow of blood to the atria and then causes
the semilunar valves to open, allowing blood to be
pumped out into the arteries. At the same t ime the atria
Thin wa ll allows the start to refill as they co llect blood from t he veins.
vein to be pressed 3. The ventricle s sto p co ntracti ng and as pressure falls inside
flat by adjacent
them the semilu nar valves close, prevent ing back-flow
muscles, helping to
move the blood of blood from the arteries to the ventricl es. W hen the
ventric ular pressure drops below the atrial pressure, the
Thin outer layer of atri oventri cu lar valves open. Bloo d entering the atrium
longitudi nal collagen from the veins then flows on to start filling the ventr ic les.
and elastic fibres
because there is little The next heartbeat begi ns w hen the wa lls of the atr ia
danger of bursting cont ract again.
THE CONTROLOFTHE HEARTBEAT
Heart muscle ti ssue has a spec ial property - it can co ntract
on its own w ithout being stim ulated by a nerve. O ne regio n
is respo nsib le for initiating each co ntractio n. Th is regio n is
ca lled the pacemak er and is located in the wa ll of the right
Very narrow lumen ­ carries o ut a co ntractio n or beat. Nerves and hormones can
transmit messages to the pacemaker.
• O ne nerve carries messages from the brai n to the pacemaker
s pa~e s.
caplillarles fit Into
sma Many that tell the pacemaker to speed up the beating of the heart.
small capil laries have • A nother nerve carries messages from the brain to the
a larger surface area pacemaker that tell the pacemaker to slow dow n the beating.
than fewer Wider ones
• Ad renali n, car ried to the pacemaker by the bloodstream,
tells the pace maker to speed up the beating of the heart.
Blood, transport and infections

THE COMPOSITION OF BLOOD PHAGOCYTES

Blood is compose d of plasma, erythrocy tes (red blood cells),
Som e of the leu kocytes in bloo d are phagocytes. These cells
leukocytes and platelets. The figure below shows the
can identify pathogens and ingest them by endocytosis. A
appearance of blood as seen using a li ght mi croscop e. Tw o
pathogen is an organism or virus that causes d isease. The
types of leukocyte are show n.
pathogens are then ki ll ed and digested inside the cell by
enzymes fro m Iysosomes. Phagocytes can ingest pathogens in
the blood . They can also squeeze out th rou gh the wa lls of
blood cap illa ries and move through tissues to sites of
infectio n. They then ingest the pathogens causing the
infecti on. Large numbers of phagocytes at a site of infect ion
form pus.
Some pathogens are able to avoi d being ki lled by phagocytes,
lymPhOCyte } so another defence is needed .

f1
~ ~

phagocyte

l," kO,~"J
(white

platelets plasma transporting

nutrients, carbon
erythrocytes
blood cells)

(red blood cells)

\
pathogens phagocytic ingested
pathogens
leukocyte
dioxide, hormones, transporting
antibod ies and urea oxygen

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD ANTIBODIES

Blood has tw o main functio ns: transport and defence against Antibod ies are protei ns that recognize
infectious disease. and bind to speci fic antigens. A ntige ns
Red bloo d cells transport oxyge n fro m the lun gs to are fo reign substances that stimu late
respir ing cells. the prod ucti on of ant ibodies.
Blood plasma transports A ntibod ies usually only bi nd to one
• nutrients
specif ic antigen. A ntigens can be any
• carbon dioxid e
of a w ide range of substances
• hormones
inclu di ng cell w alls of pathogenic
• antibodies
bacteria or fungi and prot ein coats of
• urea.
pathogenic viruses. antigen ~
The blood also transports heat from parts of the body that
An tibodi es defend the bod y against b i n di ng ~
prod uce it, to the skin, w here it is lost to the envi ronment.
pathogens by bindi ng to antigens on site
Leukocytes (white blood cells) defend the bod y against
surface of a pathogen and stimu lating Antibody mol ecul e
infecti ous diseases. The roles of phagocytes and leukocytes are
its destructi on. The figure (on page 50) made up of four
polyp eptid es
described on th is page and the next page.
shows how antibod ies are produ ced.

BARRIERS TO INFECTION ANTIBIOTICS

The skin and muco us memb ranes fo rm a barrier that prevents
most pathogens from enteri ng the body . The outer layers of
the skin are tou gh and form a physica l barri er. Sebaceo us
glands in the skin secrete lactic acid and fatty acids, w hic h
make the surface of the skin aci dic. This prevents the growth
of most pathogenic bacteria.
M uco us memb ranes are soft areas of skin that are kept moi st
w ith mucus. M ucous membr anes are fou nd in the nose,
trac hea, vagi na and urethra. A lthough they do not for m a
strong physica l barrier, many bacteria are kil led by lysozyme,
an enzy me in the mucus. In the trachea pathogens tend to get
caught in the sticky mucus and cil ia then push the mucus and
bacteri a up and out of the trachea.
Despite these barriers to infecti o n, pathogens do somet imes
enter the body so another defence is needed.
Ant ibiot ics are chemica ls produced by microorganisms, to ki ll
or co ntro l the grow th of other microorganisms. For example,
Pen icillium fungus produces penici llin to ki ll bacteria.
M ost bacterial diseases in hum ans can be treated successfully
w ith antibio tics . For example, tu bercul osis has been treated
w ith strepto myci n. There are many differences betw een
hum an cells and bacterial cells and so there are many
anti biotics that block a process in bacterial cells w ithout
causing any harm to human cells.
Viruses carry out very few processes themselves. They rely
instead o n a host cell such as a human cell to carry out the
processes for them . It is not possible to block these processes
w ith an antibiot ic w itho ut also harmin g the human cel ls. For
this reason virus d iseases cannot be treated w ith ant ibiotics.

Human health and physiology 49

Antibodies and AIDS

PRODUCTION OF ANTIBODIES

CD Antibodies are made by
lymphocytes, one of the two
main types of leukocyte.
Q) A lymphocyte can only make one type of Q) W hen a pathogen enters
antibody so a huge number of different the body, its antigens bind to
lymphocyte types is needed. Each lymphocyte the antibodies in the plasma
puts some of the antibody that it can make membrane of one type of
into its plasma membrane w ith the lymphocyte.
antigen-combining site projecting outwards.

~ ~ ~ ..::cLr:. ...t--X-X..
Variety of
antibodies on~
lymphocyte ~ ~ ..x-=.:r:.. ~
surfaces.

phagocyte
sss. ~ .::LY-.::L. ~ ~

~ i n ac t i ve l y mp h OCy te @ ~ .....:

' ®©@~~~
@ W hen antigens bind to
the antibodies on the
surface of a lymphocyte,
this lymphocyte becomes (0) - m;lo; ;; @ The clo ne of cells starts to produce
@ @) ~~': :. '
active and divides by large quantities of the same antibody
- \
@ ©@.{~5~ ...
mitosis to produce a clon e - the antibody needed to defend the
of many identical cells. active lymphocyte body against the pathogen.

AIDS - A SYNDROME CAUSED BY A VIRUS Structu re of HIV

A IDS shows how vital the bod y's defences against di sease are. single reverse
Destruction of the imm une system leads inevitably to death. A IDS is an example of a stranded RNA transcriptase
syndrome. A syndrome is a group of symptoms that are found together. Indi viduals w ith
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) have low numbers of one type of
lymphocyte together w ith we ight loss and a variety of diseases caused by viruses, bacteria,
fungi and protozo a. These di seases weaken the body and eventually cause death.

Cause
HIV (human imm unodefi ci ency virus) causes A IDS. The virus infects a ty pe of

lymphocyte that plays a vital rol e in antibody prod uctio n. O ver a period of years these

lymphocytes are destroyed and antibodies cannot then be produ ced. W ithout a

fu nctioni ng immu ne system, the bod y is vulne rable to pathogens that w ould norm ally

be contro lled easily .

Transmiss ion

HIV does not survive for long outside the body and cannot easily pass through the ski n.

Transmission invol ves the transfer of body fluids from an infected person to an uninfected

one.

• Through small cuts or tears in the vagina, penis, mo uth o r intesti ne during vaginal, T-Iymph ocyte infect ed with HIV( X 3500)
anal or oral sex.
• In traces of blood on a hypodermi c needle that is shared by int ravenou s d rug abusers.
• Acro ss the placenta from a mother to a baby, o r thro ugh cuts du ring chi ld birth or in
mil k during breast-feeding.
• In transfused blood or w ith blood prod ucts suc h as Facto r VIII used to treat
hemophili acs.

Social imp lications

• Families and fr iends suffe r grief.
• Fami lies beco me poo rer if the indi vidua l w it h A ID S was the wage earner and is
refused life insurance.
• Indivi duals infected w ith HIV may becom e stig mati zed and not fin d partners, housing
or employ ment.
• Sexual activ ity in a populatio n may be reduced because of the fear of A IDS.

50 Human health and physiology

Gas exchange

THE NEED FOR GAS EXCHANGE THE VENTILATION SYSTEM

AND VENTILATION IN HUMANS
Cell respiration happens in the cytoplasm trachea
and mit ochond ria of cells and releases energy intercostaI left lung
in the fo rm of ATP for use inside the cell. muscles
In humans oxygen is used in ce ll respiration
and carbo n di oxid e is produ ced. Hum ans
therefore must take in oxyge n fro m thei r
surround ings and release carbo n dioxid e.
Thi s process of swappi ng o ne gas for another
is ca lled gas exchange.
Gas exchange happens in the alveo li of
human lun gs. Oxyge n diffuses from the air
in the alveo li to the blood in capillaries.
Carbon di oxid e diffu ses in the opposite
dir ection . The fi gure (below) shows the
adaptat io ns of the alveolus for gas exc hange.
Di ffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxid e l--~ ri b s
happens because there are co nce ntrat ion
gradients of oxyge n and carbo n dioxide
betw een the ai r and the blood . To maintain

~
these co ncentratio n grad ients, the air in the
alveoli must be refreshed frequently. The bronchio les
process of bringing fresh air to the alveo li (ending in
and removin g stale air is called vent ilatio n. microscopic diaphragm
alveoli)

ADAPTATIONS OF THE ALVEOLUS TO GAS VENTILATION OF THE LUNGS

EXCHANGE
Although each alveolus is
very small, the lungs contain
hundreds of mill ions of
alveoli in total, giving a huge
overall surface area for gas
exchange.
The wall of the alveolus consists of a
single layer of very thin cells. The
capi llary wall also is a single layer of
very thin cells, so the gases only have
to diffuse a very short distance.
Air is in haled into the lun gs throu gh the trachea,
bron chi and bron ch iol es.
It is exhaled via the same rout e. M uscles are used to
lower and raise the pressure inside the lun gs to cause
t he mo vements of air.
Inh aling Exhal ing

• The external • The internal

intercostal muscles intercostal muscl es
contract, moving the co ntract, movi ng the
ribcage up and out ribcage down and in

• The diaphragm • The abdominal

co ntracts, becomin g muscl es co ntract,
fl atter and mo vin g pushin g the
down di aph ragm up into a
dom e shape

• These muscle • These muscle

mov ements increase mov ements
the vo lume of the decrease the vo lume
thorax of the thorax

• The pressure inside • The pressure inside

the t horax therefore the thorax therefo re
drop s below rises above
atmospheric atmospheric
pressure pressure

• Ai r flows into the • Air flows out from

The alveolus is covered by a
dense network of blood
capillaries wit h low oxygen
and high carbon dioxide
concentrations. Oxygen
therefore diffuses into the
blood and carbon dioxide
diffuses out.
lungs fro m outside the lungs to outside
Cells in the alveolus wall secrete a the body until the the body unti l the
fluid which keeps the inner surface pressure inside the pressure inside the
of the alveolus moist, allowi ng the lungs rises lungs fall s
gases to dissolve. The fluid also to atmosp heric to atmospheric
contains a natural detergent, which pressure pressure
prevents the sides of the alveoli from
sticking together.

Human health and physiology 51

 -- - - - -- - - - - -

Neurons and synapses

ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM SENSORY AND MOTOR NEURONS

The nervo us system is co mposed of cel ls called neurons.
These ce lls are often very elongated and can carry messages
at high speed in the fo rm of elect rica l impul ses.
There are two parts of the nervous system
• th e central nervous system (CNS), co nsisting of the brain
and spinal co rd
• periph eral nerves that co nnect all parts of the body to the
central nervou s system.
Neu rons carry elect rica l impu lses long d istances in the body,
using elo ngated struct ures ca lled nerve fib res (axo ns).
• Sensor y neuron s carry nerve impulses from receptor s
(sensory ce lls) to the CNS.
• M otor neuron s (below ) carry impu lses from the CNS to
effectors (muscl e and gland cells).
• Relay neurons carry impulses w ithi n the CNS, fro m one
neuron to another.

Structure of a motor neuron

motor end cell body
nucleus
plates

direction of transmission of impulse along the axon

I
axon length of
(nerve fibre) neuron omitted

skeletal dendrites
muscle fib res

SYNAPSES Stages in synaptic transmission

A synapse is a ju ncti on betw een two neuron s. The Q) Vesicles of
plasma membr anes of the neurons are separated by a neurotransmitter move
narrow fluid-filled gap ca lled the synaptic cl eft . CD Nerve impulse to the membrane and
reaches the end of release their contents
M essages are passed across the synapse in the fo rm of the pre-synaptic
c hemica ls ca lled neurotr ansmitters. The neuron
neurotransmitt ers always pass in the same directi on
from the pre-synapti c neuron to the post-synapti c CZJ Calci um is
pumped out.
neuron . Neurotransmitter
M any synapses fun ction in the following w ay. is broken dow n in
(D A nerve impul se reaches the end of the pre-synaptic the cleft and
neuron . synaptic knob reabsorbed into
o Depo lariz ation of the pre-synaptic membra ne the vesicles
causes vo ltage-gated calci um channels to op en.
Calc ium io ns di ffu se into the pre-synaptic neuro n. vesicles of
Q) lnflux of calci um causes vesicl es of neurotransmitter neuro­
transmitter
to move to the pre-synaptic membrane and fuse w ith
it, releasing the neurotran smitter into the synaptic i® @ ".
cl eft by exocytos is. @ @ L,~ r
8) The neurotr ansmitter diffuses across the synaptic
cl eft and binds to receptors in the post-syn apti c Q) Calcium
diffuses in
~~~
Ca2+ Ca2+ . -,
?'-:-
->:::.c,,=

membr ane. through ------:;AHI~.

@ The receptors are transmitter-gated ion channels, calci um
w hich open w hen neurotransmitter binds. Sodium channels
and other positively charged ions diffuse into the post­
synaptic neuron . This causes depol arizati on of the
@)Neuro­
post-synaptic membra ne.
transmitter
@ The depo lariz ation passes o n down the post­ diffuses across
synaptic neuron as an actio n pote ntia l. the synaptic
o Neurotransmitter in the synapti c cl eft is rapid ly
broken down , to prevent co ntinuous synaptic
cleft and binds
to receptors
transmission . For example, acetylcho lin e is broken 0) Sodium ions
down by cho linesterase in synapses that use it as a enter the post­
neurotr ansmitter . Calci um ions are pumped out of synaptic neuron
and cause
the pre-synapti c neuron into the synaptic cl eft.
@ Nerve imp ulse depolarization
The f igure (right) shows the events th at occ ur dur ing

setting off along the

synaptic transmissio n.

post-synaptic neuron

52 Human health and physiology

Nerve impulses

RESTING POTENTIALS
The resting potential is the elec trical pot ential across the action potential
plasm a mem brane of a cell that is not conducting an imp ulse.
+50
Neuron s pu mp ions across their plasma membranes by acti ve
transport. Sodium is pumped out of the neuron and potassium
is pump ed in . Con centr ation grad ients of both sodium and +30
potassium are established across the membrane. The inside of
the neuro n develop s a net negative charge, co mpared w ith
the outside, because of the presence of chlori de and other +10
negatively charged ion s. There is therefore an electrica l
potenti al or vo ltage across the membr ane. Thi s is called the zero
resting potenti al.
>
<,
E -10

.ACTION POTENTIALS .~
c
Q)
An action potential is the reversal and restoration of the "0 -30
CL
electrical po tential across the plasm a me mb rane of a ce ll, as
threshold
an electrical imp ulse passes along it (depolariz ation and level
repolariz ation). - 50
W hen an impu lse passes alo ng the neuron , sodi um and
resting
potassium ions are allo wed to d iffuse across the membr ane, potential
thr ough vo ltage-gated ion channels. The electrica l potentia l -70 I L \m m :.----:. _

across the membrane is ini ti ally reversed but is then resto red .
This is called an action potential. The figure (right) shows th e
-90
--­
changes in memb rane po larization that occur du ring an
~~ -~' '-v-' ~ ~~~
action potenti al. The way in w hic h action potenti als pass
down nerve fib res is explained below . CD (l) Q) @

STAGES IN THE PASSAGE OF A NERVE IMPULSE

CD An actio n potenti al in
one part of a neuron causes
CD Sodi um channels open
an actio n potential to
develop in the next sectio n
of the neuron . This is due to
diffusion of sod ium io ns
betw een the region w ith an
actio n potenti al and the
region at the resting
potenti al. These io n
movements, loca l currents,
redu ce the resting potent ial.
If the potenti al rises above
the threshold level, vo ltage­
gated channels open .
very quickly and sodium ions
o Potassium channels
diffuse into the neuron down
the concentration gradient.
This reduces the membrane
potential and causes more
sodium channels to open. The
entry of positively charged
sodi um ions causes the inside
of the neuron to develop a net
positive charge compared to
the outside - the potential
across the membrane is
reversed. This is called
depolarization.
open after a sho rt delay.
8) Concentration gradients
Potassium ions d iffu se
out of the neuron down
the co ncentratio n grad ient
th rough th e opened
channels. The exit of
positi vely charged
potassium ions cause the
inside of the neuron to
develop a net negative
c harge again compared w ith
the outside - the potenti al
across th e membr ane is
restored. This is called
repolarization.
of sodium and potassium
across the membrane are
restored by the active
transport of sodium ion s out
of the neuron and potassium
ions into the neuron . This
restores the resting potential
and the neuron is then ready
to conduct another nerve
impulse. As before, sodium
ions diffuse along inside the
neuron from an adjace nt
region that has already
depo larized and in itiate
depolarizatio n.

:\ © © SG~a>8
®~e~I®<-~e ® N." ~8~~t8~~~ e~
\ 2'J ® ® ® ® "" 8
eo e .®
~" ""'E;- ©~8
,~'~iZZll)2!~~~~
© K» © e G e e G © e © e ©

I~ 8~
>

\ ®e
8 -' Zli ®
Nrl·· · · ~ © J © ~ ©8 /~88
Ion movements during an action potential

Human health and physiology 53

Maintaining the internal environment

HOMEOSTASIS The endocrine and nervous systems

Blood, and tissue flui d derived
from blood , flow around or
Endocrin e system Ne rvo us system
cl ose to all cells in the body.
Blood and tissue fluid for m the
internal environment of the
body. Thi s internal pituitary gland
envi ron ment is controlled and
varies very little despite large
variation s in the external th yroid gland
environment. The co ntro l
process is called hom eostasis.
Hom eostasis is maintaining
the internal environment of
the bod y between limits.
The parameters contro ll ed
include
• bod y temp eratu re

iqrl
.:
• bl ood p H
• carbo n di oxide
concentration
• blood glucose
concentration
• w ater balance
The nervou s system and the
endoc rine system are bot h islets
II
invol ved in controlling the in th e testes
internal env ironment. The pancreas (ovaries in
endo crine system co nsists of females)
glands, w hic h release
hormon es that are transported
in th e b lood .

CONTROLLING LEVELS BY NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

1. Feedback 2. Negat ive feedback
In feedback systems, the level of a product feeds Negative feedback has a stabilizing effect because a change in
back to control the rate of its ow n production . levels always causes the opposite change. A rise in levels feeds
back to decrease production and reduce the level. A decrease
Level of product feeds back to I in levels feeds back to increase productio n and raise the level.
These are both negative feedback.
affect the rate of production .

Processes that cause the

production of something.

3. Mo nito ring levels

Wh en the level falls signif icantly

Levels below the set point, it is

above increased by negative feedback.

set po int
- - - - - - --- - - - - -- -- --- - - - - - - - - - --- - -- - - - ---- - -- -- - -- ~- - - - --- - - - -- - - - - _.
Set point f--"~----;;,.,c.----""~-_7'''------------==.__ - _r_----''__-- -- - -- ----*~

- - - ----- - -- -~- -- --- --- -- - --- - - - - - - -- -1- -- - - - - --- - - - -- - - - - ----- ---- ----- -- --
Small fluctuations above W hen the level rises

and below the set point do signifi cantly above the set

Levels not cause a response. point, it is reduced by

below negative feedback.
set point

54 Human health and physiology

 Body temperature and blood glucose

CONTROL OF BODY TEMPERATURE

The hypoth alamus of the brain monito rs the temperatur e of the blood and compares it w ith a set point, usually close to 37QC. If the
bl ood temperature is low er or higher than the set point the hypoth alamus sends messages to parts of the bod y to make them respond
and bring the temperature back to the set point - negati ve feedback . These messages are carried by neuron s. The responses affect
the rate at w hic h heat is produ ced, the rate at w hich it is transferred betw een parts of the bod y in the blood , or the rate at w hic h it is
lost from the bod y.

Responses to overh eat in g Respon ses to chilling

Skin arterio les becom e wi der, so mo re blood flow s throu gh
the ski n. Thi s bloo d tr ansfers heat from the co re of the bod y to
t he skin. The temperatu re of the skin rises, so more heat is lost
fro m it to the environment.
Skeletal muscl es rem ain relaxed and resting so that they do
not generate heat.
Sw eat glands secrete large amo unts of sweat making the
surface of the skin damp . W ater eva pora tes from the damp
skin and this has a coo ling effec t.
Ski n arterio les become narrow er and they bring less blood to
the skin. The blood capillaries in t he skin do not mo ve, but
less blood f lows throu gh them. The tem perature of the ski n
falls, so less heat is lost fro m it to t he env ironme nt.
Skeletal muscl es do many sma ll rapid co ntractio ns to generate
heat. Thi s is called shive ring.
Sweat glands do not secrete sweat and the skin remains dry .

sweat on
skin
nnn warm
so muchskin
heat lost
dry skin
III cold skin so
little heat lost

--- rapid blood

flow in
-
sweat duct
closed up
little blood
flows through
secretion ~ i~ capi llaries capilIaries so
from sweat keeps the no sweat
gland \ iv---.. ,i skin warm secretion skin cools dow n

,~
shunt vessel
shunt
vessel
open so blood
can bypass
closed skin

JijF
'l0J :;~~~/J
,- \ ~ capillaries
skin / arteriole

arterio le I
constricte d

dilated
sub-cutaneous
(w idened) adipose tissue artery

for insulation vein r, ~

CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE

Blood glucose concentration cannot be kept as steady as bod y temp eratu re. Instead it is usuall y kept betwee n 4 and 8 m i/Jimo les pe r
drn" of bloo d . Cells in the pancreas mon itor the concentratio n and send hormon e messages to target organs w hen the leve l is low or
high. Respon ses by the target organs affect the rate at w hic h glucose is loaded into the blood or unloaded from it. The mechanisms
I rnvotved are anothe r example or negative reedoaoc,
\
Responses to hi gh blood glucose levels I Responses to low blood glucose levels
13 cells in the pancr eati c islets prod uce in sulin . a cells in the pancreatic islets prod uce glucago n.
Insul in stim ulates the liver and mu scle cells to absorb glucose G lucago n stim ulates li ver cells to break glycogen dow n into
from the blood and co nve rt it to glycogen. Gr anu les of glucose and release the glucose into the blood .
glycogen are sto red in the cyto plasm of these cells. O ther
Thi s raises th e blood glucose level.
cells are stim ulated to absorb glucose and use it in ce ll
respiration in stead of fat. These processes low er the blood
glucose level.

DIABETES
In some peop le the co ntrol of blood glucose does not wo rk effective ly and the co ncentration can rise o r fall beyo nd the normal
limits. The fu ll name for this co nd ition is diabet es mellitus. There are tw o forms of this co ndi tion, w hic h are compa red in the
tab le below:

Typ e I di abet es Type II diab etes

The onset is usuall y du ring childhoo d. The o nset is usually after c hildhoo d.
a cells produce insuffi ci ent i nsuli n. Target ce lls become insensitive to i nsu lin .

Insulin inj ecti ons are used to co ntro l glucose levels. Insuli n inj ect ions are not usually needed .
Di et cannot by itself co nt rol the co nditio n. Low ca rbohy drate d iets usuall y co nt rol the co nditio n.

Human health and physiology 55

Reproductive systems

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM FEMALE SEX

HORMONES
The pituitary gla nd
prod uces FSH a nd LH .
These two horm on es affect
processes in the ovary.
FSH stimu lates the
deve lo pment of follicles
ovary oviduct - fluid filled sacs that
co ntain an egg ce ll.
ce rvix LH stimu lates fo llicles to
beco me mature, release
their egg (ovulatio n) and
uterus then deve lop into a
structure ca lled the co rpus
lute um.
bladder vagina The ova ry produ ces
estroge n a nd progeste rone.
large intestine These two horm on es
stimul ate the develop ment
of fem a le seco nda ry sexua l
urethra c ha racte ristics durin g
pu berty. They also stimulate
vulva the development of the
ute rus lining that is needed
d uring pregnan cy. Unless a
wo ma n is pregnant the
levels of the fem ale sex
horm on es rise a nd fa ll
accord ing to a cycle , which
is descr ibed o n page 57 .

TESTOSTERONE THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Ce lls in the testes of males
produ ce testoste rone - the
male sex ho rmo ne .
Testoste rone has seve ral
ro les.
• The deve lopin g testes of a
male fetu s secrete bladder seminal vesicle
testoste rone , whic h
ca uses ma le ge nitalia,
includin g a pe nis, to
develop in the fetus sperm duct - -- i----fl
• Leve ls of testosteron e rise
dur ing pube rty a nd cause
ma le seco nda ry sexual
c haracte ristics to deve lop erectile tissue + - - - -- - - -- - -----,I-- - prostate gland
- pubic hair, a n e nla rged
peni s a nd growth of
skeleta l muscles for
exam ple penis - ­ - -I
• During ad ulthood,
testosterone maintain s the ~-l-----------f------ e pi di d ym i s
sex drive, the instinct urethra - ­ - -t1l----H

whi ch e nco urages men to

have sexua l intercour se scrotum
a nd the refo re pass o n foreskin
thei r ge nes to offsprin g.
Testoste rone is a lso o ne of
the hormon es needed to
stimulate spe rm produ ction
by the testes.
testis

56 Human health and physiology

The menstrual cycle

Between puberty and t he menopause, wome n who are no t pregna nt fo l low a cycle called t he me nstr ual cycl e. Th is cycl e is
co ntr o l led by ho rmon es FSH and LH prod uced by t he pitu itary gland and est roge n and progesterone prod uced by t he ovary.
Th e fi gure below shows t he leve ls of t hese ho rmo nes d uring t he menstru al cycl e. It also shows t he c han ges in t he ova ry and i n
the uteru s.

CD FSH level rises @ LH rises to a @ LH causes the ® H igh progesteron e and ® FSH levels
and stimu lates peak and causes the fo lli c le cel ls to secrete estrogen levels in hibit FSH rise again,
fo lli cl e egg to be released less estrogen (negative and LH secretion. Thi s is starting t he next
develop ment and fro m the feedback) and mor e negative feedback because menstru al cycle .
I
estrogen secretion fo llic le - ovul ation . progesteron e. Aft er FSH and LH stimulated
by cells of the oval ution LH causes the estrogen and prog esterone
fo ll icle.

'\ foll icl e to develop into

the co rpus luteum.
secretion.

j "". ' ..----.:.,

.FSH
i I " , .._. . , .. ...

' .~ ~ .................... •.

.' • • , • ". I I \.. , .' LH

FSH and
LH levels
,... .: :

ova ry
develop ment CjJ GJ CjJ GiJ GJ CjJ QO
follicle starting follicl e nearly corpus

to develop mature luteum

I
•• , I
" " I ! I
1 ,,' I
••' I

•• r " • ••••• , •• ~
. . . . .. I e'"
estrogen and • • • I ". I ~so~ .•
pro gesterone
levels
.......... ..... :
: ~ :;" .
I I
I
progesterone

a>
7 - \
,\

Estrogen makes @ This positive @) Estrogen levels

,,\ ~
~-----,

the fo l licl e cells feedback makes rise to a peak and

produce more FS H estrogen levels stimu late LH
receptors and so rise and stimu late secretion by the
respond more the repair of the pitu itary gland.
strongly to FSH. uterus lining.

uterus w al l
development
(en do metri um) l101I1l:
R~'"~~ ~ ~
; , " . _;
: :
II,
~~
~'."! ~.~ '';' - :''''''''~
, '..·. ,"
._ -\ ~,
. ,':
·1
-::}'-; .~; \ ' ~
~:"":.~. ; : . ,.; : " _
," ,

: . -\ ' I, " ' .

. .~ ., .,. ~ . <: :'
". ~, .
}~ :-;~ ',

'('::'. " ~ " " L:~ .,,,-J.;:.~ .' .;

MEN STRUATIO N 1 O V ULATIO N l MENSTRUATION r

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213 141516 171 819202 1222324252627282930 3 1 323 334
DAYS AFTER THE START OF MENSTRUATION

Human health and physiology 57

In vitro fertilization

INFERTILITY Timetable for IVF

Som e couples do not
achieve fertil ization and _- -- G) Adrug is injected once a day for three
pregnancy w hen they wi sh weeks, to stop the wo man's normal
to, despite sexual menstrual cycle.
interco urse during the
period in the midd le of the , _ @ Large doses of FSH are injected once

menstrual cycle w hen a day or 10-1 2 days to stimulate the

ovulatio n usually occurs. ovaries to develop many foll icles.

This is calle d infertil ity. It

" -Q) HCG (another hormone) is injected

may be temporary, because

" 36 hours before egg collection, to loosen

the causes can be reso lved, : the egg in the foll icles and to make

or permanent. them mature.

21.00
Approximately one in six " @ The man provides semen by

co uples have some :' ejaculating into a jar. The sperm are

experience of temporary or :' processed to concentrate the healthiest ones.

permanent infertil ity. M any ,
of these couples can be : -: ~ The eggs are extracted from the
helped to have a chil d by in 9.00 :: foll icles using a device inserted through
vitro ferti Iization - IV F. For 10 .00 ' the wall of the vagina.
example, blocked oviducts 14 .00
in a wo man prevent " - ® Each egg is mixed with sperm in a
concept ion, but IV F can shallow dish. The dishes are kept
week 6 - 8 .00 , overnight in an incubator.
overco me thi s prob lem .
Ot her prob lems cannot be
resolved by IV F, fo r " -0 The dishes are checked to see if

example low or zero sperm fertil ization has worked.

week 7 14 .00
co unts in men .
The process of IVF is
outlined (right).
", ® Two or three embryos are selected and

placed, via a long plastic tube, into the

week 8 uterus.

--,-------- ® A pregnancy test is done to see if any

embryos have implanted.
week 9
, __ , ----.@ A scan is done to seeif the pregnancy
_-- -,- - - - ---- is continuing normally. The heart should
be visible beating.

ETHICAL ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH IVF

Som e issues are controversial and around the wor ld the v iew s held by peop le may vary co nsiderably . Ethical issues invo lve
questio ning w hether something is w rong or right. Deci sion s cannot be made using scienti fic method s, but scie nti sts have
an obliga tio n to consider ethica l issues.

Ethical arguments against IVF Ethical arguments for IVF

• Inherit ed form s of inferti lit y mi ght be passed on to
ch ild ren, w hic h means that the suffering of the parents
is repeated in their offspring.
• More embryos are often produ ced than are needed and
the spare embryos are sometimes killed, denyin g them
the chance of life.
• Embryologists select embryos to transfer to the uterus,
so hum ans are decid ing w hether new indi vidu als
survive or die .
• IV F is an un natural process, carried out in laboratories,
in contrast to natural conceptio n occurr ing as a result of
an act of love.
• Inferti lity should be accepted as the wi ll of God and it is
w rong to try to circumvent it by using IVF to have a
chil d .
• M any form s of inferti lit y are due to environmental
facto rs, so offspring w ill not inh erit them .
• Any embryos that are ki lled dur ing IVF are unable to
feel pain or suffer, because their nervous system has not
developed .
• Suffering due to genetic disease could be red uced if
embryos we re screened before bei ng transferred to the
uterus.
• Parents w ill ing to go thro ugh the pro cess of IVF must
have a strong desire for ch ildren and so are likely to be
loving parents.
• Infertility brin gs great un happ iness to parents w ho wa nt
to have child ren, w hic h in some cases can be ove rcome
by IVF.

58 Human health and physiology

EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 6

Respiration in humans and other mammals generates heat which can be used to keep the body temperature above that of the
surrou ndi ngs.

Many mammals found in the southern hemisphere, including marsupials, vary their body temperature according to a daily
cycle. The mouse lernur (Microcebus myoxinus) is an example of such a mammal. To investigate this daily cycle, M.
myoxinus was studied in its native habitat in Madagascar. Data-loggers which recorded body temperature (Tb) over 24-hour
periods were implanted in the bodies of several of these mammals. Air temperature (Ta) was recorded at the same time. A
typical set of results is shown in the graph below.

Darkness -------,
40
Tb
35 !g-- -----­
Ta
~
Cl)
30 --:r-a----i----------------------------------------i---\----------------t ~- ~,:- ~~,- ----------.
~
~
Q)
Q. 25 -------\A;~ --------------------------------------t ---_t------------k:_ -----------------­
E \ .
~
20
'" .. J

- - ------ - ~ --- - -- ~..- ~ :..!-,-r~ ~-,- - - -- - ---( --- - - -- - -- ---- r------------,-,- -------------------------­
\ .. 4,\ " " " \ ~l\ ,"

15 -
- -- --- - - - -- - - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - -- - - _: - -'-~~\.~ _\",: -~;.~ ~-;/: - - -- - - - -- - - - --- - - -- - - - -- - -- -­

10
16:00 20:00 24:00 04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00

Time of day

[Source: Cossins and Barnes, Nature (1996), 384, page 582]

a) Using only the data in the graph, state two differences between Ta and T b during the hours of darkness. [2]

b) T b rises from 08:00 to 12:00. Explain briefly how this temperature rise occurs. [2]

c) Predict, with a reason, whether M. myoxinus is active in the hours of dayl ight or the hours of darkness. [1 ]

2 a) (i) State the function of phagocytic leukocytes. [1 ]

(ii) Outline where in the body phagocytic leukocytes carry out their function. [2]

b) Explain briefly the need for small numbers of many types of B-Iymphocyte in the body. [2]

3 The diagram right shows part of the human gas exchange system.

a) State the name of the parts labelled I and II. [2]

b) I and II allow the lungs to be ventilated. Explain briefly the

need for ventilation. [2]

c) Draw and label a diagram of alveoli. [3]

II ' (­

18 Questions - Human health and physiology 59

 7
DNA structure and replication

DNA STRUCTURE

At one end of each

strand is a

phosphate li nked to
carbo n atom 5 of
deoxyrib ose. This is
$ ?H
-0 - P = 0
I
Hydrogen bonds (show n as - ) lin k the

bases. Tw o bonds form between adeni ne and

thym ine and three bonds betw een guanine
and cytosine. On ly these pairs can form
hydrogen bon ds. OH
the 5' termin al. 0
Two of the bases in
Cs 0 D NA are purines:
adenine and
/~ guanine. They have
C4 C1
tw o ri ngs in their
\ c3- ci mol ecu les. Two of
Adjacent nucl eotid es --~F;:::---~
2
o the bases in DNA
are linked by a bond r
0= p - o- are pyrimidines.
betw een the Cytosine and
phosphate group of I
one nucl eotide and
o thymi ne are
pyrimid ines. They
carbon atom 3 of the N
guanine \ cytosine have one ring in
other nucl eotide. N - H-O their mol ecul e.
/ ~ O nly a purine plu s a
/=\ l - N\ pyrimi dine w ill fit in
N-C N -H -N C -H the space between

At one end of each / ~ / ~ I;

the sugar-phosphate
C-C C -C
strand is a hydroxyl / C""' N/ ~ / \ backb ones.

group attached to carbon H O- H -N \ H

atom 3 of deoxyr ibose.

Thi s is therefore the 3'

termin al.
'-~

L
~ _-----~) H

\.~-----~
-----'Y~----~./

The two strands have their 3' and 5' terminals at opposite

ends - they are anti-parallel. D NA replication can only occur in a

5 ' ~ 3' direction so a different method is needed for the tw o strands.

DNA REPLICATION

CD The cell produces many free nucl eotides fo r DNA Q) Helicase uncoils the DNA
replicati on. Each has three phosphate groups - they doubl e helix and splits it into
are deoxyrib onucl eoside tripho sphates. Tw o phosphates two temp late strands.
are removed durin g repli cation to release energy.
Q) DNA polym erase III adds nucl eotides in a
5'­ 3' directi on . On o ne strand it moves in the
same dir ecti on as the repl ication fo rk, c lose to
hel icase. O n the other templ ate strand it moves in
the opposite di rection.

@ Short lengths of D NA are

formed betw een RNA
prim ers on this strand, - ----,
called Ok azaki fragments.
@ DNA ligase seals up
the nick by makin g another
"'' 'Pho\Ph'', bond,

CV D NA polymerase I ~ D NA pol ym erase III ® RNA prim ase adds a sho rt

removes the RNA starts repli cation next to the length of RNA attached by base
primer and replaces it RNA prim er and adds pairing to the template strand of
wi th DN A. A nick is nucl eotid es in a 5'-3 ' direction. DN A. This acts as a primer,
left w here two nuc leotid es It therefore moves away from the all ow ing DNA pol ymerase to bi nd
are still unconnected. repli catio n fo rk on th is strand. and begi n replica tion.

60 Nucleic acids and proteins

Organization of DNA in eukaryotes

DNA IN PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES Nucleosome structure

A ll eukaryotes and prokaryotes use D NA as thei r genet ic
materi al and use the same genetic code , but there are
differences in the way that the DNA is organized and used.
Prokaryotes have naked D NA, w hic h co nsists mostly of single
nucleosome core consisting
co py genes that are tr anscri bed and translated w itho ut DNA linker
of eight histone protein molecul es
mod if ication . The situatio n in eukaryotes is mor e co mplex :

Replication init iat ion sites

Repli cati on of D NA begin s at specia l in iti ation points.
Eukaryotes have many of these initi ation points alo ng each
chromoso me. M ost pro karyot es have o nly on e po int on their
D NA mol ecul e w here repli cation is initiated.

Nucleosomes
In eukaryotes, the D NA is associated w ith protei ns to form another histone
nucl eoso mes - glob ular structures that co ntain eight histone protein holdi ng
protei ns, wi t h DN A w rapped around. A not her hi ston e prot ein the nucleosome
bond s the structure together (a bove right). In an interphase together
nucl eus in eukaryotes the DN A resembles a str ing of beads DNA w rapped tw ice around
(right). N uc leoso mes have tw o functio ns: the nucl eosome core
DN A linker conti nuing
• they help to package up the DNA durin g mitosis and
towards the next nucleosome
meio sis by the process of supercoi li ng
• they can be used to mark parti cul ar genes, either to
promote gene expressio n by tr anscripti on and translation ,
or to cause silenc ing of a gene by prevent in g transcr ipt ion.

Repetitive sequences
Mu ch of the D NA in eukaryotes consists of repetiti ve base
sequences, whi ch are not translated. Hi ghl y repetiti ve
sequences, sometimes calle d satelli te D N A, are sequences of
betw een 5 and 300 bases, that may be repeated as many as DNA strand
10 000 times. These co nstitute 5- 45% of typi cal eukaryote
DNA. Its fun cti on is not yet cl ear.
A surprisingly smal l pro portio n of eukaryo tic D NA is sing le
copy, or un iqu e genes.
nucleosomes
Introns and exons
M any genes in eukaryotes co ntain intron s - seque nces of
bases t hat are transcr ib ed, but not translated. Exons are
sequences of bases that are tr anscribed and translated. A
typical eukaryote gene co nsists of a series o f exons and nucleosomes can
intron s. Af ter transcr iption of the w ho le gene, the intro ns are ~ be tagged wi th
remov ed to form mature mRNA, in a process called po st­ proteins to promote
transcription al modification (below right). Prokaryotes do not or repress transcripti on
usual ly have introns in their genes.
percentage of genes
100
80 Saccharom yces cerevis iae (a yeast)
60
40
20
0 11 1=
40 DNA
30

20
Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)
__ _ j transcription

~====-
10
ojl II II II II 1 == = = ~ -,- - " ~ mRNA

20
DO
j introns
'post-transcriPtional
modification
exon
mature
15
10
5
= 1"'0<'' ' 00 mRNA

ojl,lI ,II,II ,II,II ,II ,IOI, II, II,II,b Q'7 , '7'7, ,1, 10 '7'7
4
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 <30 <60
20 <40 >60
~ protein
nu m b er of exons

Nucleic acids and proteins 61

Transcription of DNA

RNA POLYMERASE AND TRANSCRIPTION

DNA is split into two strands by RNA polymerase. On e of these strands forms the templ ate for transcri ption. The base sequence of the
mRNA is complementary to it. The other strand has the same base sequence as the mRNA (except for T instead of U) and is therefore
called the sensestrand. The strand that forms the template and is transcrib ed is called the antisense strand.

DNA is unw ound DNA is rew ound

by the front of into a double heli x
RNA polymerase by the rear of RNA
polymerase

GTACCGT TAG 3'

Part of { 5 '
the DNA 3' G U A C C GU U A G
of a gene 3 ' 1
I I I I I I I I CI 5'
C A TGGCAAT

RNA polymerase

antisense strand mRNA molecule

produced by
5' RNA polymerase
Free nucleoside triphosphates are used by RNA polymerase to extend the grow ing
mRNA molecule. Two phosphates are removed as they are li nked on, converting
them into RNA nucleotid es. The 5' end of the nucleotid e is added to the 3' end of
the grow ing chain - transcri ption thus moves in a 5 ~ 3' direction.

TRANSLATING THE GENETIC CODE

M essenger RNA ca rries th e in form ati on needed for making po lyp eptid es out from th e nucleu s to th e cytopl asm of eukaryotic
ce lls. The informati on is in a coded form , whi ch is decod ed during tr anslati on. The base sequence of mRNA is tr anslated int o the
amino aci d sequence of a pol yp eptid e. Key featur es of the co de are describ ed (below left). The meaning of each co do n is shown
in the tab le (below right).

The genetic co de is a triplet

code - thr ee bases co de for First base Third base
Second base of codon on messenger RNA of codon
of codon
one am ino aci d. A group of I
(5' end) I I (3' end)
thr ee bases is called a codon.
U C A G
There are 64 different co do ns
U Phenyl alanine Serine Tyrosine Cysteine U
(4 3) . Thi s gives more than
Phenylalanine Serine Tyrosine Cysteine C
eno ugh cod on s to code fo r Leucine Serine STOP STO P A
th e tw enty am ino acids in Leucine Serine STO P Tryptophan G
pr otei ns. If codons cons isted
of two bases there wou ld be C Leucin e Proline Hi stidine Arginine U

sixteen (4 2 ) - not enou gh . Leuci ne Prol ine Hi stid ine A rginine C

Leucine Prol ine G lutamine Arginin e A

No ne of the 64 codons are

Leucin e Proline G lutamin e Arginine G

unu sed . Instead, the genet ic

cod e is degenerate. Thi s A Isoleucine Threonine Asparagine Seri ne U
means that it is possibl e for Isoleucin e Threon ine Asparagine Serin e C

tw o o r mor e codons to code Isoleucin e Threonin e Lysine Arginine A

for the same am ino aci d. Methionine I START Threonine Lysine Argin ine G

The genet ic cod e is universal. Valin e Aspartic acid G lycine U

G A lani ne
With ju st a few minor Valin e Al anine Aspartic acid Glycine C

exceptions, li v ing organisms Valine Alanine Glutamic acid Glycine A

use p recise ly th e same code. Valin e A lanine G lutamic acid Gl ycin e G

Viru ses also use this co de.

62 Nucleic acids and proteins

Ribosomes and transfer RNA

tRNA AND tRNA ACTIVATING ENZYMES tRN A st ructure

There are many different types of tRNA in a cell, w hic h have 3'
A
an imp ort ant ro le in translation . C site for attaching
C an amino acid
All tRN A mo lecul es have: 5'
• sect io ns that becom e doubl e stranded by base pairin g, double stranded sections loop of seven
creating loop s (above right) linked by base pairin nucleotides
• a tripl et of bases called the antico don , in a loop of seven
bases
• two other loops
• the base seque nce CCA at the 3' termi nal, w hic h forms a
site for attac hing an ami no aci d.
These features allow all tRNA mo lecu les to bind to three sites extra loop
on the ribosome.
loop of eight anticodon loop
The base seque nce of tRNA mo lecu les varies and th is causes nucleotides
some variable features in its structure : antic odon
• an extra small loop is sometimes present
• the base paired sect ions are sometimes heli cal.
I
The variable features give each type of tRNA a distinct ive
three-di mensional shape and d istincti ve c hemica l prop erti es
Thr ee-dim ensional view of tRN A
(below right). Th is allows the cor rect amino acid to be
attached to the 3' terminal by an enzy me called a tRNA loop of seven helical
activati ng enzyme . There are twe nty different tRNA act ivatin g nucleotides section
enzy mes - o ne for each of the tw enty different amino acids.
Each of these enzy mes attac hes o ne particu lar amino acid to
all of the tRNA mo lecu les that have an anticodon
co rrespo ndi ng to th at amino acid . The tRNA activat ing
enzy mes recogni ze these tRNA mo lec ules by thei r shape and loop of eight

\'
site for attaching
chemica l properti es. nucleotides
an amino acid
Energy from AT P is needed fo r the attac hment of amino acids.
A hi gh-energy bond is created betwee n the amino acid and
the t RNA. Energy from this bond is later used to link t he
ami no acid to the grow ing po lypeptide chain d uring
translatio n. antico don loop

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF RIBOSOMES

Ribosomes have a co mplex structure, w ith these features.
• Proteins and ribosoma l RNA mo lecules (rRNA) bot h form
position of \\
part of the struct ure.
growi ng polypeptide
• There are two subunits, one large and one small.
• There are three bind ing sites fo r tRNA on the surface of the large
ribosome. Two tRNA mo lecules can bin d at the same ti me subunit
}
to the riboso me.
• There is a binding site for mRNA on the surface of the
ribosome. small
The structure of a ribosome is show n in o ut line in the fi gure subunit
}
(right), w ith the three tRNA bind ing sites. binding sites
for tRNA
Ribosomes in th e cyto plasm are called free ribosom es. They
synthesize protei ns for use w ithin the cell. Ribosomes can also
position of mRNA
be attached to membr anes of the endo plasmic retic ulum. They
are called bound ribosomes and synthesize proteins for
secretion from the ce ll or for Iysosomes.

PEPTIDE BONDS
Ribosomes are the site of po lypeptide synthesis. Thi s invo lves
li nking am ino aci ds together by a co ndensatio n reacti on
(shown on page 15). The lin kage betw een the amino acids is
H" I II
R
I
0

N -C -C- N-C -C
~
R 0

a peptid e bond . Perhaps unexpected ly, it is rRN A and not

N/ I I I <,
H H H OH
protein s in the ribosom e th at catalyse the reacti on in w hic h
the peptid e bond is formed. The diagram (right) shows a ~
peptide bond
peptid e bond betw een tw o am ino acids.

Nucleic acids and proteins 63

= = = = = - - ---------~===----------, - - ,

Polysomes and polypeptide elongation

The figure (right) is an electron m icrograph showing groups of
ribosomes ca lled pol ysomes (or pol yribosomes). A po lysome
is a group of ribosomes mo vin g alo ng the same mRNA, as th ey
simu ltaneously translate it. Each ribo some foll ow s a series of
steps that is repeated many times to translate th e mRNA. O ne
am ino ac id is added to the elongating polypeptide each tim e
the cycle of steps is repeated (see below). As ribosom es move
alo ng the mRNA towards the 3' end, the po lyp eptid e is
gradually elo ngated.

(x 180000)

POLYPEPTIDE ELONGATION
CD O ne of the binding sites for tRNA is vacant. The
small subunit of the ribosome ensures that only a
tRNA with the antico don that is complementary to

/
the next codon binds to it.

•• ••
••• •••
••• ••••• ••• • ••••
•• • •

5' -+-' ....I ~....I....I....I- 3 ' 5' -jooI "l"""' - 3'

@ The tRNA shown on the left has been displaced to the
third bind ing site, and detaches from the ribosome. It can
be used again in translation after a tRNA activati ng
enzyme has added another amino acid to it.
Q) The large subunit of the ribosome advances over the
small subunit and detaches the polypeptid e fro m the
tRNA show n on the left. The pol ypeptid e is attached by
a peptide lin kage to the single amino acid held by the
tRNA show n on the right.

•• ••
••• •••
••• ••••• ••• •••••
•• ••

Q) The small subunit slides across the large subunit. At

the same tim e it moves three nucl eotides on along the
mRNA in a 5' to 3' dir ection. Translation always occurs
in a 5' to 3' di rection along mRNA.

64 Nucleic acids and proteins

Starting and stopping translation

Special steps are needed to sta rt the process of trans lat ion and to sto p it. These ste ps are ca lled initiation a nd termin ation. The
three stages of translation are th us initiation , e longation and termination .

INITIATION OF TRANSLATION

cQJ
(a)
tRNA with the anticodon com plementary to
the sta rt codo n binds to the sma ll subunit of
the ribosome

(b) 1 The small subunit, carrying the tRNA binds to

the 5' end of the messenger RNA
5'

end
AUG
_ 3' end

The sma ll subunit slides along the mRNA

until it reaches the start codo n, which
(c) shows where translation should be started
5'

end
_ 3' end

The large subunit of the ribosome

(d ) binds to the small subunit

5'

end
_ 3' end

Another tRNA, with the ant icodon

co mplementary to the next codon on
(e) the mRNA, binds to the ribosome.

Elo ngation of a polypept ide can now start

5'

end
_ 3' end

TERMINATION OF TRANSLATJON

The ribosome moves a long the mRNA

..... ,
in a 5'- 3' d irection, translating
ea ch codo n into an amino acid on
(w) the e longating polypeptide

I I 3'end
_ from 5' ..... UGA

end .........................
The ribosome reaches a
stop codon. No tRNA
mo lecule has the
com plementary anticodo n
(x)

I - J 3' end
_ from 5' ... .....
: .
.-----\.......-... -..........
end
.
The released polypeptide has ----
The large subunit advances
over the sma ll subun it. The
-
po lypeptid e is released from
(y)
usually already sta rted folding
up to form the protein's final shape
...... thetRNA

( '-/ ) 3' end

_ from 5'
end
aCsma
tRNAu ~~: hesa
largems~~A all separate
The
and
n d th~oro
ll subunit '. ~
'"
(z)

UGA
_ from 5'
end Proteins synthesized by free ribosomes mostly remain and are ••••••••
used in the cytoplasm. Prote ins synthes ized by ribosomes bound - - - - l.. X"•••••
to the ER are mostly secreted from the ce ll or are used in Iysosomes ••••••••

Nucleic acids and proteins 65

Intramolecular bonding in proteins

Po lypeptides have a mai n chain co nsisting of a J3-PLEATED SHEET a::-HELIX

repeating sequence of covalently bonded carbon
and nitrogen atoms: N- C - C- N- C - C, and / \ /
H-N c =o H- N
so on. Each nitrogen ato m has a hydrogen atom \ / \
C-H H- C C- H
bonded to it ( N - H ). Every seco nd carbon / \ /
o=c N - HUlIIIIllIllIO = C
atom has an oxygen ato m bo nded to it ( C = 0 ). \ / \
N- HIIIII IlII IIII O = C N- H
/ \ /
H-C C - HlIllI lIlllllIH -C
H 0 \ / \
C = O IIlIIIlIIIlIlH - N c- o
I II H- N
/ \
C = O IlIIlIIl IlIl IH- N
/

N-C- C -N -C - C \
C-H H- C
/ \
C- H
I II O'<C
/ \
N-H '''''''' '''O=C
/

H 0
I
\ / \
N- H lIlllIIIIIIIIO=C N- H
/ \ /
H- C C- H H-C
Hydrogen bond s can fo rm between N - H and \
C=O IllIIlIIIlIUH-N
/ \
c=o
C = 0 groups, if they are bro ught cl ose together. / \ /

For example, if sectio ns of po lypeptid e run H

parallel, hydr ogen bo nds can fo rm betw een
them . The structure that develops is calle d a B­
pl eated sheet. If the pol ypept ide is wo und into a
right-handed hel ix, hydr ogen bo nds can fo rm
betw een adj acent turn s of the hel ix. The
structure that develops is called an a -helix .
Because the groups fo rm ing hyd rogen bo nds are H
regularly spaced, secondary struct ures always
have the same dim ensions.
In add itio n to the hyd rogen bondin g in B-pleated
sheets and a -helices, there are many other typ es
of bond ing. Most of these invo lve the R groups Bond angles give the
of the am ino acids. The figure (below) shows sheet a pleated shape
some of these bonds.

Types of intramolecular bond in proteins

Ionic bonds can form between positively Acidic amino acids have R groups that can lose
and negatively charged R groups an H+ ion and so become negatively charged

, ,,." ',, H ~HO\ 0

'b-<-~y.'0'b /'\ _ --~~~:~~----r-~:o~O

1ff of----,: 0 G "'U!::Jn"'7
G
Ho
I~
'b y. 'y/ -, \\ N H 0 »< ; ' ; I
/ 'b~I)" ,.0'J",-- ,: / i .--6 ! /I H H i: Gf:/b- - - - - -, _"'_llJ.:Jsl.:J
Basic amino acids " 1)- '\ \ \ f ,0, " N..J--O , i . I f0 - - - - -,
have R groups that
"
,'-, oI :.'('. . \('._l,:-'
\ eU'Jn
.- -1, I
O·---- .H :
I" O_N"
I o
0 ""'- t >. I .JI°/I , H HI
II
can accept an H+
ion and so become
positively charged
_ :
is
iD I
I I -Z
"'!', ~
'//cI
\
" !?' "' 0
/ ';"7"'\ P!::J!? ::J!J.it!ds - ~ - - GH
C/-i.
If °
: /I
- - - - I.. 0
I
H
Pt;-e"':J-----f.!. :
N f
I I
"',..,.---N'
v
I
;-­
:
?i : I-O -O~O-o / 3 HO . !UJ t!Jnl:j~ -::- o'-:.- _J Disulfide bridges
~. \ / =f N
I
""I S SHO/ 0- H H I wh ich are strong'
"o=~/ _.;\~. / HO S covalent bonds can
\..--- -z; ,, ?/~ C/-i. L1 Cr\ 3 Asparagine \ form between pairs
"\ \ / .-y<. 0",(> < S . e C"::>-... 3 1_--------------- of cysteines
/
- \H 0 r- S
\ / C'--'<, // / ' ·C/-i. --r - ~~I.'.'- - - l - - Cr\ " I H II : "'" I/ -Y
'0 (1 / / < I 0 I \ I N I C I
C<-,,~ / ' : 1-\ II \ " C/ {-lit- (I ~ -Y
9'--cJ\
~~ ',,_/' , I-f;IV-litF\! \ / C""\"" N/I H II \ I : Lt ..y}!\ \
./ 1-- C-r-- N-C I 0 I : '7 /'
~ ./~ " tl-t, <, I \/ \ H _- ----J-- CH~ _ (
I o / ~, Q.
,, ---°/ -S- (>thi~~;n'- Q - L - l1 - - CI-\ 2- J - -~~\i(\e ~ ~ 0>,cl/~ / " \%,
'h
1 e \ 0 ::;'-- ' NH2~'\
.sf.: '" \ '0' .
\~
'S- 01-\ ~<" '0. . .---°", -:;:::.0\ <"
Hydrophobic interactions, which are o~ /'~ J,- _ S- - - -~
weak bonds, can form between R 0 '" --- -
groups that are non-polar including
all those projecting inwards here
i j:.
I

'"
Hydrogen bonds can form
between some R groups

66 Nucleic acids and proteins

Protein structure

Protein s have a co mplex structure, whi ch can be explained TERTIARY STRUCTURE

by defin ing four levels of structure, primary, secondary ,
tertiary and quaternary structure.
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
Primary structure is the number and seq uence o f am ino acids
in a polypeptide. M ost polypept ides consist of betw een 50
and 1000 amino aci ds. The prim ary structure is determin ed
by the base sequence of the gene that codes for the
po lypeptide. The fi gure (below) shows the primary structure
of B-endorphin, a protein co nsist ing of a single pol yp eptid e of
31 amino acids that acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain.
Tertiary structure is the three-dim ension al conforma tion o f
a pol ypep tide. It is fo rmed w hen the po lypeptide fo lds up
after bein g pro duced by translatio n. The con fo rmation is
stabilized by intramole cu lar bonds that for m betwe en amino
acids in the po lyp eptid e, especi ally betw een their R groups.
These include ionic bonds, hydr ogen bond s, hyd rophobic
interactions and di sulfid e bridges. The intr amol ecul ar bond s
are oft en fo rmed betw een amino acids that are wid ely
separated in the pr imary struct ure of the po lypep tide, but
w hich are brou ght together during the foldin g proc ess.
The figur e below show s the terti ary structur e of lysozyme
using the sausage mod el.

Prim ary st ruct ure of B-endo rphin Sausage model of lysozym e

Alanine -+ Isoleucine -+ Isoleucine -+ Lysine

Asparagine -+ Alanine -+ Histidine -+ Lysine

Lysine -+ Glycine -+ Glutamine -+ Tyrosine

Glycine -+ Glycine -+ Phenylalanine ... Methionine

Threonine -+ Serine -+ Glutamic acid-+ Lysine

Serine -+ Glutamine -+ Threonine -+ Proline

Leucine -+ Valine -+ Threonine -+ Leucine

Phen ylalanine -+ Lysine -+ Asparagine

SECONDARY STRUCTURE QUATERNARY STRUCTURE

Secondary structures are regular repeating structures,
including f5-pleated shee ts and a -he lices stabilize d by
hydrogen bonds be twee n groups in the main chain of the
polypeptide. In many protein s, parts of the po lyp eptid e form
secondary stru ct ures and oth er parts do not. In some prot eins
seco ndary structu res do not for m at all. In a few proteins
almost all of the polypept ide forms secondary struct ures.
Fo r example almost all of myosin mol ecu les is a -helix and
almost all of fibr oin (silk protein) is B-p leated sheet.
The fi gure (below) show s the position of second ary structures
in lysozyme, using the ribbo n model. Sections of a -helix are
represented by helical ribbons and sections of B-p leated
sheet are represented by arrows .
Quaternary structure is the linking together o f two or more
pol ypeptides to form a single protein . For example, insul in
co nsists of tw o pol yp eptid es linked together, co llagen co nsists
of three po lypeptides and hemo globi n consists of four .
In some cases prote ins also co ntain a non-po lypeptide
structure called a pro stheti c gro up. Each of the four
po lyp ept ides in hemo globin is linked to a heme gro up,
w hic h is not made of am ino aci ds. Proteins w ith a
prosthetic group are called conj ugat ed proteins.
The figure (below) shows the quaternary structure of hemoglobi n.
Sausage model of hemo globin

Ribbon model of lysozym e

Nucleic acids and proteins 67

Protein functions

FUNCTIONS OF FIBROUS AND GLOBULAR PROTEINS

Protein s can be divided into tw o types acco rding to their shape - fibrous or globular. Fibro us protein s have a lon g and narrow
shape. They are mostly insolub le in wa ter. G lobu lar prot ein s have a roun ded shape. They are mostly solub le in wa ter. Tw o
exam ples of both fibrous and glo bular proteins are given in the table (below) .
Protein s have a huge range of fun cti on s in livi ng organism s. Some prot eins are located in membr anes - their fun ction s are listed
on page 8. Four of the fu nction s of non -membr ane proteins are li sted in the table (below) . Proteins can also be used as foo d
stores, fo r examp le casein in milk, as pigments, for example opsin in the reti na, as toxin s as in some snake venom, as horm on es,
fo r example insulin, and as enzy mes.

Function Example Details Shape

Structural Co ll agen The funct ion of co llage n is to strengt hen bon e, te ndo n and skin. These Fib rous
ti ssues all produce tou gh co llage n fibres in the spaces betw een their
ce lls

Transport Hem oglo bin The fun cti on of hemoglo bin is to bind oxygen in the lun gs and to G lobu lar
t ranspo rt it to respi ring ti ssues

M ovem ent M yosin Th e function of myo sin (w ith anot her prot ein ca lle d act in) is to cause Fibrous
co ntract io n in mu scle fi bres and as a result ca use mov ement in an ima ls

Defence Im mu noglo bu li n The fun ction of immu noglob uli n is to act as anti bod ies. Part of the G lo bu lar
im m unoglobu lin mol ecu le ca n be varied, so th at an almost end less
variety of di fferent ant ibo d ies ca n be produ ced

POLAR AND NON-POLAR AMINO ACIDS IN PROTEINS

A min o aci ds can be d ivided into two ty pes accordi ng to the c hemica l characterist ics of the ir R group. Po lar am ino aci ds have

hydrophi li c R groups and non- pol ar amino acids have hydr ophobi c R gro ups. The distributi on of po lar and no n-po lar amino

aci ds in a prot ein mo lecu le inf luence w here the prot ein is located in a cell and w hat functio n it can carry out.

The figures (below) show examples of th is.

Supero xid e di smutase - an enzyme found

in all aerobic or gani sms
Positions of proteins in
A ring of The active site is
and out of membranes amino acids w ith a cleft containing
negatively charged amino acids
R-groups repel wi th positively
Non-polar amino acids the negatively charged R-groups

:th
in the centre of water­ charged superoxide w hich attract the
soluble proteins stabilize ions and help to negatively charged
their structure. direct them to the superoxide ions
active site. that are the
Polar amino substrate of the
acids on the
surface of enzyme.
Non-polar amino acids
proteins make .. ' -.
cause proteins to remain
them water ..
embedded in membranes. Lipase - an enzyme that
soluble.
works in th e small intestine
Part of the enzyme
molecule acts as a
_ - -­ - hinged lid w hich
Polar amino acids ----",::::::::::;L----"<;--;:\'{. polar can cove r the active site
create channels region w hen not in use, hiding the
thro ugh w hich non-polar R-groups.
hydrophilic
substances can
diffuse. Positively The active site is a non-polar region
Polar amino acids cause
charged R groups parts of membrane proteins cleft containing
allow negatively charged amino acids w ith A protein cofactor binds to the
to protrude from the enzyme, and helps lipase to bind to
ions through and vice versa. membrane. Transmembrane non-polar R-groups
w hich bind non-polar the surface of lipid drop lets because
proteins have two such regions. it has non-polar R-groups on its surface.
triglycerides.

68 Nucleic acids and proteins

Enzymes and activation energy

ENERGY CHANGES DURING CHEMICAL

,"b'~
active site
REACTIONS of enzyme
Duri ng chemi cal reactio ns, reactants are co nverted into
prod ucts. Before a mol ecul e of the reactant can take part in
the reacti on, it has to gain some energy. Thi s is called the
act ivati on energy of the reacti on . The energy is needed to
break bond s w ith in the reactant . Later during the pro gress of
the reactio n, energy is give n out as new bonds are made.
M ost bio logical reactions are exothermic - the energy
released is greater than the activa tion energy .
Enzymes reduce the activation energy of the reactions that
they catalyse and therefore make it easier fo r these reactio ns
to occ ur. The graph (below ) shows energy changes d urin g
uncatalysed and catalysed exothermic reactio ns.
The chemical environment provided by the act ive site fo r the
substrate causes changes w ithin the substrate mol ecu le,
w hich weake ns its bo nds. The substrate is changed into a
t ransiti on state, w hic h is different from the transition state
du ring the reactio n w hen an enzy me is not invo lved. The As the substrate binds,
transition state achieved during bi ndi ng to the active site has the conformation of the
less energy and thi s is how enzy mes are able to red uce the protein is altered and the
acti vatio n energy of reactio ns. shape of the active site
becomes complementary
Energy changes during a chemical reaction to that of the substrate

Activation

energy

w ith no

enzyme
Activation energy
w ith enzyme
c-,
on
iii
c:
UJ

-.- - - - - - -- - - ' } Net energy

released by
product the reaction
is not changed
Progress of reaction _ by the enzyme
Weakening of bonds in the
substrate helps the reaction
to occur, converting it into
the products. These
dissociate from the active
site and the enzyme
returns to its original
THE INDUCED FIT MODEL
Biochemi sts have inv estigated many enzy mes and fo und that
the lock and key model does not fu ll y explain the bindi ng of
pm~ conformation

the substrate to th e active site. Unti l the substrate bi nds, the

active site does not fit the substrate preci sely. As the substrate
approac hes the act ive site and binds to it, the shape of the
active site changes and only th en does it fit the substrate. The
substrate ind uces the acti ve site to change, weake ni ng bonds
in the substrate du ring the process and thu s reduci ng the
activat ion energy. The fi gure (right) shows the indu ced f it
model of enzy me activ ity.
Som e enzyme s can have quite broad specifici ty, for examp le
some protea ses. The induced fit model explai ns th is better
than the lock and key model - if the shape of an active site
alters wh en substrates bind , several di fferent but similar
substrates co uld easily bind successful ly to it.

Nucleic acids and proteins 69

Enzyme inhibition

Some chemica l substances reduc e the activ ity of enzy mes or even prevent it co mpletely . These substances are called enzy me
inhibitors. Some enzy me inhibi to rs are competiti ve and some are non-competiti ve. Figures below are a comparison of these
types of in hib itor , w ith an example of each.

Competitive inhibition Non-competitive inhibition

The substrate and in hibi tor are c hem ica lly The substrate and active site are not similar
very similar

The inhi bitor bind s to the active site of the enzyme The inhib itor binds to the enzy me at a different site from the
active site

Wh ile the inh ibitor occ upies the active site, it prevents the The inhib ito r changes the co nfor mat io n of the enzy me. The
substrate from bindin g and so the activ ity of the enzy me is substrate may still be able to bi nd, but the act ive site does
prevented until the inhibitor dissoci ates not catalyse the reaction, or cata lyses it at a slower rate

6 o/
Substrate Inhibitor Inhibitor With no inhibitor Inhibitor Substrate

)~t~~~ sti~e
the subst rate is bou nd the binds but
Substraty() co nverted to product e nzyme awa y / is not
at the act ive site from the con verted
OJ"
0;;:, ..
"'~ ~ ~;~,d
cannot

Enzyme CJ V altered.

w ith no
w ith no
inhibitor
inhibitor

with a non­
w ith a competitive competitive inhibitor
inhibit or

Substrate concentration ­ Su bstrate concentration ­

W it h a fixed low co ncentrat ion of inh ibito r, increases in
the substrate co ncentration gradually redu ce the effect of
the inhibitor .
The inhib ito r and substrate compete fo r the active site.
W hen the substrate bind s to the active site, the in hibitor
cannot bi nd, so the proportion of enzy me mo lecul es that
are inh ibited becom es less and less. W hen there are many
more substrate molecu les than in hibitor molecules, the
substrate always wi ns the competit ion and bind s to the
active site. The same maximum enzyme activity rate is
then reached as w hen there is no in hi bitor .
With a fi xed low concentration of in hib itor, increases in
substrate co ncentration increase enzy me activ ity. How ever,
the substrate and in hib itor are not co mpet ing for the same
site. The substrate cannot prevent the bindin g of the
inhibitor , even at very high substrate co ncentratio ns. Som e
of the enzy me molecules therefore remain inhi bited and the
maxi mum enzyme activi ty rate reached is lower than w hen
there is no inh ib itor

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
Succi nate Fumarate Nitric oxide synthasecatalyses this reaction:
coo- coo­ arginine )0 citrulli ne + nitric oxide
I I

CH 2 - - - - _. CH
Op ioids are chemicals that resem ble
I Succinate II Malonate morphine. They are inhib itors of nitric oxide
9H2 dehydrogenase CH
I coo­ synthase. They do not resemble arginine and
COO- COO- I bind to a different site on the enzyme, so
CH2 they are non-competitive inhibitors. Nitric
Succinate dehydrogenase I ox ide has many signallin g roles in human
is inhibited by malonate COO­
physiology.

70 Nucleic acids and proteins

Controlling metabolic pathways

METABOLIC PATHWAYS initia l Chains and cy cles of reactions

Metaboli c pathw ays have these features: substrate
• They co nsist of many chemi cal reactions that are carried substrate
out in a part ic ular sequence. 1

ed;.r:'>:
• A n enzyme catalyses each react io n. intermediate
• A ll the react ions occ ur inside cells. ;7 m ", cod pmd",\ "b",,"
• Som e pathways bu ild up organic compou nds (anabo lic
pathw ays) and some break them down (catabolic
1

intermediate
pathw ays).
intermediate intermediate
• Some metabolic pathways consist of chains of reactio ns.
1

G lyco lysis is an example of a chain of reactions - a chai n

of ten enzy me-contro lled reacti ons converts glu cose into
pyruvate.
intermediate

\
intermediate
J

intermediate

• Som e metabo li c pathways consist of cyc les of reaction s,

w here a substrate of the cycl e is cont inually regenerated intermediate
by the cycl e. The Krebs cycle is an examp le.
The figure (opposite) shows the general patte rn of reactions
in a chain and a cycl e.
1

end product
product

ALLOSTERY AND THE CONTROL OF

METABOLIC PATHWAYS
In many metabo lic pathways, the produ ct of the last End-product inhibit ion
reaction in the pathw ay inhi bits the enzy me that catalyses
the first reacti on . This is called end-pro duct inhibition . Substrate binds Substrate could Substrate is not likely
The enzyme that is inhi bited by the end prod ucts is an to the active site bind to the active to bind to the active
example of an allosteric enzyme . A llosteric enzymes have and is converted site as the allosteric site as the inhibitor
two non-overlapping binding sites. One of these is the to the product. site is empty. has bound to the
act ive site. The other is the allosteric site. allo steric site.
In this case the alloster ic site is a bind ing site for the end
product. W hen it binds, the struct ure of the enzyme is
altered so that the substrate is less likely to bind to the
act ive site. Th is is how the end-p roduct acts as an inhib itor.
Bindi ng of the in hibitor is reversible and if it detac hes, the
enzyme returns to its o rigina l co nfo rmatio n, so the active
site can bind the substrate easily again (right).

The advantage of this method of controll ing metabolic

COw wo •
,,

pathways is that if there is an excess of the end-pro duct the ,,

w hole pathw ay is switched off and intermediates do not buil d

up. Conversely, as the level of the end-product falls, mo re ·-· 0 - - ---.~ 0 -----. Q -- - ---~ 0
and more of the enzymes that catalyse the first reaction w ill The substrate of the first enzyme in the metabolic
start to wo rk and the w hole pathway wi ll becom e activated. pathway is converted by the pathway into an
End product inhib ition is an examp le of negative feedback inhibitor of the enzyme.
(see example below).
An exampl e of end pr odu ct inh ibition

CH3

I
H 0 c=o H o H

I
NH2-C-COOH
I
• C-COOH -
I
OH-C -COOH -
I
OH-C- COOH - -
I
C- COOH - NH2 - C- COOH
I
I threonine
dehydratase
I I I I I

H-CH-OH CH2 CH2 C- OH CH CH

I I I ~~ ~~
CH3 CH2
~~
CH3 CH2
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 f H2

threoni ne CH
I
CH3
I
CH3
3
isoleucine
i,() lp lir in p- i, th
~ . -- product
-- p- p_.nrJ ,­ of the pathway and inhibits threonine
. hydratase w hich catalyses the first step
del
,
,,
,-- - -- - - -- -- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - -- - - - -- - ---- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~

Nucleic acids and proteins 71

 EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 7

An enzyme experiment was conducted at three different temperatures. The graph shows the amount of substrate remaining
each minute after the enzyme was added to the substrate. W shows the results obtained at a temperature of 40°C.

0.45
M
I
E 0.4
u
0 0.35
S
c 0.3
0
•.j:i

~ 0.25
C
Q)
u 0.2
c
0
u 0.15
Q)

~
...0
0.1

(j')
:::::l 0.05
0
0
Time (min)

a) (i) Explain whether the temperature used for X was higher or lower than 40°C. [3]

(ii) Estimate the temperature that was used for Y. [2]

b) Draw a curve on the graph to show the expected results of repeating the experiment at 40°C with

(i) a fixed low concentration of non-competitive inhibitor. [1 ]

(ii) a fixed low concentration of competitive inhibitor. [2]

2 Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme found only in cells infected by certain viruses.

a) ) Distinguish between the 3' terminal and 5' terminal in a chain of nucleotides. [2]

b) Nucleic acids contain purines and pvrirnidines. Compare purines and pyrimidines. [3]

c) Distinguish between translation and transcription. [5]

3 The diagram below represents the structure of lysozyme, a

protein consisting of a single polypeptide, found in egg white.

a) State the name given to the shape of this type of protein. [1]

b) State what is meant by the primary structure of a protein. [1]

c) In the regions labelled X and Y two different types of

secondary structure are found.

(i) Identify each type of secondary structure: [2]

(ij) State the type of bonding that is used to stabilize

these structures. [1]

d) Explain the importance of the tertiary structure of this

protein to its function. [2]

72 18 Questions - Nucleic acids and proteins

8
Glycolysis

INTRODUCING GLYCOLYSIS
Cell respir ation in vol ves the produ cti on of ATP using energy Comparison of ox idation and reduction
released by the ox idatio n of glucose, fat or other substrates.
If glucose is the substrate, the first stage of cell respiration is Oxid ati on react ions Redu cti on reacti ons
a metaboli c pathway called glycolysis. The pathway is
Additi on of oxyge n Removal of oxyge n
catalysed by enzy mes in the cyto plasm. G lucose is partiall y
atom s to a substance. atoms from a substance.
ox id ized in th e pathw ay and a small amo unt of ATP is
produced . This partial oxi dat ion is achieved w itho ut the use Removal of hyd rogen Add itio n of hydr ogen
of oxyge n, so glycolysis can fo rm part of both aerob ic and ato ms from a substance. atoms to a substance.
anaerob ic respiration .
Loss of electro ns from Add itio n of elect rons
a substance. to a substance.

OXIDATION AND REDUCTION IN CEll

RESPIRATION
Cell respiration invol ves many ox idatio n and reduct ion Examples of ox idat io ns and reduct ion s in cell respir ation
reactions. The figure (top right) co mpares the ways in w hich
chemica l substances can be oxi di zed and redu ced.
Hyd rogen carriers accept hydrogen ato ms remove d from Fe3 + + electron ........ Fe2+

substrates in cell respiration . The most co mmo nly used

hydrogen carrier is NA D+ (nicotinamide adeni ne Fe2+ ........ Fe3 + + elect ron

d in ucl eot ide). Hydrogen atoms co nsist of one proton and one
electron. W hen tw o hydr ogen ato ms are removed from a succinate + FAD ........ fu marate + FADH
2
respiratory substrate, NAD+ accepts the electrons from both
ato ms and the proto n from one of them. malate + NAD+ ........ oxa loacetate + NAD H + H+

NA D+ + 2H ........ NA D H + H+
pyruvate + NA D H + H+ ........ lactate + NA D+

The fi gure (right) shows equations for some of the chemica l

changes that are part of cell respiratio n. It is possib le to use
the inf orm ation in the figure (to p ri ght) to deduce w hether
each of them is an ox idatio n, a redu cti on or both . Stages of glycolysis

hexose
CONVERTING GLUCOSE TO PYRUVATE (glucose)

~2 ATP
IN GLYCOLYSIS
There are fou r main stages in glyco lysis.
1. Tw o phosp hate groups are added to a mo lec ule of glucose
to form hexose biphosphate. Addin g a phosphate group is
Phosphory ''''0" 1"- 2 ADP

called phospho ry lation . Tw o mol ecu les of ATP provide

the phosphate groups. The energy level of the hexose is hexose
raised by phosphorylatio n and thi s makes the subsequent biphosphate
reacti ons possibl e.

2 . The hexose biphosphate is split to form two mol ecul es Lysis

of triose phosphate. Splitti ng mol ecul es is called lysis.

3. Tw o atoms of hydr ogen are removed from each triose

2 triose
phosphate mo lecul e. This is an oxidat ion. The energy
phosphate molecules
released by thi s ox idatio n is used to li nk o n another
phosphate group, pro duci ng a 3-carbon co mpound
car rying tw o phospha te groups. NA D+ is the hydr ogen
2 NAD+
carr ier that accepts the hydrogen ato ms.
Ox idation
2 NADH + W
4. Pyru vate is fo rmed by removin g the tw o phosphate gro ups
and by passing them to A DP. Th is results in Al P fo rmat io n.
4ADP
The fig ure (right) shows the main stages of glycolysis. ATP formation
4ATP

SUMMARY OF GLYCOLYSIS
• One glucose is co nverted into two py ruvates. 2 pyruvate
• Tw o ATP mol ecu les are used per glucose but four are molecules
produced so there is a net yield of tw o ATP mo lecu les.
• Tw o NAD +are co nverted into tw o NA D H + H+

Cell respiration and photosynthesis 73

Krebs cycle

ANAEROBIC AND AEROBIC

RESPIRATION
Glycolysis can occur without oxygen, so it forms the
basis of anaerobic cell respiration. Pyruvate
produced in glycolysis can only be oxidized further, no oxygen
with the release of more energy from it, if oxygen is
available (right). This occurs in the mitochondrion.
The first stage is called the link reaction. Enzymes in
the matrix of the mitochondrion then catalyse a
cycle of reactions called the Krebs cycle.

THE LINK REACTION Summa.ry of the link reaction

Pyruvate from glycolysis is absorbed by the
mitochondrion. Enzymes in the matrix of the
mitochondrion remove hydrogen and carbon
dioxide from the pyruvate. The hydrogen is accepted
by NAD+. Removal of hydrogen is oxidation.
Removal of carbon dioxide is decarboxylation. The

\
whole conversion is therefore oxidative
decarboxylation. The product of oxidative
decarboxylation of pyruvate is an acetyl group,
which is accepted by CoA (right).
CoA cq

THE KREBS CYCLE

In the first reaction of the cycle an Summary of the Krebs cycle
acetyl group is transferred from
acetyl CoA to a fou r-carbon
compound (oxaloacetate) to form a
six-carbon compound (citrate).
Citrate is converted back into
oxaloacetate in the other reactions of acetyl CoA CoA
the cycle. Three types of reaction are
involved.
• Carbon dioxide is removed in two
of the reactions. These reactions
are decarboxylations. The carbon oxoaloacetate
dioxide is a waste product and is (C4 )
excreted together with the carbon
dioxide from the link reaction.
• Hydrogen is removed in four NADH + H+
~NADH
of the reactions. These reactions
+ H+
are oxidations. In three of the
oxidations the hydrogen is
accepted by NAD+. In the other
oxidation FAD accepts it. These
oxidation reactions release energy,
much of which is stored by the
carriers when they accept
FAD
hydrogen. Th is energy is later

released by the electron transport

ATP NADH + H+
chai n and used to make ATP.
ADP
• ATP is produced directly in one of
the reactions.
Th is reaction is substrate-level
phosphorylation.
The figure (right) is a summary of the
Krebs cycle.

74 Cell respiration and photosynthesis

Oxidative phosphorylation

THEELECTRONTRANSPORTCH~N THE ROLE OF OXYGEN

The elect ron transport chain is a series of electro n carriers,
located in the in ner membrane of the mitocho ndrion. NAD H
suppl ies tw o electro ns to the f irst carr ier in the chain. The
elec tro ns come from ox id ation reactio ns in earl ier stages of
ce ll respir ation . The tw o elect rons pass alo ng the chain of
carriers beca use th ey give up energy each tim e they pass
from one car rier to the next. At thr ee points alo ng the chain
eno ugh energy is give n up for ATP to be made by ATP
synthase. As this ATP produ cti on relies on energy released by
oxidatio n it is called oxidative phosphor ylation. ATP synthase
is also located in the inn er m itochond rial memb rane.
FADH 2 also feeds elect ro ns into the electron transpo rt chai n,
but at a slight ly later stage than NADH and at only two stages
is sufficie nt energy released for ATP productio n by electrons
from FADH 2 .
At the end of the electron transport chain the electrons are
given to oxyge n. At the same time oxyge n acce pts hydrogen
ion s, to for m wa ter. Thi s happens in the matri x, on the surface
of th e inner memb rane. Th is is the only stage at w hich oxyge n
is used in cell respiration. If oxy gen is not availab le, electro n
flow alon g the electron transport chain sto ps and NADH + H+
cannot be recon verted to NA D+. Suppl ies of NAD+ in the
mit ochondri on run o ut and the link reactio n and Krebs cyc le
canno t co ntinue . G lycolysis can continue beca use conversion
of pyruvate into lactate or ethano l and carbon di oxide
produces as mu ch NA D+ as is used in glycolysis. How ever,
w hereas aerobic cell respiration gives a yield of abo ut 30 ATP
mo lecules per glucose, glycolysis produces o nl y tw o . Oxygen
thus greatly in creases the ATP yie ld.
The f igure (below) shows the electro n transpo rt chai n and the
role of oxygen as the termin al electro n accep to r.

The electron transport chain of mito chondria

t 0 2 + 2H+ H2 0

lr
NADH
matrix of H+
mitochrondri on

,,

{
~
inner

mitochondrial

membane

\" 1---- ­
2.- ---------­

: ,

,, ,,
space between ! t ,,
inner and outer
membranes
H+
y
,,
y
~
H+ H+

THE COUPLING OF ELECTRON Structure of ATP synthase

TRANSPORT TO ATP SYNTHESIS
Energy released as electrons pass alo ng the ADP is phosphorylated to ATP
electron transport chain is used to pum p at three identical active sites.
proto ns (H+) across the inn er mi toc ho ndria l
membrane into the space betw een the inn er
~T P
and outer membranes. A co nce ntrat ion ADP+ U
grad ient is fo rmed, w hic h is a sto re of
potential energy. AT P synt hase, located These parts
in the inn er mi tochon dr ial memb rane, of ATP
transports the proto ns bac k across the synthaseare
membrane down the co nce ntrat io n gradient. in a fix ed
As the proto ns pass across the membrane they H+ movement position.
release energy and thi s is used by ATP across the
synthase to produce ATP. The co upling of membrane
causes this
ATP synthesis to electro n tr ansport via a
part of ATP

~~~~ ] inner
co ncentration grad ient of proton s is call ed synthase to
chemi osmosis. rotate. This
The figure (right) shows some features of ATP rotation '- .. . lill l \1 mitochondrial
synth ase. drives ATP JIL __ LA ~ ~~ membrane
production.

Cell respiration and photosynthesis 75

Mitochondria

The mitocho ndr io n is an exce llent exam p le of the relation ship betwee n structure and funct ion .
The fi gure (below) is an electron m icro grap h of a w ho le mitoch ond rio n.
T he fi gure (bottom) is a draw ing of the same mitocho ndri on, labell ed to show how it is adapted to carr y out its fu nction.

Outer mitochondrial membrane Matrix

Separates the contents of the mitochondrion from Fluid inside the mitochondr ian
the rest of the cell, creating a comp artment wit h containing enzymes for the Krebs
ideal conditions for aerobic respi ration. cycl e and the link reaction .

70S ribosomes and a

naked loop of D NA are
present in the matrix.

1- 2 urn Space between inner and

outer membranes
Protons are pumped into
this space by the electron
transport chain. Because
the space is very small, a
high proton concentration
can easily be formed in
chemiosmosis.

Cristae

Inner mitochondrial membr ane

Tubular or shelf-like proj ections of
Contains electron transport chains
the inner membrane w hich
and ATP synthase, w hich carry out
increase the surface area available
oxidative phosphorylatio n.
for oxidat ive phosphorylation .

76 Cell respiration and photosynthesis

Light and photosynthesis

::' ~otosynthesis is the process that plants, algae 100 Action spectrum of photosynthesis
-=-ld some bacteria use to produce all of the CJ)

=~5anic compounds that they need. CJ)

C!)

~10tosynthesis involves many chemical reactions.

-5 80
c
~Jme of them need a continual supply of light >­
(5
~ld so are called light-dependent reactions. ] 60
Q..

Jther reactions need light ind irectly, but can

C

.arrv on for some time in darkness. These are

:::alled light-independent reactions. ~ 40
C[ucose, arnino acids and other organic '0
C!)
compounds are produced in the light independent :g 20
~eactions. The Iight-dependent reactions produce :::::::
o
intermediate compounds that are used in the
light-independent reactions. In darkness these o+1---...,--...,.----,---------,-------,.---,.--...,.----­
intermediate compounds are gradually used up. 6r~~ 6r~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~<J ~~<J 1\)\) 1~\)
Wavelength of Iightlnm

THE ACTION SPECTRUM 100 Absorption spectrum of chlorophylls a and b

OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A spectrum is a range of wavelengths of I
I

electromagnetic radiation. The spectrum of Iight is 80 I

I
KEY
the range of wavelengths from 400 nm to 700 nm. , chlorophyll a
Each wavelength is a pure colour of light:
,,
1: chlorophyll b
400-525 violet-bl ue .~ ,,
,
525-625 green-yellow '0 60 ,
625-700 orange-red c ,,
.Q ,,
The efficiency of photosynthesis is not the same Q.. ,,
in all wavelengths of Iight. The efficiency is the
o
.DCiJ 40 I
I

percentage of Iight of a wavelength that is used I

:::::::
o I

in photosynthesis. The figure (top right) is a graph I

I
showi ng the percentage use of the wavelengths of I
I

light in photosynthesis. This graph is called the 20 I

I

,,
I

action spectrum of photosynthesis. The graph

shows that violet and bl ue Iight are used most
efficiently and red Iight is also used efficiently. o I ---

Green light is used much less efficiently. 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
Wavelength of Iightlnm

THE ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF Action and absorption spectra of an alga

PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS Some algae contain large amounts of accessory pigments. For example,
The action spectrurn of photosynthesis is kelp (Laminaria saccharina) contains carotene and fucoxanthin in
explained by considering the light-absorbing addition to chlorophylls and so can absorb and use all wavelengths
properties of the photosynthetic pigments. Most of light with about the sarne efficiency in photosynthesis. The graph
pigments absorb some wavelengths better than below shows the action and absorption spectra for kelp. The colour of
others. The figure (centre right) shows the kelp can be deduced from the data.
percentage of the wavelengths of visible light that
are absorbed by two common forms of
ch lorophyll. Th is graph is cal led the absorption
100
spectrum of these pigments. The graph shows
strong simil arities with the action spectru m for -_ -.:.: . _ ....
1: 80 ,, , ~

photosynthesi s. .~ ,_ .... ' /\',

• The greatest absorption is in the violet-blue
..... , ,
'0 ,,
range.
C!)
,,
:g 60 ,,
• There is a also a high level of absorption in the v
c ,,
red range of the spectrum. (1j
,,
c
• There is least absorption in the yellow-green o ,,
range of the spectru m. Most of th is Iight is
'R. 40 KEY ,,
reflected.
o action spectrum ,,
.D
(1j
,,
There are some differences between the action absorption spectrum ,
~ 20
spectrum and the absorption spectra. Whereas
little light is absorbed by chlorophylls in the green
to yellow range there is sorne photosynthesis. O--'-'----,--------r----,-----.....,.--------,---------,.----.,.---------,
This is due to accessory pigments, including 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
xanthophylls and carotene, which absorb Wavelength of lightJnm
wavelengths that chlorophyll cannot.

Cell respiration and photosynthesis 77

Light-dependent reactions
LIGHT ABSORPTION
Chlo rophyll absorbs li ght and the energy from the light raises
an electron in the chlo rophyll mo lecu le to a higher energy
level. The electron at a higher energy level is an excited
electron and the chlo rophyll is phot oacti vated. In single
ch loroph yll mo lecu les the exci ted electron soon drop s back
down to its original level, re-emitt ing the energy. Chlorophyll
is located in thylakoid membranes and is arranged in groups
of hundreds of molecules, called phot osystems. There are
two types of photosystem - photosystems I and II. Excit ed
electrons from absorptio n of photons of light anyw here in the
photosystem are passed from mol ecul e to mol ecul e until they
reach a specia l chlo rophyll mo lecul e at the reaction centre of
the photosystem. Thi s chlo rophyll passes the exc ited electro n
to a chain of electron carriers.
ADP ATP Light-dependent reacti ons in t he th ylakoid
W NADP+ NADPH
stroma
thylakoid
space
1 -
.---- -­ - -----[lTrrrl
photosystem II
PRODUCTION OF NADP
After releasing the energy needed to make ATP, the electro n
th at was given away by photosystem /I is accepted by
photosystem I. The electron replaces one previously given
away by photosystem I. W ith its electron repl aced,
photosystem I can be photoact ivated by absorbing light and
then give away anot her exc ited electron. Th is high-energy
electro n passes alo ng a short c hain of carriers to NAD P+ in
the stro ma. NADP+ accepts two high-energy electrons fro m
the electron transport chain and one H+ ion from the stroma,
to fo rm NADP H.
78 Cell respiration and photosynthes is
PRODUCTION OF ATP
An exci ted electron fro m the reacti on centre of photosystem II
is passed along a chain of carriers in the thyl akoi d membrane
(below) . It gives up some of its energy each tim e that it passes
fro m one carrier to the next. At one stage, enough energy is
released to make a mol ecul e of ATP. The co up ling of electron
transport to ATP synthesis is by c hemiosmosis, as in the
mit ochondri on . Electron flow causes a proton to be pump ed
across the thylakoid membr ane into the fluid space inside the
thyl akoid . A proton gradient is created. ATP synth ase, located
in the thylakoid membr anes, lets the proton s across the
membrane down the co ncentratio n gradie nt and uses the
energy released to synth esize ATP.
The produ ction of ATP using the energy from an exci ted
electro n from Photosystem /I is cal led non- cycli c
phot ophosphorylati on. An alternative method of
pho tophospho rylation is show n on page 81.
photosystem I
A
-t-- - thylakoid
membrane
2W
part of
adjacent
thylakoid
PRODUCTION OF OXYGEN
Photosystem /I needs to replace the exci ted electro ns th at it
gives away. The special chloro phyll mo lecu le at the react io n
centre is positively charged after giv ing away an electron.
W ith the help of an enzy me at the reaction centre, water
mo lecul es in the thylakoid space are split and electrons from
them are given to c hloro phyll. Oxyge n and H+ io ns are
form ed as by-produ cts. The splitting of water mol ecu les only
happens in the li ght, so is called phot ol ysis. The oxygen
produ ced in photosynthesis is all the result of photol ysis of
water. Oxyge n is a waste produ ct and is excreted.
Light-independent reactions

THE CALVIN CYCLE CARBON FIXATION

The light-independent reacti ons take place w ithin the stroma
of the chloro plast. The f irst react ion invol ves a fi ve-carbo n
sugar, ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). RuBP is also a pro duct
of the light ind ependent reacti on s, w hich therefore for m a
cyc le, called the Calvin cycle . There are many alternative
names for the intermed iate co mpo unds in the Calvin cycle .
Gl ycerate 3-phosphate is somet imes also called
3-phosphoglyce rate. G lycerate 3-phosphate is sometimes
abbreviated as GP, w hic h co uld be confused with
glyce raldehyde 3-phosphate, w hic h is a fo rm of tri ose
phosphate or w ith glucose phosphate. The abb reviatio n GP
should the refore be avoi ded!
Carbon d ioxid e is an essential substrate in the light-independent
reactio ns. It enters the chloroplast by diffusion. In the stroma of
the chlorop last carbon dioxide combines w ith ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP), a five-carbon sugar, in a carboxy lation
reaction. The reaction is catalysed by the enzyme ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase, usually called rubi sco. Large
amou nts of rubisco are present in the stroma, because it wo rks
rather slowly and the reaction that it catalyses is a very
important one. The product of the reaction is a six-carbon
compound, w hich im mediately splits to form two molecules
of glycerate 3-phosphate. This is therefore the first produ ct of
carbon fixation.

Summar y of t he Calvin cycle

ribulose CO 2
bisphosphate
CXf:XX) o
ADP+P

ATP

glycerate
3-phosphate
CD:) CD:)
% of triose 2ATP
phosphate used
to regenerate
RuBP

triose
phosphate
2NADPH
CfX) CD:)
2NADP+
J.e of triose phosphate
6used to produce
glucose phosphate

Glucose

phosphate

Cf:DCfX)

REGENERATION OF RUBP SYNTHESIS OF CARBOHYDRATE

For carbo n fixatio n to co ntinue, one RuBP mo lecul e must be Glyce rate 3-phosphate, formed in the carbon fixation reaction ,
pro duced to replace each one that is used . Triose phosphate is an organic acid. It is co nverted into a carbohyd rate by a
is used to regenerate RuBP. Five mo lecu les of tri ose reduction reaction . Hydrogen is needed to carry out th is
phosphate are co nverted by a series of reacti ons into three reaction and is supp lied by NAD PH . Energy is also needed
molecul es of RuBP. Thi s process requires the use of energy in and is supplie d by ATP.
the form of ATP. The reacti on s can be summarized using NA D PH and ATP are produ ced in the li ght-d ependent
eq uatio ns w here o nly the numb er of carbo n atoms in each reactio ns of photosynth esis. G lycerate 3-p hosphate is reduced
sugar mo lecul e is show n. to a three-carbo n sugar, tri ose phosphate (TP). Linki ng
together tw o tr iose phosphate molecul es together pro duces
C3 + C3 ~
C6 glucose phosphate. Starch, the storage for m of carbo hydrate
C6 + C3 ~ C4 + c,
in plants, is for med in the stroma by co ndensation of many
C4 + C3 ~ C7
mo lecules of glucose phosphate.
C7 + C3 ~ Cs + Cs

For every six mo lecu les of tr iose phosphate for med in the
light- independent reactions, f ive must be co nverted to RuBP.

Cell respiration and photosynthesis 79

Chloroplasts

The chlo roplast is another example of cl ose relationship betw een struct ure and function . The figure (below) is an electron mi crograph
of a chloroplast. The figure (bottom) is a drawing of the same chloroplast, labelled to show how it is adapted to carry out its functi on.

Structure of a chloroplast

granum

stroma co ntaini ng
70S ribsomes and
naked DNA

inner outer
membrane membrane

chloroplast starch lipi d

envelope grain dropl et

80 Cell respiration and photosynthesis

Limiting factors in photosynthesis

THE CONCEPT OF LIMITING FACTORS

Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature are three factors that can determine the rate of photosynthesis.

If the level of one of these factors is changed, the rate of photosynthesis changes. Usually, only changes to one of the factors

will affect the rate of photosynthesis in a plant at a particular time. This is the factor that is nearest to its minimum and is called

the limiting factor. Changing the limiting factor increases or decreases the rate, but changes to the other factors have no effect.

This is because photosynthesis is a complex process involving many steps. The overall rate of photosynthesis in a plant is

determined by the rate of whichever step is proceeding most slowly at a particular time, This is called the rate-limiting step.

The three limiting factors affect different rate-limiting steps.

The figures on page 21 show the relationship between each of the limiting factors and the rate of photosynthesis.

THE EFFECT OF LIGHT INTENSITY
At low light intensities, there is a
shortage of the products of the Iight­
dependent reactions - NADPH and
ATP. The rate-limiting step in the
Calvin cycle is the point where
glycerate 3-phosphate is reduced.
At high Iight intensities some other
factor is limiting.
Unless a plant is heavily shaded, or the
sun is risi ng or seUing, light intensity is
not usually the lim iti ng factor.
THE EFFECT OF CO2 THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
CONCENTRATION At low temperatures, all of the
At low and medium CO 2 concentrations, enzymes that catalyse the reactions of
the rate-limiting step in the Calvin cycle the Calvin cycle work slowly. NADPH
is the poi nt where CO 2 is fixed to accumulates.
produce glycerate 3-phosphate. RuBP At intermediate temperatures, some
and NADPH accumulate. other factor is limiting.
At high CO 2 concentrations some other At high temperatures, RuBP
factor is limiting. carboxylase does not work effectively,
Because the level of carbon dioxide so the rate-limiting step in the Calvin
in the atmosphere is never very high, cycle is the point where CO 2 is fixed.
carbon dioxide concentration is often NADPH accumulates.
the limiting factor.

Results of an investigation into limiting factors

500

The figure (right) shows the effects of

CJ)
+-'
light intensity on the rate of photo­ 'c

::J

synthesis at two different temperatures >-- 400

and two carbon dioxide concentrations. g

It is possible to deduce which is the .:.0

~
limiting factor at the point marked with 'V5 300

an arrow (CD - 8)) on each curve.

'Vi

CJ.)
..c
,; ,; ,; ,; ,; . "1- ..---------------.----­
C
~
>-­
0 200 /"'"
'0
KEY ..c , ~::,..o"o"oxoxoxoxoxoxoxo~xoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxoxo
0...
30 DC and 0.15% CO 2
'0 '~o+
~
20 DC and 0.15% CO 2 CJ.) 100 4
~
x x x x x 30 DC and 0.035% CO 2
~

o 0 0 0 0 20 DC and 0.035% CO 2
0' i i i i I i I i i I i

o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Light intensity/arbitrary units

Summary of cyclic photophosphorylation CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

When light is not the limiting factor, NADPH tends to
accumulate in the stroma and there is a shortage of NADP+.
The normal flow of electrons in the thylakoid membranes is
inhibited because NADP+ is needed as a final acceptor of
electrons. An alternative route can be used that allows ATP
production when NADP+ is not available.
This pathway is called cyclic photophosphorylation.
excited electrons • Photosystem I absorbs Iight and is photoactivated.
• Excited electrons are passed from photosystem I to a carrier
Photosystem Photosystem in the chai n between photosystem II and photosystem I.
~

II j r ' \ATP I • The electrons pass along the chain of carriers back to
./ ADP photosystem I.
• As the electrons flow along the chain of carriers they cause
pumping of protons across the thylakoid membrane.
• A proton gradient is formed and this allows production of
ATP by ATP synthase.
The figure (left) shows the pathway used in cyclic
photophosphoryl ation.

Cell respiration and photosynthesis 81

EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 8

The electro n mi crograph below shows part of a pl ant root cell , includ ing mitochondri a.

[Source: Dr S, E. Jun iper, Dept. of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford]

a) Exp lain brief ly two featu res that allow the mitochondria in the micrograph to be identified. [2 ]

b) Redr aw the structure of th e mitocho ndr ion marked X. [2 ]

c) Ann ot ate th e m icrograph (not your draw ing) to show one exam ple of

(i) a region w here th e Krebs cycle takes p lace

(ii) a lo cation of ATP synthetase

(iii) a region w here glyco lysis takes p lace. [3J

2 a) Dr aw a cur ve of the act io n spectrum for photo synthes is on th e ax is below. [2]

400 500 600 700

vio let blue green yellow orange red

Wavelength/ nm

b) Expl ain th e rel ation shi p b etw een the action spectrum and th e absorptio n spectra of photosyn th eti c pigme nts.

3 a) State tw o processes that invol ve chem iosmosis. [2j

b) Explain the need for a mem brane in chem iosmos is. [3]

c) Suggest a locatio n w here c hemiosmosis cou ld occ ur in prokaryotes. [1]

82 18 Questions ­ Cell respiration and photosynthesis

9 L _._~--- ­
...

Leaf structure and function

LEAVES AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The funct ion of leaves is to produce food for the plant by
photo synthesis. The leaf is adapted by its structure to carry out
photosynthesis eff icie ntly . O n page 5 is a scanni ng electron
micro graph of a leaf. The figure (below) is a plan d iagram of
tissues in part of a leaf of a dicoty ledonous plant to show the
adaptations for photosynthesis.
LEAVES AND TRANSPIRATION
Photosynt hesis depend s on gas exc hange ove r a moi st surface.
Spo ngy mesophyll cell wa lls provid e this surface. Water often
evaporates fro m the surface and is lost, in a pro cess called
transpirat io n. Transpiration is the 10 55 of water vapour from
the leaves and stems of p lants. The fi gure (below) shows
adaptat ions to minimize the amo unt of transpiratio n.

Tissues of the leaf and th eir fun cti ons

Palisade mesophyll - consists of densely packed
cylindrical cells wi th many chloroplasts. This is
the main photosynthetic tissue and is positioned
near the upper surface w here the light intensity
is highest
Upper epidermis- a continuous layer of cells covered by a
thick waxy cuticle. Prevents water loss from the upper surface
even w hen heated by sunlight. Lower epidermis in a coo ler
position has a thinner waxy cuticle

The main part of

the leaf is the leaf
' ..~ '~'"
i,'."
:,\--,::.' .. ::;./-.
.;-
· .."
= =
= J­
".
blade or lamina. ! ;-: ~'-'; ::-:- <:\:~::~ -~~
. ~"
Xylem- brings water ~
It has a large to replace losses due
surface area to to transpiration
absorb sunlight
but is very
thin- only about
-< ~ Phloem- transports
'>­
products of
0 .3 mm. It is
composed of four photosynthesis out
of the leaf.

~
thin tissue layers
w ith veins at Vein is centrally
intervals. ...... r>, positio ned to be
ctu ­ ~ close to all cells.

Spongy mesophyll - consists of loosely Stoma- a pore that Guard cells-this pair of cells
packed rounded cells wit h few allows CO 2 for can open or close the stoma
chloroplasts. This tissue provides the photosynthesis to and so control the amount of
main gas exchange surface so must be diffuse in and O 2 to transpiration.
near the stomata in the lower epidermis. diffuse out.

FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION TRANSPIRATION IN XEROPHYTES

Plants lose wa ter vapour from their stems and leaves by Plants that are adapted to grow in very dry habit ats are calle d
transpiration . The rate of wat er loss varies depend ing on xerophytes. Cereus giganteus, the saguaro or giant cactus, is
internal and external conditions. The main internal co nd ition an example of a xerophyte. lt grows in deserts in M exico and
is w hether the stomata are ope n or closed. The plant hormone Arizon a and shows many xero phyt ic adaptatio ns, w hic h help
absci sic acid causes guard cells to cl ose the sto mata. Plants to reduce transpiration .
produ ce abscisic acid w hen they are sufferin g water stress.
External variab les are called abiotic fact or s - four of these Vertical stems
have an effect on the rate of transpiration. to absorb sunlight
• Light - guard cells close the sto mata in darkn ess, so early and late in Very thick waxy
transpirati on is much greater in the lig ht. the day but not at 11\\11', , cuticle covering
• Temperature - heat is needed for evaporatio n of wa ter from midday when light the stem.
the surface of spongy mesophyll ce lls, so as temp erature is most intense.
rises the rate of transpiratio n rises. H igher temperatures also
increase the rate of diffusion throu gh the air spaces in the
spongy mesop hyl l, and reduce the relative humidity of the
air outside the leaf.
• Hum idi ty - wa ter diffu ses out of the leaf w hen there is a
co ncentrat io n gradie nt betwe en the air spaces inside the Spines instead of
leaf and the ai r outside. The air spaces are alwa ys nearly leaves to reduce
CAM physiology, the surface area
saturated . The lower the hum idity o utside the leaf, the
w hich involves for transpiration.
steeper the gradient and therefore the faster the rate of
transpiration . opening stomata
• Wind - pockets of air saturated w ith water vapo ur tend to during the cool
nights instead of in
form near sto mata in still air, w hic h reduce the rate of
the intense heat of
transpiration. W ind blows the satu rated air away and so
the day.
increases the rate of transpiration .

Plant science 83
Transport and support
MINERAL UPTAKE BY ROOTS Structure of xylem vessels
Roots absorb wate r and min eral io ns from the soil. No plasma
Plants increase the surface area fo r absorpt ion by branching Helical or
membranes
ring-shaped
of roots and the grow th of root hai rs. are present in - - --R-7
thickenings of
Plants absorb potassium, phosphate, nitrate and other mineral mature xylem
the cell ulose
io ns from the soil. The co ncentratio n of these ions in the soil vesse ls, so
cell wall are
is usuall y muc h low er than inside root cells, so they are water can
impregnated
absorbed by active transport. Root hai r cells have move in and
wi th lignin. This
out freely
mitocho ndri a and protei n pumps in their plasma membranes. makes them hard,
M ost roots o nly absorb mineral ions if they have a supply of so that they can
oxyg en, because they produce ATP for act ive transport , by resist inward
aerobic ce ll respiratio n. pressures
The rate of absorptio n of mineral ions is someti mes limi ted by Lumen of the
the rate at w hic h the ions move th rou gh the soil to the root. xylem vessel is
There are three w ays in w hich ions can move: filled wi th sap, Pores in the
• d iffusio n of mi neral ions as the cytoplasm outer cell ulose
• mass f low of w ater carrying io ns, w hen water drain s
and the nuclei cell wall
through the soiI
of the original conduct water
• into fungal hyphae, that grow around plant roots in a
cells break down . out of the xylem
End walls also vessel and
mutuali stic relatio nship, and then from the hyphae to

break dow n to into cell walls

the roots.

form a continuous of adjacent

tube leaf cells
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF STEMS
Stems co nnect the leaves, roots and f low ers of pl ants and WATER TRANSPORT THROUGH PLANTS
transport materials betw een them using xy lem and phloem Xylem vessels co ntain long unb roken co lumns of w ater.
tissue. Stems support the aerial parts of terrestrial plants. W hen transpiratio n is occ urri ng, w ater moves upw ards from
Support is provided in several w ays. t he roots to the leaves. Thi s f low is ca lled the transpiration
• Cell s absorb w ater and high pressure develops inside the
stream .
cell. This is cell turgor and it makes the cell almost rigid .

• Some cells develo p thickened cell ulose wa lls, w hic h

The fi gure (above) shows the struct ure of a xy lem vessel.
strengthen the plant.
M ature xy lem vessels are dead and the f low of wa ter thro ugh
• Cell wa lls in xy lem ti ssue are both thic kened and lign if ied
them is passive. Heat from the env iro nment provides energy
making them very strong (above right). Xylem provides
for evaporation of wa ter fro m the cell wa lls of spongy
support especia lly in wo ody stems.
mesoph yll ce lls in the leaf. The water that evapo rates is
The f igure (below) is a plan d iagram to show the positi on of rep laced w ith wate r from xy lem vessels in the leaf. The w ater
the tissues in the stem of a young d icoty ledonous plant. is pulled out of xylem vessels and through po res in spongy
mesophyll cell wa lls by capill ary action. Low pressure o r
sucti on is created inside xy lem vessels w hen wa ter is pull ed
Tran sverse section of a stem out. This is called the transpiration pull. The suctio n extends
- xylem } vascular down th rou gh the co lumns of water in xyl em vessels to the
cambium bundle roots. These co lumns of wa ter do not usuall y break because
phloem of the cohesion of wa ter molecules. W ater mo lecules are
co hesive d ue the hydrogen bonds betwee n them.
epidermis
A nother process that can help w ater to move up in xy lem
vessels is the adhesion of wa ter to the wa ll of the vessel. This
is particularl y im port ant w hen sap starts to rise, in xy lem
cortex
"tl"" vessels of plants that w ere leafl ess throug h the w inter. In these
plants, xy lem vessels are empty in w inter and refi ll in spring.

, ,
c:Y ,
,,
Ad hesio n also helps prevent the co lumn of wa ter in wa ter­
f illed xy lem vessels from breaki ng.
,,

CD CJP, TRANSPORT IN PHLOEM

.. 9/
-:
Sugars and amino acids are transport ed inside plants by
phl oem ti ssue. This process is ca lled active translocation
because phloem cells have to use energy to make it happen.
Sugars and amino aci ds are load ed into the phloe m in parts of
the plant call ed sources and are transloc ated to sinks, w here
LX··.,Q... they are un loaded . Exampl es of sources are parts of the plant
w here photo synthesis is occ urri ng (stems and leaves) and
sto rage organs w here the stores are bei ng mobilized .
Examples of sinks are roots, growing fruits and the developi ng
seeds inside them .

84 Plant science
Reproduction of flowering plants

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF FLOWERS FACTORS NEEDED FOR SEED GERMINATION

Flow ers are the struct ures used by flowerin g plants fo r sexual Seeds w ill not germinate unless external conditions are
reprod ucti on. Female gametes are co ntai ned in ovules in th e suitable.
ova ries of the f low er. Pollen grains, produced by the anthers, • W ater must be available to rehydr ate the dry tissues of

co ntain the male gametes. A zygo te is formed by the fusion the seed.

of a male gamete w ith a female gamete inside the ov ule. • Oxyg en must be availa ble for aerobic cell respiratio n. Som e
This process is calle d fertilization . seeds respire anaero bica lly if oxyge n is not available but
Before fertil izatio n, another process called pollination must ethano l produ ced in anaerobic respiration usually reaches
occ ur . Pollin ation is the transfer of po llen from an anther to toxi c levels.
a stigma. Po llen grains co ntaining male gametes cannot mov e • Suitabl e temp eratures are needed . Germinatio n invo lves
w ithout help from an external agent. M ost pl ants use eit her enzy me act iv ity and at very low and very high temperatures
w ind or an animal fo r po llin ation . The structur e of a flower enzy me activity is too slow. Som e seeds remain dormant if
is adapted to its method of pollin ation . The figure (below) temperatures are above or below partic ular levels, so that
shows the st ructure of a flowe r of Lamium alb um, wh ich is they o nly germinate du ring favour able tim es of the year.
adapted to bee po lli natio n. The figure (below ) show s the struct ure of a seedling of
Pollen grains germinate on the stigma of the flower and a Phaseo/us m u/tif/or us, abo ut 2 weeks after the start of
pollen tub e contai ning the male gametes grows down the germination.
sty le to the ova ry. The pollen tub e delivers the male gametes
Structure of a seedling of Phaseo/us multiflorus
to an ov ule, w hic h they ferti lize.
first fol iage bend in the stem
Fertilized ov ules develop into seeds. The figure (bottom)
leaves are / protects the leaves as
shows the structure of a seed of Phaseolu s multifl orus. about to open ~ the shoot pushes up
Ova ries co ntaining fertil ized ov ules develop into fruits. through soiI
The fun ct ion of the fruit is seed di spersal.
cotyledons
provide energy stem between the
Structure of Lamium a/bum flower
and nutrients
- ! - cotyledons and the
for germination
first foliage leaves
anther has grow n

filament
seed coat split
w hen the seed
absorbed water
and swelled

branches of the
style main root increase
the surface area
for absorption
main root growing
down wards into soil
ovaries

Structure of a seed of Phaseo/us multif/orus METABOLIC EVENTS DURING GERMINATION

• The first stage in germination is the absorptio n of wa ter and
External structure the rehydr ation of living cells in th e seed . Th is allows the
cells to becom e metabo licall y active.
seed coat
(testa) • Soon after absorbing w ater, a plant grow th hormone called
gibberell in is produ ced in the coty ledons of the seed.
• G ibberellin stimulates the pro duct io n of amy lase, w hi ch
scar where catalyses th e di gestio n of starch into maltose in the foo d
seed was stores of the seed .
attached to
the ovary • M altose is transported f rom the food stores to the growt h
regio ns of the seed ling, including the emb ryo root and the
Internal structure I embr yo shoot.
• M alto se is co nverted into glucose, w hic h is either used in
({~a. ~" Jl\ embryo shoot aerobic cell respiratio n as a source of energy, or is used to
embryo root
(plumule) synthesize cell ulose or other substances needed for grow t h.
(radic le)
As soon as the leaves of the seed ling have reached li ght and
have opened, photosynthesis can supply the seedli ng w ith
cotyledon ­
one of two food s and the food sto res of the seed are no longer needed.
seed coat in the seed

Plant science 85
Diversity in plant structure

MONOCOTYLEDONS AND DICOTYLEDONS MODIFIED ROOTS , STEMS AND LEAVES

Flowering plants are d iv ided into two groups, acco rd ing to The normal fun cti ons of the roots, stems and leaves of plants
the num ber of leaves that the emb ryo pl ant has, in side the have been descri bed on the previo us pages. In some plants,
seed. M onocoty ledon s have o ne coty ledo n (seed leaf) these organs have becom e modi fi ed fo r other functi on s.
w hereas di cotyl edons have tw o. There are other di fferences:
1. Bulbs
In some monocotyledon plants, leaf bases grow to fo rm an
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons und erground o rgan ca lled a bulb (below) .
Leaf veins run parallel to each Leaf vei ns fo rm a net-li ke Plants use bu lbs for food storage. They can be ident if ied from
othe r pattern the series of leaf bases fi tt ing inside each ot her, w ith a central
shoot apica l meristem.
Vascu lar bund les are spread Vascul ar bund les are in a rin g
thr ough the stem random ly near the outside of the stem small new bulb, fleshy leaves
developed from an '\~~----:';;7 used for food
Stamens and ot her organs in Stamens and other fl oral axillary bud that wil l storage
eventually separate
the flo w er are in multip les o rgans are in mu ltiples of 4 and form a new plant.
of 3 or 5
Unbranched roots grow from Roots branch off from other
stems roots terminal bud
rttI7.rIHh'l+- - from which
Exampl es of plants in each group are shown in the figures leaves grow
stem ofbu lb -----,~~~_- roots
(below) .

2. Stem tubers
In so me di coty ledon plants, stems grow down w ards into the
soil and sectio ns of them grow into stem tubers (below) . They
are used for food storage. They can be identified as stems
because despite being swo llen their vascular bund les are
arranged in a ring.

Leaves produce food by

photosynthesis.

Phloem in stems transports

food to storage organs.

parallel
leaf
veins Tuber grows and stores food.

Tradescantia pallida
3. Storage roots
Some roots beco me swo llen w ith sto res of foo d (below) . They
can easily be identified from their shape and from vascular
tissue being in the centre.

~iW~!j~~/'l,g;r-- branching
leaf veins

Sweet Pea
Carrot

4. Tendrils
Caltharanthus roseus Tendrils are narrow outgrow ths fro m leaves that rotate
through the air until they to uch a solid support, to w hic h they
attac h, allowing the plant to climb upw ards (above).

86 Plant science
Growth and development in plants
APICAL AND LATERAL MERISTEMS
Plants have regio ns w here ce lls co nt inue to divid e and grow,
ofte n thro ughout the life of th e plant. These regio ns are ca lled
meri stems. Flow erin g plants all have meristems at the ti p of
the root and the tip of the stem (below) . These are ca lled
apical m eristem s as they are at the apex of the roo t and stem .
Growth in apica l meristem s allows roo ts and stems to
elo ngate. The shoot apical meristem also produces new
leaves and flow ers.
M any di cot y ledo no us p lants also develop lateral meri st ems.
In yo ung stems, t his co nsists of camb ium in the vascula r
b und les, but as th e stem grows older , a co mplete ring of
cam bi um forms.
A sim ilar lateral meristem forms in o lder roots. Growth in
lateral meristems makes roo ts and stems thick er, wi th extra
xy lem and ph loem ti ssue. The growth in th ickness of tr ee
trunks is due to th e lateral meri stem, inside the bark.
youngest dome of cells
developing
at centre of
leaf
apical meristem
developing
bud
region of
stem growth
PHOTOPERIODIC CONTROL OF FLOWERING
Some p lants only flow er at the ti me of year w hen days are
short and other pla nts on ly f lower w hen th e days are long .
They are ca lled sho rt-day p lants and long-day p lants.
Exp eri ments have shown th at it is not th e lengt h of day b ut
the length of ni ght that is significa nt. For exam p le,
chrysant hemums are sho rt-day p lants and o nly f lower w hen
they receive a lo ng cont inuous peri od of d arkness (below) .
They t herefor e natu rall y flowe r in the aut umn (fall) . Growe rs
can pr odu ce pots of flo w er in g chrysanthem ums at all tim es
of the year by keep ing them in gree nho uses w it h b linds.
W hen the ni ghts are not lo ng enough to in duce flow eri ng,
th e b li nds are cl osed to extend the ni ghts artif ic ia lly . In a
sim ilar way, petun ias, w hic h are lo ng-day pla nts, can be
indu ced to flower at tim es of the yea r w hen the days are
short by bei ng give n extra light in green houses to red uce th e
lengt h of the ni ghts.
Response of chrysant hem ums t o different li ght/dark regim es
24­
O
::::'" I I....... . ../ - -.-": : ::~~'_".'•:. j
jl ..,.'; JI~,~.~:.,.~~::.~
~
j.. ,.,._-:- .: " .
o Darkness
J
.......
< \~.~,:.
o D
'.-'. ~. 'I-~...:- ,..,~
AUXIN AND PHOTOTROPISM
Plants use ho rmones to co ntro l their growth and their
deve lopment. A n exam p le of a p lant hormon e is aux in, w hich
acts as a growth pro mo ter. It doe s this by ca using secretion of
hyd rogen io ns int o ce ll wa ll s, w hic h loosens co nnections
betw een ce ll ulo se fi bres, all ow ing cell expansio n.
O ne of th e processes that aux in con tro ls is phot otrop ism ­
directi on al growth in respo nse to the source of li ght. Shoot
tips can detect the source of the brightest li ght. They also
prod uce auxi n. Acco rding to a lon g-stand ing th eory, aux in is
redistributed in the shoo t tip fro m the lighter side to the
shad ier side. It then prom otes mo re growth on the shadier
side, causing the shoot to bend towa rds the li ght.
M olecular mech anisms fo r the actio n of aux in are being
discovered . There are pum ps in the plasma membrane calle d
aux in eff lux carrie rs. These are di stributed unevenl y and so
ca n redi stri but e aux in in a tissue. Plant ce lls co ntain an aux in
recepto r. W hen auxi n binds to it, transcri pt io n of speci fic
genes is promoted, w hic h affec t the growth of the ce ll in th e
w ays descr ibed above .
PHYTOCHROME AND PHOTOPERIODISM
Plants ca n measure the length of perio ds of dark to an
acc uracy of a few m inutes. They do this using a pigment in
their leaves ca ll ed ph yt och rom e, w hic h ex ists in tw o
int erco nvertib le fo rms. On e form is call ed P, because it
absorbs red light w ith a wave length of 660 nm . P, is the
inactive fo rm of phyt ochrom e. W hen it absorbs red light it is
rap idly converted into the active form, ca lled Pr, . Thi s for m
ca n absorb far red light w ith a wave length of 73 0 nm and is
then rap id ly co nverte d back to P, . In norm al day light there is
much more red light than far red li ght so p hyto chrom e ex ists
in th e active Pr, for m . In darkness Pr, reverts very slowly to P,
(above). This gradual reversion process is p rob ab ly how th e
length of the dark peri od is tim ed . Eno ugh Pr, rem ains in lon g­
day p lants at th e end of shor t nights to st im ulate flowering. In
Arabidop sis, whi ch is a long-day p lant, a protein has been
found to w hic h Pr, b inds. Th is protein p robably act s as a
transcripti on fac tor, causi ng genes involved in flow ering to be
sw itc hed on. In sho rt day p lants Pr, presumab ly acts as an
in h ibitor of flow eri ng. At the end of long nights, enough Pr,
has been co nve rted to P, to allow flow ering to oc cur .
Interc on version s of ph yto chrom e
red light (sunlight)
rapid conversion
P, Pr,
Ught ..
,
length
Criti cal night ,,
r
- Flash of light far red light
(rapid conversion)
r
slow conversio n
duri ng darkness
Plant science 87
EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 9

Control of flowering in long-day and short-day plants involves inter-conversion of phytochrome between its two
forms, Prand Pfr.

a) State whether phytochrome is in the P, or Pfr form at the end of the day (sunset) in

(i) long-day plants [1 ]

(ii) short-day plants [1 ]

b) Explain how long-day and short-day plants time the length of the night. [2]

c) Distinguish between the effect of Pfr in long-day and short-day plants. [2]

2 Flowering plants (angiospermophytes) are classified into two groups: monocotyledons and dicotyledons.

a) Outline three differences between monocotyledons and dicotyledons. [3]

b) Distinguish between growth due to apical and lateral meristems in the stems of dicotyledons. [2]

c) Monocotyledons do not have lateral meristems. Predict the consequences for monocotyledons of not having lateral
meristems. [2]

3 C3 and CAM plants both need CO 2 for photosynthesis. They take in CO 2 through microscopic pores called stomata. The
stomata can very from being fully closed (0% open) to fully open (1000/0 open). The circular graph below shows the width of
opening of stomata during a 24 hour period in a C3 plant and a CAM plant.

12 pm (midnight)

------- C3
o
- - CAM

6pm 6am

(sunset) (sunrise)

12 am (midday)

a) Identify the hours during which stomata were fully closed in

(i) the C3 plant [1 ]

(ii) the CAM plant [1 ]

b) One of the two plants is a xerophyte.

Use the data in the graph to predict whether the C3 plant or the CAM plant is the xerophyte. [2]

c) (i) Outline the changes in the stomata of the C 3 plant shown in the graph between 11.00 am. and 2.00 pm. [2]

(ii) Suggest a reason for the changes. [1 ]

88 IB Questions - Plant science

10 ",:'.! :;:'1.:,. ..\ -..... ,. ",A 'Awn

Mendel's law of independent assortment

G regor Me ndel disco vered the Law of Segregation by doin g mo noh ybrid c rosses w ith pea plan ts. KEY TO SYMBOLS
He discovered a not her law of inherita nce by doi ng crosses in w hic h the pa rents differed in two
c haracteristics, that a re contro lled by two diffe ren t ge nes . These a re ca lled dihybrid crosses. S= a llele fo r smooth see d.
Mendel d id his dih ybrid c rosses w ith pea plants. An examp le of o ne of his c rosses is shown s= a llele for w rinkled see d.
be low . The parents in this c ross d iffer in see d shape, co ntro lled by o ne gene, a nd in see d Y= a llele for yellow see d.
co lou r, co ntro lled by a differe nt ge ne. y= a llele fo r gree n see d.

Pea plants co ntain two

copies of eac h gene.
P genotype _ I SSyy ssyy

phenotype - o
smooth yellow
I,i4

'0

wrinkled green
seed seed
Gametes only co ntain

1 1 one co py of eac h gene .

gametes ­ @
The a lleles for smooth seed
and yellow seed are
do minant so all of the F1
have smooth yellow seeds.
F1 genotype_ Ssyy
phenotype ­
smo~~~e~
l low

/I \ eac~
+-
O ne copy of ge ne is
again passed on In the

gametes­ @) ~ 0
sv y ~ Q
V
gametes, but as the F1

t her~ ar~
plants are heterozygous
for both genes
four possible co mbinations
of a lleles.

F2 genotypes
and
@A®
SSyy
phenotypes

The phenotypic
ratio in the F2
generatio n is
9 smooth yellow:
3 smooth green:
3 wrinkled yellow:
1 wrinkled gree n

o o
smooth yellow smoot h yellow smooth yellow smooth yellow

o Ssyy o ssyy o o The 9:3:3:1 ratio shows that the

four types of gametes are all
equa lly co mmon. The inheritance
of the two genes is separate. The
presence o f an allele of one of the
genes in a gamete has no
influence ove r which allele of the
A Punnett grid is the other gene is present in the
best way to show the gamete. This is Mende l's Law of
genotypes and Independ ent Assortment.
phenotypes in a
dihybrid cross.

Genetics 89
Dihybrid crosses

PREDICTING RATIOS IN DIHYBRID RATIOS Possible ratios in dihybrid crosses

The 9:3:3 :1 ratio is oft en fo und w hen parents that are
heterozygou s fo r tw o genes are crossed together. The ratio is 3 2
the pro duct of tw o 3: 1 ratio s - each of the two genes wo uld
give a 3:1 ratio in a mo no hybr id cross between two
heterozygou s parents. In a di hybr id cro ss they fo llow 3 9 3 3 3 6 3
M ende l's Law of Independent Assortm ent because they are
unlin ked.
Di hyb rid crosses can give other ratios if :
3 1 2 I 1
• either of the genes has co do m inant alleles,
• either of the parents is hom ozygous for one/both of the genes,
• either of the genes is sex linked . Sex-linked genes are
located on sex chromosomes instead of on autosomes 1
1
(non-sex chromosom es).
The figure (right) shows ratios that these typesof genes could give. 3 3 3
A not her cause of unu sual ratios is interactio n betwee n genes. 2 2 2
The fi gure (below ) shows an example of a d ihybrid cross
w here there is interaction betwee n genes.
1 1 1 1

P genotypes CcAa CcAa Two genes in mice affect coat colour.

O ne gene controls w hether the coat
is co loured or not. The other gene
control s the colour.

phenotypes KEY

C = allele for coloured coat

C = allele for albino coat
CCAA A = allele for agouti coat
a =allele for black coat
Agouti is the normal colour of
w ild mice. Each hair has black
and w hite bands so the overall
colour is grey.

9 agouti
----.~ 3 black
4 albino

All mice that are cc are

albino because they are
unable to produce pi gment
in the hairs in their coat.

90 Genetics
Polygenic inheritance

THE DISCOVERY OF POLYGENIC Results of a cro ss between red and white fl ow ered beans
INHERITANCE
APS P APS w AWS P AWSw
Some characteristics are influ enced by mo re than o ne gene.
This is called polygenic in heritance. Gregor Me nde l APA PSPS P APAPSwS P AWAPSPSP AWAPSwS P
APS P
;A jl) jl) ~
di scovered an example of pol ygeni c inh eritance, when he
crossed a purple-flow ered species of bean w ith a w hite­
flowered speci es. The F] offsprin g w ere all purp le, so he
expected a 3:1 ratio of purple to w hite flow ers in the F2 APAPSPSw APAPSwSw AWAPSPSw AWAPSwSw

jl)
~
~
~

offspring. Instead, he found a much smaller proportion of

APSw
wh ite flo wers and a w ide variety of shades of purple f low er.
Me ndel suggested that two or three genes might be involved . If
these we re codom inant genes, each with two alleles, one fo r APAwSPS P APAwSwS P AWAwSPS P AWAwSwS P
pur ple flowers (AP and BP) and one fo r w hite (Aw and BW ),
there co uld be f ive shades of flower colour (right). AWSP
jl)
jl)
~
~

POLYGENIC INHERITANCE AND APAwSPSw APAwSwSw AWAwSPS w AWAwSwS w

CONTINUOUS VARIATION
Most examp les of po lygenic in herit ance invo lve more than
tw o genes w ith codom inant alleles. As the number of genes
invol ved increases, the number of possib le phenotypes
increases. Eventually, it becomes impossibl e to divide
AWSw

IJ
~
j1
~

indi vid uals into di screte gro ups - the variation is co ntinuo us.

EXAMPLES OF POLYGENIC INHERITANCE

Distribution of grain colo ur in whe at
Gr ain co lour in wh eat

Wheat grai ns vary in co lour fro m w hite to dark red, 20

depe ndi ng on the amount of a red pi gment they co ntai n.
Th ree genes co ntro l the co lour. Each gene has two alleles,
o ne that causes pigment pro duction and o ne that does not.
Wh eat grain s can therefore have between 0 and 6 alleles 15 15
for pigment produ ction . The figu re (right) show s the expected c-,
u
distributi on of grain co lo ur fro m a cross betw een two plants c
<J)
that are heteroz ygous for each of the thre e genes. u
OJ

Skin colour in hum ans

.!
The co lo ur of human skin depends on the amo unt of t he black
pi gment melanin in it. There is a con ti nuo us d istribution of 6 6
ski n co lour f rom very pale (little melani n) to black (much
melani n). At least fo ur and possibly mor e genes are invo lved,
each w ith alle les that promote melanin production and alleles
that do not. There is therefor e a w ide range of possib le
genoty pes with anythi ng from no alleles promotin g melani n
produ ctio n to many.
The fi gure (below ) shows humans w it h a range of skin co lou r. w hite • • red

Skin colour variation in hum ans

Genetics 91
Genes - linked and unlinked

UNLINKED GENES GENE LINKAGE

Mendel's law of independent assortment can be explained in
terms of chromosome movements during meiosis. If pairs of
genes are located on different types of chromosome, when
homologous chromosomes pair up in meiosis the genes are
on different pairs. The pairs of homologous chromosomes are
called bivalents. The bivalents are orientated randomly on the
equator, so the pole to which alleles on other bivalents are
moving does not affect the pole to which alleles on a bivalent
move. Random orientation of bivalents allows combinations
of alleles to be broken up, so that new combinations can be
formed when gametes fuse during fertilization.
If two parents with the genotypes AAB Band aabb are crossed
together, the gametes that they produce (AB and ab) wi II fuse
together to give an F1 hybrid with the genotype AaBb. The
figure below shows the possible gametes that could be
produced by meiosis in this F1 hybrid. The parents could not
have produced two of the gametes (Ab and aB).
Some pairs of genes do not follow the law of independent
assortment. The expected 9:3:3:1 ratio is not found when
parents that are heterozygous for the two genes are crossed.
The figure (below) shows the first example of this to be
discovered. The results show that there were more offspring
than expected with the parental character combinations ­
purple long and red round. There were fewer than expected
with the new combinations - purple round and red long.
Combinations of genes tend to be inherited together. This is
called gene linkage.
Gene linkage is caused by pairs of genes being located on the
same type of chromosome. New combinations of alleles can
only be produced if DNA is swapped between chromatids.
Th is is called recombination and involves a special process
called crossing over, which happens during the early stages
of meiosis. Individuals that have a different combination of
characters from parents, as a result of crossing over, are
called recombinants.

Independent assortment of unlinked genes Gene linkage in Lathyrus odoratus

P genotypes ~ PPLL ppll

phenotypes ~ purple flowers red flowers

long pollen round pollen
prophase I

j
50%
50% / PL pi
probability probability

F1 genotype ~ PpLi

phenotype ~ purple flowers

long pollen

j metaphase I
Self-polIination
of F1 plants to
produce F2

j generation.

Expected 9 purple 3 purple 3 red 1 red

F2 ratio long round long round

@ ~ C§)

~
Expected
results (6952
plants in
3910.5 1303.5 1303.5 434.5
total)

C§~ C§

~
Observed
resuIts
4831 390 393 1338

telophase I

92 Genetics
Crossing-over

EYENTSINPROPHASEI Th e pr oc ess of crossi ng ove r

OF MEIOSIS
At one stage in prop hase I all of the chromatids of two homo logous
Homol ogous chromosomes pair up in prop hase
chromosomes become tightly paired up together. This is called synapsis.
I of meiosis. Each homologous chromosome
co nsists of two sister chromatids. Chromatids of !

different chromosomes are called non-sister

chromatids. Wh ile the chromosomes are paired,
[ : : fou

r chromatids in total,

sections of ch romatid are exchanged in a long and thin at this stage

process called crossing-over.

The figure (right) shows how crossing-ov er The DNA molecul e of one of the chromatids is cut. A second cut is made
occurs. at exactly the same point in the DNA of a non-sister chromatid.

E +±3
BENEFITS OF CROSSING-OYER T
DNA is cut at the same point
Crossing-over has two important co nsequences. in tw o non-sister chromatids
1. It creates chiasmata w hic h hold
hom ol ogou s chro moso mes to gether in
The DN A of each chromatid is jo ined up to the DN A of the non­

pairs called biva lents, dur ing t he later sister chromatid. This has the effect of swapping sections of DNA

stages of p rophase I and metaphase I un til between the chromatids.

mi crotubul es have attached.

2. It allows recom bin ation of linked genes. A ll :z:
of the genes that have their loci on the same
chromoso me type for m a lin kage gro up.
Recom bin ati on of genes in a lin kage gro up In the later stages of prophase I the tight pairin g of the homol ogous
ca nnot occ ur w it hou t cr ossing-over. The chromosomes ends, but the sister chromatids remain tightly
connected. W hen each cross-over has occu rred there is an X­
poi nt w here crossing-ove r occurs along
shaped structu re call ed a chiasma.
chromoso mes is random - it ca n occ ur at a
vast number of di fferent points. M eiosis ca n ::E
therefo re pr odu ce an almost in fin ite amo unt
of genetic variety . : ~ ~ x:
The figure (below) shows how crossing-over
ca n cause recomb inat ion of linked genes.
i chiasma
Th e figure (right) shows an examp le of a cross
in volv in g gene lin kage, using bars to
represent the chromoso mes on w hich the AN EXAMPLE OF GENE LINKAGE AND TEST-CROSSING
genes are linked . A test cross was do ne on the IN ZEA MAYS
F, p lants.

Recom bin ati on of linked genes P genotypes . w.

c
r---r
c
•
w
. KEY

Parental gene combinatio ns are AB and ab

C W c w C = alle le for purple kernels
phenotypes purple starchy wh ite waxy c = allele for wh ite kernels

~ ~
A
A
j C ~ W
.~
c w
W = allele for starchy kernels
= alle le for waxy kernels
1 a

gametes '------'- w

V
,

I
t.rossmg
Locus of Locus of occu rs between

gene A gene B the loci of the

two genes
F, genotype
1 1
.
c w
•
Test crossusing
a plant that is
homozygous
c w c w recessive for
phenotype

C~~ ~~c
purple starchy w hite waxy

-. .
c
both genes

w
gametes '
\ ! [

\
! [

\
, [

~
,
•

C
F1 genotype •
c w c w c w c w
purple purple w hite w hite
phenotype
starchy waxy starchy waxy
numbers 14 7 65 58 133
'-.­
Parental Recombi nants Parental
combination formed as a result combination
of crossing over.

Genetics 93
Phases of meiosis
M eiosis involves tw o divisions. Each division is divided into
four phases. The main events of each phase are listed below .
PROPHASE I
o Chromosom es start to co il up and so become shorter
and thicker.
o Homologous chromosomes pair up.
o Crossing over occ urs.
o Centrioles move to the po les in animal cells.
o Nu cleoli break down .
o At the end of prophase I the nuclear membrane breaks down .
METAPHASE I
o Chromosomes cont inue to shorten and th icken.
o Spindle microtu bules attach to the centromeres.
o Bivalents line up on the equator.
o Chiasmata slide tow ards the ends of the chromo somes,
causing the shapes of the bivalents to change.
o At the end of metaphase I the chromosomes start to move.
ANAPHASE I
o The tw o chromosomes of each bivalent move to opposite
poles. Thi s halves the chromosome number. Each
chromosome consists of tw o chromatids. Because of
crossing over the two chromatids are not identical.
o At the end of anaphase I the chromosomes reach the poles.
TELOPHASE I
o Nuclear membranes form around the groups of
chromosomes at each pole.
o The cell divides to fo rm two haploid cells.
o The chromosomes uncoi l partially.
o At the end of teloph ase I the tw o cells either enter a brief
period of interphase or immediately proceed to the second
division of meiosis. The DNA is not repl icated.
Earl y prophase I l ate prophase I
Anaphase I Anaphase II
x
94 Genetics
PROPHASE II
o Chromosomes become shorter and thi cken again by
coiling.
o Centrio les move to the poles in animal cells.
o At the end of prophase II the nuclear membranes break dow n.
METAPHASE II
o Spindle microtub ules attach to the centromeres.
o Chromosomes line up on the equator
o At the end of metaphase II the centromeres divi de.
ANAPHASE II
o The two chromatids of each chromosome move to
opposite poles.
o At the end of anaphase II the chromatids reach the poles.
TELOPHASE II
o Nuclear membranes form around the groups of
chromatids at each pole. Each chromatid is now
co nsidered to be a chromosome.
o The two cells each di vide to form to fo ur cells in total.
o The chromosomes uncoi l.
o Nuc leoli appear.
o In most organi sms the cells fo rmed at the end of
telop hase II develop into gametes.
SUMMARY OF MEIOSIS
1. Meiosis involves two divi sions. O ne cell or nucl eus
divid es to fo rm four cells or nuclei .
2. The chromosome numb er is halved, from dip lo id to
haploid.
3. An almost infi nite amount of genetic variety is produ ced,
as a result of crossing-over in prop hase I and the random
orientatio n of bivalents in metaphase I.
The figure (below) shows micrographs of four stages in
meiosis in cells from the testis of a locust.
to urn
~~ -....
.... l'
~. •
 EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 10

In some pl ants tw o genes co ntro l flower co lo ur . [No te : - repr esents any allele]

Plants wi th th e geno type A_B_ have b lue flo w ers.

Plants w ith the genoty pe A_bb have red flowers.

I.
Plants with the genoty pe aa __ have w hite f low ers.

a) State th e name given to the ty pe of inh eritance w here mor e th an on e gene co ntro ls a single
phenoty p ic characteristic. [1]

A hom ozy gous b lue-f lowered plant (AA BB) is cr ossed w ith a homozygou s w hite-flowered pl ant (aabb).

b) State th e genoty pe and phenotype of th e F1 offspring. [2]

c) The F1 plants are allow ed to pol lin ate eac h othe r. D educe, using the Punnett grid below, th e genotypes of
th e gametes prod uced by th e F7 p lants and the geno types and p henotypes of all th e possib le F2 offsprin g. [5]

gametes ---+­
t

d) State th e expected rati o of flower co lo urs in th e F2 offs pri ng. [1]

e) The tw o genes code for enzy mes used to co nvert a whi te substance into a red pi gment and th e red pi gment
into a blu e pigment. Dedu ce th e effec t of the enzymes prod uced from gene A and gene B. [1]

2 a) Def ine reco mb inatio n. [1]

When grey bodi ed lo ng w inged D rosoph ila f lies we re test crossed w ith black bodi ed vestigial w ing f li es the F1 generatio n
was found to co ntain:

40 7 grey bodied lon g w inged f li es

39 6 blac k bodi ed vest ig ial w inged fli es

75 black bodi ed lon g w inged fli es

69 grey bod ied vest igia l w inged fli es

b) Ident ify w hic h of th e f lies we re reco mb inants. [2J

c) The F1 generation does not fo llow Me nde l's Second Law (Law of Independ ent Assortment).
Explain how th e observed ratio co uld have arisen. [3]

d) Suggest how genetici sts co uld mak e use of ex perimenta l results of the typ e shown above . [2]

3 The mi cr ograph below show s a pair of hom ol ogou s chromosomes in a ce ll carr yi ng out meiosis in the grasshopper
(Charthippus parallelus).
tu um

a) Identi fy th e stage of meiosi s of th e cell that co ntai ned th e pair of chromosomes. [2J
b) In th e pair of chromoso mes in th e mi crograph dedu ce th e num ber of

(i) chro mati ds [1]

(i i) ch iasmat a [1]

c) Outlin e how chiasmata are produ ced. [3]

IB Questions - Genetics 95
11
Antibody production
STAGES IN ANTIBODY PRODUCTION
The production of antibo d ies by the im mun e system is o ne of
the most remarkabl e bio log ica l processes. W hen a pathogen
invades the body, the immune system gears up to produce
large amo unts of the specific antibodies needed to combat the
pathogen . This process only takes a few days. The production
of antibodies by B-ceffs is show n in a simp fified form on
page 50 . A ntibody production usually depends on other types of
lymphocyte, including macrophages and helper T-cel ls. The
ro les of these cells are explained here.
3. Activation of B-cells
Inac t ive B-ce lls have ant ibodies in their plasma membrane .
If these antibodies match an antigen, the ant igen binds
to the antibody. An activated helper T-ce ll with receptor s
for the same antigen ca n then bind to the B-cell . The
activated hel per T-cell sends a signal to the B-cell , caus ing
it to change from an inactive to an active state. This is
activation of B-cells .
inactive B-cell

1. Antigen presentation
Macrop hages take in antigens by endo cytosis, process them
and th en attac h them to membr ane proteins called MH C
prot eins. The MHC protein s carry ing the antigens are then
moved to the plasma membrane by exocytosis and the
antigens are displayed on the surface of the macrophage.
This is antigen presentation .

antigen is absorbed
.--and then displayed
by the macrophage

inactive helper T-cell

MHe protein

4. Production of plasma cells

2. Activation of helper T-cells
Helper T-cells have receptors in their plasma membr ane that
can bind to antigens presented by macroph ages. Each hel per
T-cell has receptors w ith the same ant igen-bindi ng dom ain as
an antibody . These receptors allow a helper T-cell to
recognize an antigen presented by a macrop hage and bind to
the macro phage. The macroph age passes a signal to the
helper T-cell cha nging it fro m an inact ive to an active state.
Thi s is activatio n of helper T-ce lls.
Activated B-cell s start to divide by mito sis to fo rm a cl on e of
cells. These cells becom e act ive, w ith a mu ch greater vo lume
of cyto plasm. They are then know n as plasma cells. They
have a very extensive netw ork of rough endo plasmic
reticulum . Th is is used for synthesis of large amo unts of
antibody, w hic h is then secreted byexocytosis.

Help er T-cell bind s to

macro phage pr esentin g

th e antigen

plasma

cell

activated
helper
5. Production of memory cells
T-cell
M emory ce lls are B-ce lls and T-ce lls that are formed at the
same tim e as activa ted helper T-cell s and B-cell s, w hen a
di sease challenges the im mune system. Afte r the activa ted
cells and the antibod ies produ ced to fight the di sease have
di sappeared, the memor y cells persist and allow a rapid
response if the di sease is enco untered again . M emor y cells
give long-term immunity to a d isease.

96 Human health and physiology

Immunity and vaccination
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Resistance to infectio n is called immunity. A ntibod ies give
immuni ty to disease - thi s is someti mes called specific
imm uni ty, because one type of antibody gives protecti on
against o nly one disease. Immunity can either be act ive or
passive.
Active immunity is due to produ ction of antibod ies by the
organism itself after the body's de fence mechanisms have
been stimulated b y antigens.
An example is w hen infecti on w ith rubell a viru s causes
immun ity to rubell a to develop and re-in fecti on is very rare.
Passive imm unity is due to the acquisition of antibodies
received from another organism, in which active imm unity
has been stimulated.
Examp les of passive imm unity :
• During pregnancy, antibodies are passed across the
placenta from mother to the fetus.
• The fi rst mil k prod uced after birth, called co lostrum,
co ntai ns antibodies that line the gut of new born babies,
help ing to prevent infection.
• Antib odi es are somet imes injected as an emergency
treatment for virul ent di seases, such as rabies.
VACCINATION
A vacci ne is a modified form of a d isease-causing
microorganism that stim ulates the body to develop
imm uni ty to the di sease, w ithout fu lly develop ing the
d isease. Vacci nes co ntai n weakened form s of the
m icroorganisms, killed form s or chemica ls produ ced by
the microorganism that act as antigens. The vaccine is
either injected into the bod y or sometimes swa llo wed.
The prin cipl e of vacci nation is that antige ns in the
vacci ne cause the produ ct ion of the ant ibod ies needed
to co ntrol the d isease. Som etim es two or more
vacci natio ns are needed to stimulate the produ ctio n of
enough antibod ies. The figure (right) shows a typical
response to a fi rst and second vacci natio n against a
disease. The first vaccination causes a little anti body
prod uct ion and the prod uction of some memory cells.
The seco nd vacci natio n, sometimes called a booster
shot, causes a respo nse from the memory cells and
therefo re faster and greater prod uction of antibodies.
M emory cells should persist to give lo ng-term immunity.
VACCINATION - BENEFITS AND DANGERS
There are huge benefits from vacci natio n:
1. Epidemics and pandemi cs can be prevented and some
di seases can be comp letely erad icated - smallpox was the
fir st and polio may be the seco nd.
2. Deaths d ue to di sease can be prevented. For examp le,
measles is a major cause of death of unvaccin ated c hildren
in some parts of the wo rld.
3. D isabi lity due to di sease can be prevented, decreasing
health care co sts, for example deafness and blind ness in
babies w hose mothers w ere not vacci nated and so
contracted rubella during pregnancy .
PRINCIPLES OF ANTIBODY PRODUCTION
The imm une system has the potenti al to produce a vast range
of different types of antibody - perhaps 10 15 d ifferent types. It
wo uld be imp ossible to make large q uantit ies of all of these
antibod ies. Instead, a few B-cells that can make a type of
ant ibody are produ ced and if these cells enco unter an ant igen
to w hich their antibody binds, they mu lti ply to form a clone
of many cells. This is called clon al select ion.
Sometimes several d ifferent types of antibody can bi nd to the
same antigen, so more than o ne c lo ne of cells is formed. Thi s
is called po lyclo nal selectio n.
A cl one of B-cells can produ ce large amounts of antibody
quick ly and so give immun ity to the di sease w ith w hich t he
antigen is associated. Immunity to a d isease is only develop ed
if the di sease challenges the im mune system. This is call ed
the principle of chall enge and response.
These two prin cip les do not fully explai n antibody di versity.
Research is ongoing into tw o addi tio nal processes:
• how lym phocytes splice together DNA taken from various
parts of the genome, to produce a huge variety of genes
coding for anti bod ies
• how rapid mutation occ urs in antibody genes in
lymphocytes that have been activa ted by antigen binding ­
this gives the chance of produci ng antibodies that fit the
antigen better.
Response to first and second vacci nat ions
.£
o
I (b) Secondary response
.0
c:
'0'"
c
.2
"@
C
::l
c
I (a) Primary response
o
U
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
t Time/d ays t
First encounter Second encounter
w ith antigen with antigen
Immunization is the most effective of all pub lic health
interventio ns. A ll vacci nes are very carefully tested before
being introduced and the risks of the di seases that they
prevent are much greater than any adverse effects associated
w ith vacc ines themselves.
Unfortunately, the diseases that vacc ines prevent become rare
so that parents worry mor e about the vaccin e than the disease.
As a result unfounded stories of the dangers of vacci nes easily
tip public op inio n against vacci natio n, w ith very serious
co nsequences for chil d health .
Serio us adve rse reactio ns wh ic h are caused by vacci nes, such
as severe al lergic reactio ns (anaphylaxis), are very rare. M ost
ot her vacci ne reactions are min or and recover w ithout
treatment: fever, o r pain, swelling and redness at the site
of vacci nation .
Human health and physiology 97
Monoclonal antibodies and blood clotting

PRODUCTION OF MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES

Large quant ities of a single type of antibo dy can be made
using an ingenious techniqu e.
• Anti gens that co rrespond to a desired antibody are
inj ected int o an animal.
• B-cell s produ cin g the desired antibody are extracted
from the animal.
• Tumour cells are obtained. These cells grow and di vide
end lessly .
• The B-cells are fused w ith the tumo ur cells, produc ing
hybrido ma cells that di vide endlessly and prod uce the
desired ant ibody.
• The hybrid oma cells are cultured and the ant ibo d ies that
they produ ce are extracted and purified .
The f igure (right) shows a factory used fo r the industrial
produ cti on of mon ocl onal ant ibod ies. There are many ways in
Diagnosis of malaria
Tests using mo nocl o nal antibodies have been develop ed for
w hic h mono clon al antibo dies can be used. Two examples are
many d iseases, inclu ding malaria. Mo noclonal antibodies are
described here.
produ ced that bind to antige ns in malarial parasites. A test
Treatment of anthrax plate is coated w ith the ant ibod ies. A sample is left in the
Anthrax is a disease caused by a bacterium that produces tox ins. plate long eno ugh for malaria antigens in the sample to bind
It is often lethal, even w hen antibiotic treatments are given. to the antibodies. The sample is then rinsed off the plate. A ny
A nthrax spores have sometimes been used deliberately to bound ant igens are detected using more mo noclo nal
infect peopl e and cause death. ant ibo d ies w ith enzy mes attac hed that cause a co lo ur change.
M onocl on al antibo d ies are being developed w hich neutralize This is called an ELISA test. It can be used to measure the
one of the toxin s and therefore sustain the patient' s life unti l level of infecti on and to d isti nguish between di fferent strains
their immune system produ ces antibodies naturall y. of malar ia, eithe r in humans or in mosquitoes.

BLOOD CLOTTING
Wh en human tissue is inj ured and blood escapes from blood vessels, a semi-solid is formed from liqu id blood to seal up the wou nd
and prevent entry of pathogens. The semi-solid is called a blood clot and the process is called clotting.
Platelets have an import ant role in clotting. Platelets are small cell fragments that ci rculate w ith erythrocytes and leukocytes in
the bloo d plasma. The cl ottin g process begins with the release of c lotting facto rs either f rom damaged tissue cells or fro m
platelets. These clotting facto rs set off a series of reacti ons in w hich the produ ct of each reactio n is the catalyst of the next
reacti on . This system helps to ensure that clo tting on ly happens w hen it is needed and it also makes it a very rapid process. In the
last reactio n fi brinogen, a soluble plasma protein is altered by the removal of sect io ns of pepti de that have many negati ve
c harges. This allows the remainin g po lypepti de to bind to others, formin g lo ng protein fibres calle d fibr in. Fibr in fo rms a mesh of
fibres across wo unds. Blood cells are caught in the mesh and soon form a semi-so lid cl ot. If exposed to air the clot dri es to form a
protective scab, w hich remains until the wo und has healed.

Final reactions in blood cl otting Fibrin and bl ood cells in a bl ood cl ot

Reactions initiated by
ciotti ng factors released
by platelets or damaged
tissue cells
prothrombin

activator

A1IIIIIP
prothrombin
~
thrombin

(inactive) (active)

~
fibrinogen fibrin

(soluble) (insoluble)

98 Human health and physiology

Muscles and joints

MOVEMENT IN HUMANS JOINTS

The mu scu lar-skeletal system and nervou s system are
responsibl e for movement in humans.
• Muscles provi de the force needed fo r mu scle co ntractio n.
They do th is w hen they co ntract.
• Tend on s attac h muscl es to bone.
• Bon es provid e a fir m anc ho rage for muscles. They also act
as levers, changing the size or di rect io n of for ces generated
by mu scl es.
• Ligaments co nnect bone to bone, restrict ing movement at
joints and hel pin g to preven t di slocation .
• Ne rve s stimulate muscles to co ntrac t at a precise time and
extent, so that move ment is co-o rd inated.
Junct ions betw een bon es are ca lled jo ints.
• Cartil age redu ces fr ictio n betwee n bo nes w here they meet.
• Synovial f lui d lubri cates the joi nt to redu ce frict io n.
• Join t capsule seals the joint and ho lds in the synov ial fluid .
The knee is a hinge jo int. It allows co nsiderable movement in
o ne plane: bendi ng (f lexio n) o r straightening (extensio n), but
little movement in the other two planes. In co ntrast, the hip
jo int allows move ment in thr ee p lanes (protract ion / retraction,
abd uct io n/add uct io n and rotat io n). The figure (below) shows
the structu re of the elbow joint.

THE ELBOW JOINT

biceps - the flexor

muscle, used to bend

the arm at the elbow

tendon
of triceps
humerus
p 'd bone ­

~~}E~~Yg~ ~~ ~th e~.

---,\ ligaments - tough cords of tissue linking
bone to bone, to prevent dislocation

~r~ g ~ ~;:,:~ ",o~'~

radius - bone that
_ _ transmits forces from
the biceps through
the forearm

en the arm ulna - bone that

_ _ transmits forces from
capsule ­ the triceps through
seals the joint the forearm

cartilage - a layer of smooth

synovi al fluid ­ and tough tissue that covers the
lubricates the joi nt ends of the bones where they
to reduce friction meet to reduce friction

STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE FIBRES

Wh en viewed w ith a light mic rosco pe skeletal m uscle is seen to co nsist of • -, " ';" 0,"''''
large mu lt inucl eate cells called muscle f ibres. W ithin each mu scl e fibre are
cy li ndrica l struct ures called myofibr il s. The myofib rils consist of repeatin g
uni ts called sarc omeres, w hic h have light and dark bands. The light and dark
bands extend across al l the myofib rils in a muscl e fibr e, giv ing it a striated
(striped) appeara nce . Arou nd each myo f ibri l is a special type of endo plasm ic
reticulum, called sarcop lasm ic retic ulum, v isible in the electro n m icrograph
(right). There are also mitoc ho ndria between the myofibri ls.

sarcolemma
(membrane
Y\A.~\ ~f muscle
, " , " '" f bre)

myofib rils

nucleus dark light

bands bands

Human health and physiology 99

Muscle contraction

STRUCTURE OF A SARCOMERE
A sarcom ere is a subunit of a myofibril. At either / Z line '"

~~~~ in~=: ~ ~~ t!
end is a Z line to w hi ch narrow actin filaments are
attac hed. The actin fi lam ents stretc h inw ard s
.. r: ...
towards the centre of the sarco mere. Betw een them,
~ il :~~o
filaments ~
........

the re are thicke r myosin f ilaments, w hich have ~p

heads that can bind to the actin. The pa rt of the ~ r,:~ k~ ~jm
sarco mere co ntaining myo sin is the dark band and
the part co ntaining on ly actin fi lame nt is the light
~f~~e:===~~~ a .~ :,, ~ i@
band . The figure (right) shows the structur e of a
sarcomere. light band
,
dark band - V­myosin
one sarcomere heads

CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

W hen a motor neurone stimulates a striated muscle fibre, calcium ions are released from the sarcop lasmic reti cu lum . The
calci um causes bi nding sites on actin to be revealed, allow ing myosin heads to bi nd. A cycl e of events occurs, w hi ch causes
actin filaments to slide inw ards towards the centre of the sarcom eres. Thi s makes the light bands narrower and the sarcomeres
shorter - the musc le fibre co ntracts. The figure (below) show s the events that cause mu scle contraction. The electron
mIG O~\ o.?'W' .,n ow .,\\lo.\eO mu.,c.\e In \e\o.)(.eo \'oo\\om \ eh) o.n o. c.o n\\o.c.\ eo. \'oo\\ om \1'5n\) ,,\o.\ e.,.

CD Myosin filaments have heads

w hich form cross-bridges w hen ~
they a ~e a.ttached to bindin g sites
on actin fil aments. ----=:= Q) ATPbinds to the
myosin heads and causes
them to break the cross­
bridges by detaching
from the bindin g sites.
MOVEMENT / -.

® The ADP and phosphate

~
~
~ ADP + P ~
are released and the heads )
push the actin fi lament \
inwards towar ds the centre of
the sarcomere. This is called
the pow er stroke. ~
(] ATP is hydrolysed to
~+P ~AD P+ P ADP and phosphate,
causing the myosin heads
to change their angle. The

~
headsare said to be
'cocked' in their new
position as they are storing
@ The heads attach to binding sites on potential energy from ATP.
acti n that are further from the centre of
the sarcomere than the previous sites.

Relaxed muscle Contracted muscle

100 Human health and physiology

Kidney structure and ultrafiltration

FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY ULTRAFILTRATION IN THE GLOMERULUS

The kidney has tw o functions - excre t io n and
The funct io n of the glo merulus is productio n of a filtr ate fro m
osmoregulation.
blo od by a process called ultrafiltration . Part of the blood
Ex cretio n is the remo val from the bod y of the waste products
plasma escapes throu gh the w all s of all capilla ries, but in the
of metabo lic pathways.
glomerulus 20% escapes, w hi ch is mu ch greater than usual.
Osmoregulation is the co ntro l of the water balance of the
There are two main reason s fo r thi s.
b lood, tissue or cy top lasm of a living organ ism.
• The blood pressure is very high, bec ause the vessel takin g
blo od aw ay from the glomerulus is narrow er than the vessel
brin gin g bl ood.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY • The capill aries in the glome rulus are fenestrat ed - they
The kid neys produ ce urine. The figure (below ) show s the struct­ have many pores th rou gh them.
ure of the kidney. The cortex and medu lla of the kidney contain These pores are large enough to allow any molecu les through,
many narrow tu bes called nephrons. The figure (below) show s but on the outside of the capillary wa ll is a basement membrane,
the structure of a neph ron, together wi th the associated composed of a gel of glycoproteins (below ). The basement
glomerulus. membrane acts as a fi lter as it only allow s molecu les w ith a
molecular mass below 68 000 to passthrough. It lets all
Structure of a kidney in vertical section substances in blood plasma through except pl asma proteins.
The fluid produced by ultrafiltration is collected by the Bow man's
=::", < cortex capsule and flows on into the proximal convo luted tubule.

Structure of the nephron

renal artery glomerulus

I medulla
afferent
a rte rio le~

efferent
arteriole

I
renal vein
CORTEX
pelvis of / /1
----------
MED ULLA
--- ----
kidney

Descending li mb
loop of
Henle { AscendiIng I'irnb

ureter - - -+-­
(carries
J [

urine to
the bladder)
Jr
Structure of part of a glomerulus
collecti ng du ct~ (

Podocytes - strangely shaped cells

wi th fi nger-like projections w hich
wrap around capi llaries in the COMPARISON OF FLUIDS IN THE KIDNEY
glomerulus and provi de support The physio logy of the kid ney can be stud ied by co mparing
basement
the content of blood flo wi ng to and from the kid ney w it h the
membrane ­

co ntent of glomerular filtrate and urin e.

the filter

Content (mg per 1 OOml of bl ood )

Blood in Urine Glomerular Blo od in

re nal artery filtrate renal vein

fenestrated Glucose 90 o 90 90
wall of Ur ea 30 2000 30 24
capillary
Protein s 740 o o 740

G lu cose is often present in the urine of untreated diabetic

b l ood ~
patients. This is because the gluc ose co ncentration of bl ood
plasma
rises much higher than 90 mg per 100 m l, so the pu mp s in
the proxim al convo luted tubu le cannot reabsorb all the
red blood cell nucleus of capillary wa ll cell glucose that is filtered out in the glomerulus.

Human health and physiology 101

Urine production and osmoregulation

SELECTIVE RE-ABSORPTION IN THE Structure of the proximal convoluted tubule

-.
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE microvill i mitochondria
Large vo lumes of glomerular fi ltrate are produ ced - about 1
litre every 10 minutes by the two kidn eys. As we ll as waste
products, the filtrate co ntains substances th at the bod y needs,
w hic h must be re-absorbed into the blood . M ost of this
selective re-absorp tion happens in the proximal convo luted
tub ule. The wa ll of the nephron consists of a single layer of
cell s. In the pro xim al convo luted tubule the cells have
mi crovi lli proj ectin g into the lum en (right), givi ng a large
surface area for absorptio n. Pumps in the membrane
re-absorb useful substances by act ive tran sport, using ATP
produced by mitochondria in the cells. A ll of the glucose in
the filtrate is re-absorbed. A bout 80% of th e min eral ions,
includ ing sod ium is re-absorbed. Ac t ive tra nsport of so lutes
makes the total solute co ncentratio n higher in the ce lls of the
w all than in the f iltrate in the tub ule. W ater therefore moves
from the filtrate to the cell s and on into the adj acent blood
capillary by osmosis. Abo ut 80% of the wate r in the filtrate is lumen
containing
re-absorbed, leavi ng 20% of the o riginal vo lume to fl ow on filtrate
into the loop of Hen le. I
basement membrane

THE ROLE OF THE LOOP OSMOREGULATION IN

OF HENLE
G lo merular fil trate flows deep into
the medu lla in descendin g limbs of
the loop s of Hen le and then back
out to the co rtex in ascend ing
lim bs. Descendin g lim bs and
ascend ing li mbs are opposi te in
terms of permeability. Descend ing
limbs are permeable to wa ter but
not to sod ium ions. Asce nding
limbs are permeabl e to sodi um
ions but not to w ater (right).
Ascendin g limbs pump sod ium
ion s from the fiItrate into the
medull a by act ive transpo rt,
creat ing a high solute
co ncentration in the med ulla.
As the fi ltrate flows down the
descend ing li mb into thi s region of
high solute co ncentratio n, some
wa ter is d raw n out by osmosis. Thi s
di lutes the fluids in the medulla
slightly . How ever the filtrate that
leaves the loop of Henle is mo re
dilute than the
f luid entering it, showing that the
overa ll effect of the loop of Hen le
is to increase the solute
co ncentratio n of the medull a. This
is the rol e of the loo p of Henl e ­
to create an area of high solute
co ncentratio n in the cells and
tissue fluid of the medul la.
After the loop of Henle, the filt rate
passes through the di stal
co nvo luted tu bul e, w here the io ns
can be exchanged betwe en the
filtrate and the blo od to adj ust
blood level s. It then passes into
the co llecting duct.
THE COLLECTING
DUCT
Osmoregulation is the control of
water and solute leve ls. The
col lecting duct has an important
role in osmoregulatio n. If the
water content of the blood is too
50% 100% low , the pitui tary gland secretes
ADH . This hormo ne makes the
Na+
cells of the collecting duct
100% H2O
produce memb rane channels
Na+ called aquaporins, w hich makes
the collecti ng duct permeable to
150% 150%
150% water. As the filtrate passes
Na" down the collecting duct
150% through the medull a, the high
H2O
Na+ H2O solute co ncentration of the
medul la causes most of the
water in the filtrate to be re­
200% 200% 200% absorbed by osmosis. A small
2000/.
volume of concentrated urine
is produced.
H2O Na+ If the w ater co ntent of the
H2O blood is too high, A D H is not
sec reted, aquapor ins are
250 0/0 2500/0 250% 250% brok en down and the co llect ing
duct becom es much less
permeable to w ater. Litt le wa ter
H2O Na+
is reabsorb ed as the filtrate
passes down the co llect ing duct
300% H2O
and a large vo lume of dilute
300%. urine is produ ced . In this w ay
the wa ter co ntent of the bloo d
is kept w ithin narrow li mits.The
urin e produ ced by the
Movements of water and sodium ions in co llecting du cts drains into the
the loop of Henle and the collecting renal pelvi s and down the
duct. Solute concentrations inside and
outside the nephron are show n as a ureter to the bladder.
percentage of normal blood solute
concentration

102 Human health and physiology

Spermatogenesis

Spermato genesis is th e pr oducti on of spermato zo a. Structure of testis tissue

Spermato zo a are usuall y sim ply called sperm.
Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes, in narrow tubes ca lled
wall of interstitial cells
sem iniferous tubules . blood (Leydig cells)
seminiferous
The fi gur es (below and right) show th e struct ure of testis vessel secrete testosterone
tubule
tissue, in cl udin g the sem inifero us tubules. The f igure (bottom)
shows th e processes invo lved in spermatogenesis.

Micrograph of testis tissue (x 90) -,

STAGES OF SPERMATOGENESIS
o
spermatogonium

CD A n outer layer called

germin al epithelium cells
(2n ) divide endlessly
by mit osis to produce
Q) Dipl oid cells grow
larger and are then
more dip loid cells.
called p rim ary
spe rmatocytes (2 n)

primary
spermatocyte
It ", J Q) Each primary .
spermatocyte carries out
the fi rst division of meiosis
secondary to produce two secondary
spermatocyte spe rma tocy tes (n).

@) Each secondary
® Sperm detach from spermatocyte carries
Sertoli cells and out the second di vision
eventually are carried of meiosis to produce
out of the testis by the tw o sp ermatids (n).
fluid in the centre of the
seminiferous tubul e.
spermatids

(i) Spermatids become associated

\I If --j with nurse cell s, called Sertoli cells,
w hich help the spermatids to develop
into spe rmatozoa (n). This is an
example of cell di fferentiati on .

Human health and physiology 103

Oogenesis

Oogenesis is the p rod uctio n of an ov um . Ova are often simp ly ca lled eggs. Oogenesis occurs in the ova ries.

The figures below show the structure of ova ry tissue.

The figure (bottom) shows the processes invo lved in oogenesis.

Micro graph of the ovary

of a rabbit

region w here
Structure of the ovary
blood vesse ls
medulla
of a rabb it
enter and leave
(containing blood

vess\ _-===========:::::::::""
~=====:::::======'\=--

outer layer
of germina l cortex

epitheli um cells (containi ng

secondary oocyte inside
primary foll icles)
a mature follicl e

STAGES OF OOGENESIS
@ Primary oocytes
start the first di vision
of meiosis but stop
during prophase I.
The primary oocyte
and a single layer of
a> Dip loi d cells follicle cells around
grow into larger form a primary
cells called foll icle .
pri mary oocytes
(2 n ).
@ W hen a baby ® Every menstrual cycle a few primary foll icles
gi rI is born the start to develop . The primary oocy te completes
ovaries contain the fi rst division of meiosis, forming two haploid
about 400 000 nuclei. The cytoplasm of the primary oocyte is
primary follicles. divided unequall y formi ng a large secondary
oocyte (n) and a small po lar cell (n ).
developi ng foil icles
I
~

G) In the ovari es
of a female fetus,
primary oocyte
o first polar cell

germinal epit helium

cells (2 n ) divide by
~-
mitosis to form more secondary
dip loid cells (2 n). oocyte

flap of tissue ® The secondary

connecting ovary oocyte starts the
to abdomen second divi sion
corpus luteum ~ three layers secondary follicular of meiosis but
stops in prop hase
(develops from egg released of follicle oocyte in fluid
the follicl e at ovulation cells prophase II II. The follicle
after ovulatio n) cells meanw hi le
I are proliferati ng
mature fo llicl e and fo llicular
® After fertil ization the secondary oocyte fluid is forming .
completes the second division of meiosis to CD W hen the mature
form an ovum, (w ith a sperm nucl eus follicle bursts, at the ti me
already inside it) and a second polar cell or of ovulation, the egg that
body. The first and seco nd polar bod ies do is released is actually still
not develop and eventually degenerate. a secondary oocyte.

104 Human health and physiology

Gametes

STRUCTURE OF HUMAN SPERM

acrosome
haploid nucleus
co
c tail (40[!m long, two-thirds ci
..Q
mid-piece (Zurn long) it omitted from this drawi ng)
E
-1
"C
ill
(J)

"'j:
E
:::!.
8
".s:
ill
(J)
helical
mitochondria
microtubules in a protein fibres to
9+2 arrangement strengthen the tai I
plasma
membrane

HORMONAL CONTROL OF SPERMATOGENESIS PRODUCTION OF SEMEN

Three hormon es are involved in the pro ductio n of sperm. Three structures help to prod uce semen - the epididy mis,
semina l vesicles and prostate gland
Hormone Source Rol e Wh en sperm from the testis arrive in the epid idymis, they are
unable to sw im. The sperm undergo a matu rin g process w hile
FSH Pituita ry Stimulates primary
they are stored in the epid idy mis and becom e able to swim.
gland spermatocytes to undergo
The two seminal vesicles and prostate gland produce and
the first division of meiosis, to
sto re fluids and expel them during ej aculat ion. The fluid
form secondary spermatocytes
mixes w ith the sperm and increases the vo lume of the
Testosterone Interstiti al Stimu lates the developm ent ejac ulate. The flu id from the semi nal vesicles co ntains
cells in of secondary spermatocytes nutr ients for the sperm incl uding fru ctose. It also co ntains
the testis into matur e sperm mucus w hic h protects the sperm in the vagi na. The fluid
fro m the prostate gland co ntains m ineral io ns and is alkali ne
LH Pituitary Stim ulates the secretion of
so protects the sperm from the aci d co ndit io ns in the vagina.
gland testosteron e by the testis

STRUCTURE OF A HUMAN EGG COMPARING SPERMATOGENESIS

WITH OOGENESIS
haploid There are many sim ilarit ies betwee n the formation of sperm
nucleus cytoplasm
and eggs.
(or yolk)
• Both start w ith pro liferatio n of ce lls by mi tosis.
containing
• Both in vol ve the cell grow th befo re meiosis.
droplets of fat

• Both invo lve the two di vi sion s of meiosis.

first The table below shows some of the di fferences.

polar
cell
Spermatoge nesis O ogenesis

M i ll ions produced dai ly On e produced eve ry

28 days

Released dur ing ejac ulatio n Released on abo ut day

14 of menstrual cycle
by ov ulatio n

Sperm fo rmat io n starts The early stages of

du ring puberty in boys egg produ cti on happen
plasma during fetal develop ment
membrane
in fema les

Sperm pro ductio n Egg producti on beco mes

layer of follicle cells
(corona radiata) layer of gel composed co ntinues throu ghout the irregular and then sto ps at
of glycoproteins adult life of men the menopause in wo men
(zona pellucida)
Fou r sperm are produced O nly on e egg is produ ced
Di ameter of egg cell = 11 0 urn per meiosis per meiosis

Human health and physiology 105

Fertilization

Summary of spermatogenesis Stages in the fertilization of a human egg

8 2n germina l epithelium cells sperm try to

push through \ 7, Arrival of sperm
1\ the layers of \ Sperm are attracted by a chem ica l
8 2n 8 2n mitosis fo llicle cells signal and sw im up the ov iduct to reach
around the
/\ /\ egg
the egg, Fertili zation is only successful
8 8 88 if many sperm reach the egg.
2n 2n 2n 2n
cell
growt h

fo llicle - ---f

8 2n
prim ary
spermatocyte
cell 2. Binding
The fir st sperm to break throug h the
layers of foll icl e ce lls binds to the zo na

/\
pellu cid a. Th is tri ggers the acrosome

j 1st division
of meiosis
zona - -
pelluci da
-----I
reacti on .

88 n n
secondary
spermatocyte
plasma membrane of egg

/\ /\
8 8 8 8
n n n n
spermatids
2nd division
of meiosis

acrosomaI --+-+----T---1-----r--T-/I.://
3. Acrosome reaction
The co ntents of the acrosome are
released, by the separatio n of the
cap acrosomal cap from the sperm.
~ ~ ~ ~ Proteases from the acrosome di gest a
cell rout e for the sperm through the zo na

!!!
differentiation pelluc ida, allowing the sperm to reach

1n n n n spermatozoa
the plasma membrane of the egg.

tai l and
mitochondri a
Summary of oogenesis 4. Fusion
usually remti,n i t 1 The plasma membranes of the sperm
outside
and egg fuse and the sperm nucl eus
8 2n germinal epithelium cells

8 2n
1\
8 2n

mitosis
o~
;/O~'o
D enters the egg and join s the egg nucl eus.
Fusion causes the co rtica l reaction.

/\
8888
/ \
~
cortical granules
2n 2n 2n 2n
cell
hardened 5 . Cortical reaction
j growth
zona
pell ucida
Sma ll vesicles ca lled co rt ica l granules
move to the pl asma membr ane of the

8 ~~
, :..:".:, D

primary egg and fuse w ith it, releasin g thei r

oocyte co ntents byexocytosis. Enzy mes from
2n the co rtica l granules cause c ross-li nking

1\
1st division of glycoproteins in the zo na pellucid a,

j of meiosis
exocytosis
of contents
of cortical
granules
__
".
';"

- - - sperm nucleus
makin g it hard and prevent in g the entry
of any more sperm.

8 n
o
n
secondary
oocyte and
first polar body two polar -----:rii'fi&l!lil
cells 6. Mitosis

/\ j 2nd division
of meiosis
The nucl ei f rom the sperm and egg do
not fuse together. Instead, both nucl ei
carry out mitosis, using the same

8~ ovum and two haploid centrio les and spindle of mi crotu bul es.
second
nuclei from A two-ce ll em bryo is produced .
n polar body
the sperm
and the egg

106 Human health and physiology

Pregnancy and childbirth

FERTILIZATION AND EARLY EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT 4-cell embryo

If a couple wan t to have a ch ild, they have sexual intercourse w ithout using
any method of contrac eption . The bio logic al term for sexual interco urse is
copulat ion. During cop ulation, semen is ejacu lated into the vagina. Sperm
sw im th rough the cervix, up the uterus and into the ovidu cts. If there is an
egg in the ovid ucts, a sperm can fuse w ith it to produce a zy gote. The
fusion of an egg wi th a sperm is called fertilizat ion .
The zyg ote prod uced by fertilization in the oviduct is a new hum an
indi vid ual. It starts to di vide by mitosis to form a 2-ce ll embr yo, then a
4-cell embryo (right) and so on unt il a holl ow ball of cells called a
bl astocyst is form ed . W hile these early stages in the developm ent of the
embryo are happ ening, the embr yo is tra nsported dow n the ovid uct to
the uterus. Wh en it is about 7 days o ld, the embryo imp lants itself into
the wa ll of the uterus, w here it cont inues to grow and develop .

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FETUS

By the tim e that embryo is about 8 weeks o ld, it
starts to develop bone ti ssue and is known from
then onwa rds as a fet us. The fetus develop s a
Female repr odu ct ive system
placenta and an umb ilical co rd (left). The
duri ng pregnancy
placenta is a d isc-shaped structure, w ith many
proj ectio ns called placental villi embedded in the
amniotic
uterus wa ll . In the placenta the blood of the fetus
sac
amnioti c flow s cl ose to the blood of the mother in the
fluid uterus wa ll. M aterials are exchanges betw een
maternal and fetal blood. For example, oxygen
passes from maternal to fetal blood and carbon
dioxid e passes from fetal to maternal blood . The
fetus also develops around itself an amnio tic sac
placenta co ntaining amniotic fluid . The fetus floats in this
uterus ---L----\
amniotic f luid and is supported by it. The delicate
wall
tissues of the fetus are prot ected from inju ry by
umbilical cor d the amniotic fluid , w hic h acts as a shock
absorber. This is needed if an everyday event or
an acci dent causes an impact to the moth er's
vagina abdomen.
cervix A samp le of fluid can be taken from the amniotic
sac by inserting a hypodermic needl e throu gh the
abdomen wa ll. This procedure is know n as
amnioce ntesis. The fluid co ntains fetal cells
wh ic h can be cultured to make them di vid e.
The chromosomes of the di vidi ng cells can be
examined to test for chromosomal abnormalities
such as Down 's syndrome.

CHILDBIRTH Childbirth almost comp leted

Throu gh the 9 mont hs of pregnancy, the hor mone
progesteron e ensures that the uterus develop s and sustains
the grow ing fetus. The level of progesterone in the mot her
becom es increasingly high. The end of pregnancy is signalled
by a fall in progesterone level. This allows the mot her's bod y
to secrete anot her horm one - oxy toci n. Oxytoc in causes th e
muscle in the uterus wa ll to co ntract. Uter ine co ntract io ns
stimulate the secretion of more oxytoc in. The uterin e
co ntract io ns therefore beco me stronger and st ronger. Thi s is
an example of posit ive feedbac k.
W hile the muscle in the wa ll of the uterus is contracting, the
cervix relaxes and becomes w ider. The amniotic sac bursts
and the amniotic fluid is released. Finally, often after many
hours of co ntractions, the baby is pushed out through the
cerv ix and the vagina. The umbili cal co rd is cut and the baby
begins its independent life. Contractions co ntinue for a time vagina - the
until the placenta is expelled as the afterbirth. birth canal

Human health and physiology 107

Structure and function of the placenta

HORMONAL CONTROL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE PLACENTA

OF PREGNANCY The figure (below) shows the struct ure and functio ns of the placenta.

Estrogen and progesteron e are The fig ure (bottom) shows how materi als are exc hanged betwee n maternal and fetal bloo d at

needed throu ghout pregnancy the surface of v illi in the placenta.

to stimulate the deve lopme nt

of the uterus lin in g. During the Structure of the placenta
first few days after ov ulatio n Inter-vill ous spaces­
Placenta - a disc-shaped Placental villi - small projections
the co rpus luteum secretes that give a large surface area (14m' ) maternal blood flow s
these hor mon es w hether or structure, 185 mm in
for gas exchange and exchange of thro ugh these spaces,
diameter and 20 mm
not there has been other materials. Fetal blood flows brought by uterine
thic k w hen fully grow n.
ferti lizati on . After impl antin g through capillaries in the vi lli. arteries and carried
in the uterus wa ll, the emb ryo away by uterine veins.
I
starts to secrete a horm on e
called HC G (human cho rio nic
gonado trophin). HCG prevent s
degeneration of the corpu s
luteurn, w hich wo uld happen
at the end of a menstrual
cy cle . HCG stim ulates th e
co rpus luteum to grow and to
co ntinue secretion of estrogen
and progesteron e. Thi s is
essential to allow the Oxygenated fetal blood
pregnancy to co ntinue. By the Deoxygenated fetal blood LfrlllH­ - flows back to the fetus
middle of the pregnancy, the flows from the fetus to the from the placenta along
co rpus Iuteum starts to placenta along two the umbilical vein.
degenerate, but by then cells umbilical arteries.
in the placent a are secreting
estrogen and progesteron e and
En dometrium - the lining Myo metrium - muscular
these ce lls secrete in creasing
of the uterus, into w hich wa ll of the uterus, used
amo unts unti l the end of the
the placenta grows. during childbirth.
pregnancy.

EXCHANGE OF MATERIALS ACROSS THE PLACENTA

nV P\
~
(?\, (j
[J U · (J
Maternal blood °2'

~ O c? © O ©~

in the i nter­ glucose,

vi lIous space lipids,
water,
minerals,
vitamins,
antibod ies,
Chorion ­
hormones
forms the
placental
barrier,
controlli ng
w hat passes in
each dir ection

Cytoplasm of
Basement chorion
membrane produces
(freely permeable) estrogen and
progesterone
and secretes CO 2 ,
Capillary them into the urea,
maternal blood hormones,
carryi ng fetal
water
blood is close
to the vill us
surface and has small
a very thin wa ll distance
of single cells separating NB Maternal blood
maternal does not flow along

~
and fetal the umbilical cord
Connective ti ssue blood or through the fetus.
inside the villus

108 Human health and physiology

EXAM QUESTIONS ON TOPIC 11

a) Defin e excretion. [2]

b) Compare the co mpositio n of blood pl asma and urin e, by giving two di fferences
in the table below. [2]

Blood in the renal artery Blood in the renal vein

c) Exp lain briefly the function of the loop of Henle in the hum an kidney. [2]

d) Deduce w hich part of the kid ney has been damaged if prote in is fo und in the urin e. [1]

2 The electron micrograp h below shows part of a myofibri l, taken fro m a skeletal muscle. The parts marked
M contain myosin filaments. Three ot her regions are labelled I, II and III.

M M
(~-~
A ~-~\ ( - - - - A ~--~\

'-y---J"-.,---/'-------v-----­
I II III
[Source: Dr G. Newman, EM Unit, University of Wales College of Medicin e]

a) (i) State one type of fi lament, apart from myosin, whi ch is present in myofibrils. [11
(ii) Identify in w hich of the regions label led I, II and III these other fi laments can be found. [1 ]

b) The myofibri l is partly contracted. Deduce w hich of the regions wo uld increase in length if

(i) the myofibr il co ntracted more [1]

(ii) the myofibril relaxed [1]

3 a) Compare the structure of human sperm and eggs. [4]

b) Compare the role of FSH in men and wo men. [3]

c) Compare the roles of LH and HCG in wo men. [3]

18 Questions - Human health and physiology 109

12 ...._ _........ ~ ...............
_~_u..-..---
Components of the human diet
NUTRIENTS IN THE HUMAN DIET
N utr ients are chemical substances fo und in foods that are
If there is insuffi c ient vitamin D in the bod y, ca lci um is not
used in the hum an bod y.
absorbed from foo d in the gut in large enough quantiti es.
M any nutrients are needed in the human d iet:
Symp toms of calc ium defi ciency ca n develop (rickets).
am ino aci ds, fatt y acid s, min erals, vitamins and water .
Vitami n D is co ntained in oily fish, eggs, mil k, butt er, cheese
Carbo hyd rates are almost alway s present in human di ets but
and liver. Plant products do not co ntain vitamin D, but it is
specific carbo hyd rates are not essent ial.
usually added du ring the manufacture of soya mil k, margari ne
Minerals and vitamins are bot h needed in small quant it ies,
and breakfast cereals.
but they are chemica lly very d iffe rent :
U nusually fo r a vitam in, it ca n be synthesised in th e skin, but
• minerals are chemic al elements that are obta ined in an
io nic fo rm, for example sodi um as Na" ions and
phosphorus as PO l - io ns
• vitamins are organic compo unds that cannot be synthesized
by the bod y.
RECOMMENDED VITAMIN C INTAKES
The recommended daily intake of a mineral or vi tamin is the
min im um amo unt that should be co nsumed per day to ensure
health . Tw o types of experiment have been do ne to determine
this amo unt for vitam in C.
1. A small mammal called a guinea pig has been used, w ith
groups of guinea pigs fed diets w ith different levels of vitamin
C for a trial period . The level of vitamin C in the blood
plasma and urine of the experimental anim als was then
measured. Also the strength of co llagen in bone and skin was
measured, to test for signs of scurvy (vitamin C deficiency).
The results can be used to estimate the amount of vitamin C
that humans require per kilogram of body tissue.
2. Experim ents we re done in Britain during the Second W orld
W ar, using volunteers w ho we re co nscien tio us ob jectors to
milit ary service. Fo r six wee ks all the vo lunteers wer e give n
a di et lacki ng vitami n C plus a dai ly supplement of 70m g.
The vo lunteers were then d ivided into three groups and
give n 70 mg, 10 mg or no vitami n C per day, for eight
months. They we re given skin cuts, to test for wound
healing and were checked fo r other signs of scurvy . The
10 mg and 70 mg groups did not develo p scurvy, but all
those in the Omg group did.
The results of the human trial suggest that 10 mg of v itamin C
per day is suffic ient, but in most co untries much higher
reco mme nded daily intakes have been set. There are two
main reasons fo r th is.
• To give a safety margin so that the risk of scurvy is minim ized
• To allow fo r variatio ns betwee n ind ividua ls in their general
health and in thei r ability to absorb and use vitamin C
Some sci entists have suggested that the recommended level
should be increased, because vitam in C may give protecti o n
against upper respirato ry tract infecti ons (co lds). For examp le,
Linus Pauling, a Nobel prize-wi nnin g Am erican chemi st,
advocated levels of 1000 mg or more of vi tam in C per day.
There is littl e scientifi c evide nce to bac k up the theor y that
thi s gives protectio n against co lds. There is ev idence that if
the bod y adj usts to high rates of intake by excreting the
excess and intake drop s back to norm al levels, this exc retion
co nt inues, causing scurv y to develop - this is called rebo und
malnutri tion .
Dai ly intake of about 50mg is prob ably suffic ient.
110 Human nutrition and health
~_
VITAMIN D AND THE BALANCING OF RISK
th is o nly happens w it h ultra-vio let li ght (UV). The intensity of
UV is too lo w in w inter in high lat itudes for much v itamin D
to be synthesized, but the liver can stor e eno ugh duri ng the
sum mer to avo id a defi cie ncy in w inter.
Even w hen there is br ight sunlight, three thin gs can prevent
absorpt io n of enough ultra-v iol et li ght by the skin fo r
adeq uate synthesis of vita min D :
• avo id ing exposure to sunlight e.g. staying indoo rs
• cove ring most of the skin w it h clo thing
• apply ing sun creams to block ultra vio let light
These things are all ways of reduci ng the risk of mali gnant
melanom a - a form of ski n cancer that can be fatal. This is
because UV can cause the mutation s that turn skin cells into
tum our cells. A delicate balance must therefore be struck,
betw een over-exposure to UV and an excessive risk of
malignant melanoma, and under-exp osure, w hich brings the
risk of vitam in D defic iency.
IODINE AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTATION
A rti fi cial nutr ient supplementatio n is used w hen a diet
co ntains insufficie nt quantit ies of a nutrient. The nut rient can
be added to a food, or can be supplied in a pure form. Iod ine
is one of the best examples of the benefits of artificia l di etary
supplementation .
Iod ine is needed for the
synthesis of the hormone
thy roxin , by the thyroid gland.
A n obv ious symptom of iodi ne
defic iency di sorder (lD D) is
swell ing of the thy roid gland in j'
the neck, called go itre (see
f igure). ID D also has some less
obvio us but very serio us
consequences. If wo men are
affected du ring pregnancy,
their child ren are born w ith
perm anent brain damage. If chi ld ren suffe r from ID D after
birth, their mental development and intelligence are
impaired .
In 1998 U N ICEF estimated t hat 43 mi ll ion peopl e wo rldwide
had brain damage due to IDD and 11 millio n of these had a
severe co nd ition call ed cretinism. 40 % of the wo rld's
po pu lation was est imated to show some mental im pairment
because of ID D, w ith hi ghest rates in areas w here the soil
used to grow crops and the drin king wa ter cont ain litt le
iod ine.
At the W or ld Children's Summit in 1990 a campaign wa s
started to eliminate IDD by add ing it in small quantiti es to salt
so ld for human consumption. This is a highly effective way of
prevent ing ID D at a cost of only about 5 cents per person per
year. By the year 2000 iodi zed salt was reaching mor e than
3.3 bi lli on peop le. If the campaign to prov ide iod ized salt
th roughout the w orld is successful, no childre n in the fut ure
w i ll suffer from ID D .
Amino acids and fatty acids
AMINO ACIDS IN THE HUMAN DIET
PHENYLKETONURIA
Twenty different amino acids are needed to make proteins.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid, but tyrosine is non­
'rrurnans can maKeabDUt na\~ D~ tn~~~ \n ~\J~\~\een\ ~'Uctl)\\\\ee'S <C'S'S<Cl\\\~\ '\)<C~~'U'S~ \\ ~~\\ '\)<c ~'i\\\\\~~\~~~ \~\)\\\ ))\\~\\'§\~\~\\\\\~.
by conversion from other nutrients in the diet. These are the This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme tyrosine
non-essential amino acids. A shortage of any of the other hydroxylase. If this enzyme is cannot be produced,
amino acids in the diet causes protein deficiency phenylalanine cannot be converted to tyrosine, so levels of
malnutrition. Often this deficiency disease is caused by a phenylalanine in the blood rise, with harmful consequences.
general shortage of protein in the diet, which results in a lack Mental and physical development is retarded in children, if
of most or all of the essential amino acids. the disease is not treated.

One of the most obvious consequences of protein deficiency tyrosine hydroxylase .

malnutrition is the swelling of the abdomen, often seen in
photographs of children in areas of famine. The swelling is
caused by tissue fluid retention, or oedema. In a well­
nourished person, plasma proteins in the blood cause all
tissue fluid to be reabsorbed in blood capillaries. If these
proteins cannot be synthesized, because of a lack of one or
more of the essential amino acids, then fluid builds up in the
tissues, including the abdomen.
Protein deficiency mal nutrition has many other effects, as
proteins have so many roles in the body. The overall effect is
that growth is retarded and if energy is also lacking in the diet
there can be wasting - loss of body mass.
phenylalanine -..;......-_.....:...._-.:...---I.~ tyrosine
High levels of phenylalanine in the blood are a symptorn of
the genetic disease phenylketonuria. In this disease, there is
a deficiency or complete lack of the enzyme tyrosine
hydroxylase, because of a mutation of the gene coding for the
enzyme. In a fetus, the levels of phenylalanine are kept down
by the mother's metabolism, but after birth the levels rise and
soon have harmful effects. In many countries, phenylalanine
levels are tested by a simple blood test soon after birth,
allowing very early diagnosis of phenylketonuria. This allows
a special diet to be fed, containing low levels of
phenylalanine, preventing most if not all of the harmful effects
of the disease.

STRUCTURE OF FATTY ACIDS FATTY ACIDS AND HEALTH

All fatty acids have a carboxyl group (COOH) and a
hydrocarbon chain. Fatty acids are variable in the bonding
between the carbon atoms and the number of hydrogen
atoms bonded to the carbons.
Saturated - all of the carbon atoms in the chain are
Many claims have been made about the health consequences
of the various types of fatty acid but the evidence for many of
these claims is scanty.
Saturated fatty acids
• There is a positive correlation between diets with high

connected by single covalent bonds so the number of

levels of saturated fatty acids and CHD mortality.

hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbons cannot be increased.

• Correlation is not proof of cause - it could for exarnple be

Unsaturated - one or more double bonds between carbon

the low fibre content of most diets high in saturated fat that

atoms in the chain, so more hydrogen could be bonded to the

causes CHD.

carbons if a double bond was replaced by a single bond.

Cis-monounsaturated fatty acids
• Rates of CHD are typically low in people who eat a

H H H H H H 0 Mediterranean type diet, rich in olive oil, which contains

I I I I I I ~ cis-monounsaturated fatty acids.

H-C-C-C-C~C-C-C-C
I I I I I I -, OH • Other factors vary between people, apart from the arnount

H H H H H H of cis-monounsaturated fatty acids in their diets, including

genetic factors, and these could explain differences in rates

Unsaturated fatty acid

of CHD.

(naturally occurring ones have more carbon atoms)

Omega-3 fatty acids

Monounsaturated - only one double bond.
• Much of the tissue of the eye and brain is made up of long­
Polyunsaturated - two or more double bonds.
chain fatty acids. These are synthesized in the body from
The position of the nearest double bond to the CH 3 terminal
essential fatty acids, including omega-3 fatty acids. It seems
is significant. In omega-3 fatty acids, it is the third bond from
reasonable that a deficiency of these would impair brain
CH 3 whereas in omega-6 fatty acids it is the sixth.
and eye development.
Cis unsaturated - hyd rogen atoms are bonded to carbon
• There is no clear evidence that omega-3 dietary

atoms on the same side of a double bond.

supplements improve brain and eye development.

Trans unsaturated - hyd rogen atoms are bonded to carbon

Trans fatty acids

atoms on opposite sides of a double bond.

• There is a positive correlation between diets with high

levels of trans fatty acids and CHD. Analysis has shown that
H
other factors cannot explain the correlation, leaving trans
I
H H -C~C fatty acids as the only risk factor.
I I I • In autopsies after deaths from CH 0, most of the fat in

-C~C- H arterial plaque has been found to be trans fat.

cis trans • Consumption of trans fats is associated with raised LDL

levels and reduced HDL levels, which are associated with

increased rates of CHD.

Human nutrition and health 111

Energy in human diets

ENERGY CONTENTS APPETITE CONTROL

The three types of nutrient that supply most energy in human The brain has an appetite control centre. It is located in the
diets are carbohydrates, fats (I ipids) and proteins. Of these, hypothalamus. Its role is to make us feel satiated when we
fats provide the most energy per gram. Carbohydrates and have eaten enough food. The appetite control centre does this
proteins have a similar energy content. when it receives hormonal stimuli:
• insulin, secreted by the pancreas when blood glucose levels
are high
Nutrient Energy content per 100 g • PYY3-36 secreted by the small intesti ne, when there is food
Carbohydrate 1760 kJ in it
• leptin secreted by adipose tissue, with more secreted as
Fat 4000kJ amou nts of stored fat increase.
Protein 1720 kJ The role of the appetite control centre is very important.
People whose appetite control centre does not function
properly find it much harder to avoid obesity.

DIFFERENCES IN ENERGY SOURCES BODY MASS INDEX

Diets vary around the world, especially between ethnic It is not possible to assess whether a person's body mass is at
groups that eat traditional diets. Usually a few foods are the a healthy level simply by weighing them, because of natural
main energy sources in the diet and these foods are eaten in variation in size between adults. Instead, body mass index is
large quantities. calculated. The units for BMI are kg/rrr'.
• Rice - in tropical and temperate areas, for example in
China and Japan mass in kilograms
BM 1 = - - - - - - ­
• Wheat - in areas with a temperate climate, for example in (height in metresl/
the Ukraine
• Cassava - in high rainfall areas in the tropics, for example The table below can be used to draw conclusions from a
the Yoruba tribe in Nigeria person's BM!.
• Fish - where crop growth is impossible, for example the
Body mass index Conclusion
Inuit tribe in the far north of America
• Meat - in ethnic groups with a nomadic lifestyle, for below 18.5 underweight
example the Maasai of Kenya.
18.5-24.9 normal weight

25.0-29.9 overweight
ENERGY SOURCES AND HUMAN HEALTH 30.0 or more obese
There are health consequences of diets rich in carbohydrates,
fats and protei ns.
Carbohydrates
Consumption of large amounts of sugar can increase the risk

of obesity, Type II diabetes and tooth decay.

CLINICAL OBESITY
Consumption of large amounts of starch can cause obesity,
When a doctor diagnoses that a patient is obese, it is called
but there is Iittle evidence of other health problems,
clinical obesity. The World Health Organization has reported
especially if the starch is in a formulation in which it is slowly
an obesity epidemic, with rates rising rapidly in some
digested, preventing rapid glucose absorption into the blood.
countries. Over 300 million adults worldwide are clinically
Dietary fibre is mostly complex indigestible carbohydrate.
obese. The reasons for this are complex and include these
The health benefits of eating it are described on page 114.
factors:
Fats • foods with a high content of fat and/or sugar are cheap and
Consumption of fats in large quantities carries a significant widely available and smaller quantities of low energy and
risk of obesity. It has also been known for many years that high fibre foods are eaten
there is positive correlation between fat intake and the risk of • economic growth and cheaper foods have allowed larger
death from coronary heart disease (CHD). The type of fat is portion sizes to be served
very significant, with trans fats associated with the greatest • more people are using automated means of transport, such
risk; saturated fats also probably increase the risk of CHD. as cars or buses, and fewer people are walking or using
Causes of CH D are complex and genetic factors and other other active means of transport
dietary factors also have major influences. • many people now have physically undemanding jobs, for
Proteins example in offices, instead of labouring work, for example
Large amounts of protein are sometimes consumed, especially on farms
as a part of some slimming diets that are intended to reduce • many tasks that were done in the home by hand are now
body mass. Although controlled trials have not been done, done by a mach ine
there may be some associated health risks, especially with • the most popular pastimes have become less active, for
animal protein. These include kidney stones (composed example watching television or playing computer games,
of uric acid), gout, reduced kidney function in people who instead of active games or sports.
already have impaired kidney function, and loss of calcium In summary, more food is being eaten, but less of the energy
in urine, increasing the risk of osteoporosis. in it is being used up in daily activities.

112 Human nutrition and health

Issues in nutrition (Part 1)
HUMAN MILK AND ARTIFICIAL MILK
Hum an mi lk is produced by a mother' s breasts after birth and
w hile the baby is st ill suckling. Arti fici al milk, o r infant
for mula, is prod uced w ith a co ntent as sim ilar as possible to
TYPE II DIABETES
This is the type of di abetes that usuall y develops in adults
rather than children and is not treated by inj ection s of insuli n.
1. Causes

human mil k, but it cannot be identi cal in co mpositio n. The

Alt hough beta cells in the pancreas sti ll secrete insulin in

diffe rences are summarized below .

response to high blood gluco se levels, bod y cell s beco me less

Human milk Artificial milk responsive to the insuli n. The causes of this are not entirely

understood , but seem to be associated w ith increased bloo d

Carbo hydrate lactose lactose OR concentrations of fatty aci ds. The foll owi ng factor s all

glucose pol ym ers increase the risk:

Protei n so urce 65 % human w hey 18% bovi ne • di ets rich in fat, and low in fibre

proteins 35% whe y and 82% • obesity, d ue to ove reating and lack of exerci se

casein bovine casein O R • genetic facto rs, w hic h affect fat metabolism.

soya proteins These risk factors vary betwee n et hnic groups and there is

therefo re huge variat io n in rates of Type II d iabetes, from less

Fatty aci ds human butterfat palm , coco nut, than 2% in China to 50 % among the Pim a Indi ans.

soy or safflower
o ils 2. Symptoms

The sympto ms of Type II di abetes are usuall y mi ld and

Antibodies antibodies no antibod ies sometimes develop very gradually ove r a perio d of years, so it

present in the fi rst for fight ing human is not alw ays d iagnosed qui ck ly. These are the main

mil k - co lostrum diseases are sympto ms that are used to diagnose the condition :

present • elevated levels of blood glucose

• glucose in the urine - this can be detected by a simple test

• ti redn ess, increased appetite and loss of bod y mass
• needi ng to exc rete urine freq uently, due to pro duction of
BENEFITS OF BREAST-FEEDING
large vo lu mes of urine
M ost mo thers are advised to breast-feed (nurse) their babi es,
• dehyd ration and thirst - fro m loss of w ater in uri ne.
rather than bottle-feed with artifici al milk, because of the
benefits: 3. Dietar y advice
• breast-feedi ng avo ids the all ergies to prote ins in cows' mi lk Changes to the di et are an obvio us way of trying to co ntro l
or soya that can develo p w hen babi es receive artif ici al Type II di abetes. Adv ice usuall y incl udes:
mil k • reducin g the intake of saturated fats
• breast-feeding prom otes bond ing betw een mother and baby • reducing the intake of sugar, especia lly in sweets (candy),
• freq uent breast-feeding acts as a natural birth-co ntro l snack foo ds and dr inks
method, reduci ng the chance of co nception w hi le the • eat ing more foods that are high in fibr e, incl uding
mo ther is lactatin g and th erefore allowing more tim e vegetables and fr uit
betwee n th e birth of one child and the next • eating regular small meals throughout the day, each meal
• breast milk is naturally sterile so is safer in areas w here it is including mod erate amounts of carbo hydrate, to prevent
impossible to sterilize w ater used to prepare art if icia l mil k high blood sugar levels after a large meal
• milk product ion helps mothers to lose weight after • eati ng carbohyd rates w ith a low glyc emic index (G I),
pregnancy. because they are digested and absorbed slow ly. The graph
(below) shows the effects on blood glucose levels of eating
high G I and low G I foods .
ANOREXIA NERVOSA
Anorexia nervosa is a di seaseth at most ly affects gir ls and 1:
':l high GI
wo men. It usually starts in the mid-teens w hen the emo tio nal o 8­ e.g. potatoes, cakes,
and psych ological changes of ado lescence are occu rring. It E cornflakes, white bread
has co mplex causes, making the condit ion a chall enge fo r all E
those invo lved . The consequences fo r friends and famil y
include anxiety about the physical harm that the condit io n
causes, feelings of guilt about di ffi cult relationships,
powerlessness w hen treatment seems to be failing, and hurt at
the desire for isolatio n show n by many peop le w ith anorexia.
Because peop le w ith ano rexia do not eat enough
2
'l'­
~
U

00
':l
o
.2
co
7­

6­
I 10w GI
e.g. sweetcorn,
beans, peanuts,

Z
carbo hyd rate or fat fo r use in cell respiratio n, pro tein is
broke n down . Mu scles lose mass and beco me w eaker, w ith
feelings of fati gue. Hair becom es mo re brittle and thinner and
there can be hair loss. The ski n beco mes dry and bruises 5­
easily, w ith a grow th of fine hai r all over the bod y. Blood
~, -
I I I
pressure drops, with a slow heart rate and poo r cir culation. a 50 100 150
M enstrual cycles often stop, wi th no peri ods or ov ulatio n, M inutes after intake
mak ing girls w ith anorexia infertil e.

Human nutrition and health 113

Issues in nutrition (Part 2)
ETHICS OF EATING ANIMAL PRODUCTS
CHOLESTEROL AND CHD
M any peop le choose w hat to eat, based on li kes and dislik es,
Cho lesterol is a steroid and is mainly foun d in ani mal
availability and cost. Som e peop le also have ethica l reasons
prod ucts. It is an essential comp onent of memb ranes.
fo r not eating certain foods.
Som e investigations have shown that as the amo unt of
Meat
Anim als have to be kill ed to obt ain meat, usually after reari ng
them on a farm.
• Is it right fo r one animal to take the life of another animal to
obt ain food ?
• Is the pain caused to animals during transport and slaughter
ju stifi able?
• Is the suffering of animals reared fo r meat in unnatur al and
crow ded co ndi tio ns j usti fiable?
Milk
Cow s and oth er mammals produce mi lk after giv ing bir th.
Th is mi lk can be used for human co nsump tio n if th e calf or
young mamm al is separated from its mother soo n after birth.
• Is the huge milk product io n of the cows that have been
bred acceptab le, given that it is often associated w ith health
problems and a short life expectancy?
• Is the suffering of cows w hose ca lves are taken away from
them soo n after birth j ustif iable?
• Is it acceptable to make cows have calves in ord er to
stim ulate m ilk productio n, w hen t hese calves w ill almost
certainly have to be kil led eventually?
Eggs
Most eggs co me from hens (female birds) that have been
specia lly bred for pro lific egg produ cti on.
• Is it acceptable to breed and keep hens that produce far
greater numbers of eggs than their w ild relati ves?
• Is the suffering of egg-layi ng hens kept in unnatu ral
co nditio ns ju stifi able - either in small cages o r in artificia lly
large groups in most free-range systems?
• Is it acceptable to kill male chicks at 1- 3 days o ld because
they do not lay eggs?
Hon ey
Bees are kept in hives and surplus honey is removed w hen
available.
• Is it ju stifiable to take honey from bees that have sto red it
for thei r ow n use w ithin the bee co lo ny?
• Is it acceptable to keep bees in an area w here the bees wi ll
co mpete w ith wi ld insects that forage on nectar from
flowers?
FOOD MILES AND FOOD TRANSPORT
Food mi les are simp ly a measure of how far a food item has
been transpo rted from w here it was produced to w here it is
eaten. M uch food is now transport ed hund reds of ki lo metres
by road o r rai l, or t hou sands of ki lometres by air. Thi s
causes air po ll ution , traff ic co ngestio n and the release of
greenho use gases.
At the other extreme, if urbanizati on was reversed and food
was grow n w here we live, no energy would have to be used
to transpo rt the food .
Some co nsumers now refuse to buy foods w ith high food
miles, hoping that supermarkets and shops w i ll start selling
locall y pro duced food instead.
114 Human nutrition and health
cho lestero l in the blood plasma rises, the risk of death from
CHD (coronary heart d isease) increases. A 10% increase in
blood cholestero l is associated w ith a 30% increase in the ri sk
of death fro m CH D . Other stud ies have suggested that total
blood cho lestero l is less significa nt than levels of cholesterol
in LDL .
Neve rtheless, it seems reasonable that reducin g the amo unt
of cho lesterol in the d iet sho uld cut blood plasma
co ncentratio ns, lowering the risk of CH D . In practice,
dietary cho lesterol only has a small effect on blood cholesterol
levels so the effects of reducing dietary cholesterol are li kely
to be minimal.
Cho lesterol can be synthesized by the li ver and the rate of thi s
varies as a result of genetic d ifferences. In some fami lies, high
blood cholestero l levels are very co mmo n, even w ith diets
very low in cho lesterol .
The main co rrelation between di et and blood cholesterol
levels is w ith saturated fat int ake. As d ietary saturated fat
increases, both LD L and total bloo d cho lesterol levels tend to
increase. CHD rates are also cor related positively with
saturated fat int ake. It is not cl ear w hat, if any, the causal links
are, but most physici ans adv ise reduci ng saturated fat intake,
to try to reduce blood cho lesterol and the risk of CHD .
THE IMPORTANCE OF FIBRE
Fibre is materi al that ca nnot be d igested in the small intesti ne.
Cell ulose from plant ce ll wa lls is the main co mponent of
d ietary fibre, but there are others incl uding chitin from fungi
and crustaceans.
M any invest igatio ns have show n that fibre helps to prevent
co nsti patio n, by increasing the bulk of materi al in the large
intestine. There are ot her possible advantages, but the
ev idence for these is weake r.
• Fibre might help to prevent obesity by increasing the
bul k in the sto mac h, w hic h redu ces t he desire to eat
more food .
• Fibre may reduce the risk of d iseases of the large intestine
incl udin g appendicitis, cancer and hemo rrho ids.
• Fibre might slow the rate of sugar absorptio n and so help
the prevent ion and treatment of di abetes.
O ther co nsumers are not co ncerned about food miles and
instead wa nt co ntinuity of supply throughout the year and
maxim um choice of w orld foo ds.
So me env ironmentalists po int out that there are ot her
energy costs in food produ cti on , suc h as produ cti on and
app licatio n of ferti lizers. As an exa mple, this migh t make
th at the ov erall ene rgy costs of lam b p rodu ced using low
energy input systems in New Zealand and t ranspo rted
aro und t he wo rld by sea, low er than the energy costs of
lo ca ll y prod uced lamb.
During fami nes, transport of food is j ustifiable on
hum anitarian grounds, w hatever th e food mi les.
EXAM QUESTIONS ON OPTION A - HUMAN NUTRITION AND HEALTH

A 1 The nom ogram be low shows the rel ation shi p between mass in kilog rams, height in ce ntimetres and bod y mass ind ex for
adu lts.

140

00 135
~
1:
OJ) 130
'w
3: 125

120

11 5

110

105

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45

40
145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 205
height (cm)

a) Use the nom ogram to est im ate the bod y mass ind ex of adults w ith

(i) a mass of 70 kg and a height of 170 cm [1]

(ii) a mass of 90 kg and a height of 200 cm

[1]

b) (i) Calc ulate the bod y mass index fo r the adults in (a) using the standa rd equat ion.
[2]

(ii) Co m pare the calculated va lues fo r body mass index w ith the est imated values fro m the nom ogram . [1]

c) Expl ain the significa nce of the lines on the nom ogram for bod y mass indices of 18.5, 25 and 30. [3]

A2 a) D istingu ish between

(i) mon ounsatur ated and poly unsaturated fatty aci ds [1 J

(ii) trans and c is unsatur ated fatty aci ds

[1 J

b) Evaluate the health co nsequences of d iets rich in satu rated fatty acids .
[3]

A3 Female mamma ls prod uce m ilk fo r their offspr ing, co ntain ing almost all the nutri ents needed by a young mamm al.

a) Dedu ce the types of nut rien t co ntained in m il k. [3]

b) Human mo thers can either feed their bab ies on their own m il k or on artif icia l m ilk .

D iscu ss the benefits to bab ies of feedin g on mi lk from their mot her. [31
c) Cow's mi lk fo rms part of the human di et, in some parts of the w orld.

D iscuss th e ethics of co nsuming co w's mil k. [2]

IB Questions - Human nutrition and health 115

13
Muscles and fitness
MUSCLES AND MOVEMENT FITNESS
The inform ati on on mu scles and movement described on The result of a successful trainin g programme is a cond it io n
pages 99- 100 of Chapt er 11 is part of Option B. called f it ness.
Fitness is the p hysical co nd ition of the bod y that all ows it to
perfo rm exercise of a pa rtic ular type .
FAST AND SLOW MUSCLE FIBRES
Skeletal muscles co ntain two main types of mu scle fibre, fast It is important to note th at fitness is specific to a particular

fibres and slow fibres. Fast muscle fib res are sometimes called type of exerci se.

Type li b fibres, and slow fibres are Type I. The di fferences Dur ing training programmes, it is useful to measure fitness.

betwee n the two types of fibre are shown below . Various types of measure are used. These often invol ve

measurin g speed o r stamin a.

Fast fibres Slow fibres • Speed is the rate at w hic h a movement is perfor med. The
tim e taken for a mov ement mu st be measured. Speed
Blood supply M oderate, w ith Excell ent, w ith
depends mostly on fast muscle fi bres. Speed is import ant in
some blood many blood
sprinti ng and football.
capillaries capillaries
• Stamin a is the abil ity to cont inue an exerci se for a lon g
Myoglo bi n Little present Large stores tim e. The maxim um dur ation t ime is measured. Stamina
depends mostly on slow muscl e fib res. Stam ina is important
M itochondria Few present Ma ny present
in row ing and in lon g-di stance runnin g.
Cell respir ation Large amo unts Large amounts of Both speed and stamina have their uses as measures of fi tness­
of the enzymes ox idative enzy mes whi ch is better depends on the type of fitness that is being
of glyco lysis, giving in mitochondria, assessed.
a high anaerobic so aerobi c capacity
capacity is high

Stamina Low Hi gh PERFORMANCE ENHANCING SUBSTANCES

Dru gs can be used to enhance perform ances in sport, but
Strength High Mo derate there are strong ethical arguments against their use.

1. The lo ng-term health of spo rtsmen and wo men w ho are

Fast mu scles fibr es co ntract more rapid ly and exert mo re
encourage d to take them may be damaged.
force per unit of cross-sectional area than slow muscle fibr es.
For example, anabolic stero ids can cause men' s testes to
Fast f ibres can release large amounts of energy for a short
becom e smalle r and sperm co unts to be low. Because
period of t ime by anaerobic respiration, so are useful in high­
anabo lic steroids resemb le testosterone, they can int erfere
intensity exerci se, for example 100 m sprint races.
w ith wo men's reprod uct ive system and cause abno rmal
Slow fibres release energy more slowly by aerobic cell
menstrual cycles. H igh doses can cause liver di sease and
respiration, but can co nt inue fo r longer, so are useful in
there have been reports of athletes wh o take anabo lic
endurance events, for example marathons.
stero ids suffering from emotional prob lems, w ith
M uscles vary in the proport io ns of the di fferent types of fibr e,
inap propri ately aggressive o utbursts. Increased muscle
both w ithin a person's bod y and between people. Exercise
strength allows athletes to generate forces so strong that
can affect the proporti o ns w ithin a person's muscles.
muscl es and tendon s can be torn .
Mo derate-intensity exercise, such as long-di stance run ni ng or

2. Dr ug-users gain an unf air advantage in co mpetitio ns.

sw imming, encourages the development of slow fibres. Hi gh­

For example, in M en' s 100m fin als in a recent O lympic

intensity exercise, for example sprinting or we ight lifting,

enco urages the developm ent of fast muscl e fibres.

Games, a high proportion of athletes had prob ably been
taking anabo lic stero ids.
As a result of natural variati on and the effects of trainin g

programmes, elite athletes vary greatly in the proportion s of

3. Crimin als profit from the sale of banned dr ugs.
fast and slow fibr es. The figure (below) shows the mean
For example, there have been prosecutio ns of peop le w ho
percentage of fast and slow fibres in a thigh muscl e in fi ve
have been making substant ial profit s from the illega l sale
groups of athletes.
of anabo lic steroids. If athletes decided not to use these
anabo lic steroids, these profits co uld not be made.
fast slow
sprinters, throwers There are some ethical arguments in favour of legalizing
jumpers I perform ance enhancin g substances, but few genuine
800m runners I arguments, based on ethics, for their use.

alpine skiers ~ 1. Thei r use might overcome natural variation in physiol ogy,
for example, variation in testosterone levels. If all athletes
cross-country

skiers
1 we re able to use them, competition might be fairer.
long-distance
runners 1 .. 2. If they do enhance perform ance, spectators might gain
more enjoy ment from w atchi ng sports.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
% of fibres

116 Physiology of exercise

Exercise and cell respiration
GLYCOGEN AND MYOGLOBIN IN MUSCLE EFFECTS OF INCREASING THE INTENSITY OF
G lycogen is a po lysacc har ide th at is stored in muscle fib res.
EXERCISE
It is made by linking together glucose mo lecul es and can be
As the int ensity of exercise in cr eases, the bod y requires more
broken down to provid e a source of glucose for cell
oxyge n for aerobic cell respirat io n in mu scle fibr es.
respiration . It avoi ds glucose shortage in mu scles durin g

int ense or long-duration exercise.

V0 2 is the volume of oxygen that is absorbed by the body
Some muscle fibres co ntain a red pigmen t called myoglobin.
per minute and supplied to the tissues.
Oxygen binds to it w hen the oxyge n level in mu scle is hi gh.
As the intensity of exercise increases, V0 2 rises, until V02 max
Oxygen is released by myoglobin wh en the ox ygen level in
is reached .
mu scle is very low . The ro le of myoglobin is to act as an

oxygen store, allowing mu scl e fib res to co nti nue aerob ic

V0 2 max is the maximum rate at which oxyge n can be
respiration for longer and delayin g the fo rmati on of lactate.
absorbed by the body and supplied to the tissues.
The i nten sity of exerc ise can rise above the level w he re
Causes of mu scle fat igue in races
V0 2 max is reac hed, by usin g anaerobic respirat io n. Thi s
KEY D Blood lactate
D Glycogen does not happen as a sudde n swi tch fro m one ty pe of
respir ation to t he ot her: as inten sity of exe rci se in cr eases,
concentration breakdown %
%
the pe rce ntage of aerob ic respir ati on decr eases and the
20 100 0)
M pe rcentage of anae rob ic ce ll resp iratio n in cr eases. Aerob ic
'E ]
u ce l l respirati on can use fat o r ca rbo hyd rate as the substra te,
80 :::J
0) 0 15 E c::
but anaerobic cel l respiratio n ca n o nly use car bo hydrate .
c:: 3:

"' E .- 0 For this reason, as th e inten sity of exerc ise in creases, t he

:;~~s 10
60 c::u
0) c:: use of fat in cell respiration falls and the use of
MO)
0 ';:; o ~
o n:l 40 u 0 carbo hy drate ri ses until it reach es 10 0% .
>- ~
00'= cn..Q

~
c
0)
u
5 20 0
c::
o
u
a 1
l
4 15 60
I r
180 >360 a
~
c
REPAYING THE OXYGEN DEBT
Lactate is car ried by bloo d fro m muscl es to the li ver, w here it
Duration of race or other endurance event I minut es is co nve rted to pyru vate. Oxygen is needed to do thi s, so if
lactate is present in the bod y there is an oxyge n debt. If a
large amou nt of lactate builds up during v igorous exercise, a
SOURCES OF ATP IN MUSCLES large amo unt of oxyge n is needed to repay the oxygen debt.
Mu scl e co ntract io n requires a supp ly of energy, It is obtai ned Th is is the reason for deep venti lation s and a rapi d venti lati on
by co nverting ATP to A D P, The ADP th at is produ ced mu st be rate fo r a time after the exercise.
co nve rted back into ATP, for mu scle co ntractio n to co ntinue. The py ruvate pr odu ced w hen the ox ygen debt is bein g repaid
There are th ree ways of doin g th is: can either be conve rted to glucose o r can be absorbed by
mitochondri a and used in aerob ic respira tio n.
1. Cr eat in e ph osphate
Mu scle fi bres co ntain sto res of creatine phos phate, w hic h can
be used to pho sphoryl ate ADP by th is reactio n:
CREATINE PHOSPHATE SUPPLEMENTS
creati ne + ADP
phosphate
•
creatine + ATP Som e athletes use creatine as a d ietary supplement. An
evaluatio n of its effect iveness is given below,
This reactio n allows AT P to be regenerated fo r abo ut 8-10
seconds of intense exercise - eno ugh for a 100 m sprint fo r Qu esti on An sw er
example, If the dur ati on of exercise is longer then cell Is creati ne absorbed from Yes.
respiration must be used. the gut?
2. A naero bic cell respir ation Can dietary sup pleme ntation Yes, but only in athletes wi th
Hi gh-int ensity exercise , such as sprint ing or we ight li ftin g, increase creat ine natur all y low conce ntrat io ns.
requir es ATP to be supp lied at suc h a rapi d rate, that oxyge n co nce ntrations in m uscle? O nly sma ll doses of creatine
cannot be supp lied fast eno ugh for aerob ic cell respiration. are needed to reach maxi mal
An aerobi c cell respir ation t herefore has to be used. Lactate mu scle co nce ntratio ns.
(lact ic acid) is produ ced by th is process and at the same tim e,
hyd rogen io ns acc um ulate. A naerobic respiration can on ly be Is the maximum int ensity There is some evidence of an
used to produce ATP for a maxi m um of tw o minu tes. Beyond of exercise in creased ? increase in maxi mum
thi s duration, hydrogen io n co ncent ratio ns prevent fu rther intensity ove r sho rt du ration s.
anaero bic respira tion , so hig h-intensity exercise canno t be Can in tense exercise be Endurance, invo lv ing aerobic
co ntinued . co ntinued for a longer cell respir atio n, is not
3. Aerobic cell respir ati on time? increased .
Oxygen for this type of respirati on is brought by bl ood
pu mp ed to the muscle . If oxyge n levels in the mu scl e becom e
low , oxyge n supp lies can be supp leme nted for a tim e by Some studies have shown that creatin e phosphate
release fro m my oglobin sto res. supp leme nts cause we ight gain by water retenti on . If thi s
Ae robic cell respir ation can produ ce ATP continuo usly at a happened, perform ance mi ght be im paired .
rapid eno ugh rate for low -intensity exercise, suc h as wa lking
or joggin g, how ever lon g the dur ati on .

Physiology of exercise 117

Training and the pulmonary system

MEASURING PULMONARY FUNCTION EFFECTS OF TRAINING ON VENTILATION

The pulmo nary system co nsists of the lun gs, the associa ted
muscles and the airways lead ing to and from the lungs. There
are various measures of pulmo nary fu nctio n w hich are used
both duri ng the trainin g of athletes and also in the assess ment
of patients w ith di seases of the pulmo nary system.
Total lung capacity is the volum e of air in the lungs after a
maximum inhalation .
Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be
exhaled after a maximum inhalation.
Tidal volume is the volume of air that is taken in or out with
each inhalation or exhalation.
The term venti lat io n wa s def ined in Chapter 6 on page 51 .
Ventil ation has a clea rer meanin g than breathin g, so is used
in IB Biol ogy.
Train ing in vo lves repeating exercises that bring the body int o
the desired state of fitness. There can be effects on the specific
muscles used during trainin g and also more general effects on
the pulm onary and card iovascular systems.
Trainin g can reduce the ventilat io n rate at rest from abo ut
14 to 12 inhala tio ns per minute. Thi s is not because less gas
excha nge is needed, but because the effic iency of oxy gen
absorpt io n and carbo n d ioxide excretio n can be increased .
Trainin g can increase the maximum vent ilat io n rate from
about 40 to 45 inh alations per minute. Thi s is due to
strengt hening of the muscles used fo r venti Iatio n.
Trainin g m ight be expected to increase the vital capac ity of
the lungs, but if there is any increase, it is o nly small. Lung
capac ity appears to be unaffected by traini ng prog rammes.

Ventilation rate is the number o f inhalations or exhalations

per minute. I
ventilation rate at rest

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON VENTILATION

Dur ing exercise, inc reases in ventilatio n rate and tid al vo lu me
I
maximum ventilation rate
usuall y occu r.
• Increases in ventilatio n rate and tid al vo lume bring more
fresh air to the lun gs per minute du rin g exercise.
• This ensures that the co ncentration of oxyge n in air in the
alveo li remains high and the co ncentratio n of carbo n
o
vital capacity

-15 -10 - 5 0 +5 +10 +15

di oxid e remain s low .
percentage change after training
• Blood returnin g to the lungs during exercise has a higher
carbo n d ioxide co ncentratio n and a low er oxyge n
co ncent ratio n th an at rest.
• Concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between alveolar blood and air are therefore steep, WARM-UP ROUTINES
maintainin g a high rate of gas exchange, w ith more carbon M ost sportsmen and women use wa rm-up routin es to prepare
dioxide diffu sing into the alveoli per minute and more oxygen themselves for exercise, w hether in a training sessi o n o r a
absorbed into the blood, than w hen the body is at rest. com peti tive event. For examp le, tenni s players may do
• Thi s is needed because during exercise the rate of aerobic stretching exerc ises and then spend several minut es hitt ing
respir ation in muscl e fib res increases, w ith more oxyge n the ball acro ss the net gently and practising serves, wh il e not
used and more carbo n di oxi de pro duced per minute. under match press ure.
• W hen the amo unt of oxygen supplied per minute to muscl es Variou s reasons are give n to ju stify wa rm-up routin es:
is insuffici ent, anaerob ic respiration has to be used, and 1. Improving performance - bl ood f low to muscles is
the maxim um dur ati on of the exercise is not as long as wh en increased, supp ly ing mo re oxyge n; muscles becom e
aerobic respiration is supply ing the energy that is needed. wa rmer ; the rate of respirat io n can increase, allowing mo re
The chart (below) shows the ventilation rate and tidal vo lume vi go rous and rapid muscle co ntractions w hen the
of an athlete runnin g at diffe rent speeds. co mpetitive event begins.
2. Psychological preparation - if a specific wa rm-up routine
E 3.00 80 o< is used every time befor e an event, it may help to get the
"'0
..... ~.
body mentally ready for physical act iv ity and fo r
~ 2.7 5
70 ~ co mpetitio n, by adrenalin secretio n or other means.
:::J o
0 tidal :::J
3. Preventing injuries- muscles th at have been war med up
~
>
"'0
';:;
2.5 0
volu m.
~ e-€

/
/
/
X
"",
60 *
3
and tend ons and ligaments th at have been gently stretched
may be less vulnerable to injuries.
2 .25
X
/
/
/
50 =t The ev idence for the effectiveness of warm -up routines is
/

/
/ rather thin and is based mostly on small numb ers of ind ividu al
/
2.00 /x
/ 40 cases (anecdotal ev idence) rather than on co ntrolled tri als wi th
large numbe rs. Athletes are understandably reluctant to
-- - -< /
1.75 30 com pete w ithout wa rmi ng up, fo r research purposes. Some
---~ ventilation
anecdotal evidence suggests that war ming up may not be
rate
1.50 --'-----r-----,----, -- ,------,------r- -..--'- 20 essential - reserves often co mpete successfully in matc hes,
7 9 11 13 15 17 19 after littl e or no wa rmi ng up!
speed / km h:'

118 Physiology of exercise

Training and the cardiovascular system

MEASURING HEART FUNCTION EFFECTS OF TRAINING ON THE HEART

The card iovascular system con sists of the blood, the heart and
the bl ood vessels. Heart function can be assessed using these
measures:
Heart rate is the number of contractions o f the heart per
minute.
Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out with each
contraction of the heart.
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped out by the
heart per minute.
Venou s return is the volume o f blood returning to the heart
via the veins per minute.
Training can in crease the thickness of the heart wa ll and the
vo lume of the ventricles. The stroke vo lume is therefore
larger, both at rest and during exercise .
The bod y does not need a larger cardiac output at rest, so the
heart rate can be lower. Trainin g can reduc e the heart rate at
rest to 50 beats per minute.
At any level of intensity of exercise, the heart rate is lower
after training, because of the larger stroke vo lume .
The max im um heart rate is not greatly affected by traini ng, but
because of the greater stroke vo lum e, card iac output is much
greater at maximum heart rate after training . Thi s allows the
train ed athlete to perform a much greater intensity of exercise.

EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON THE RISKS AND BENEFITS OF EPO

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
1. Venou s return increases durin g exerci se. Wh en muscl es in
the legs and arms co ntract, th e muscles becom e sho rter
and w ider and so exert pressure o n adjacent veins. There
are valves in these veins, ensuring that blood f low s towa rds
th e heart. Pressure therefore causes blood to be squeezed
alo ng veins to the heart, increasing venou s return . Thi s
allows card iac outpu t to be increased.
2. Cardiac output increases as a result of incr eases in heart rate
and stroke vo lum e. Exercise involves a rise in carbon dioxide
produ ction by muscles. Abso rption of this extra carbon
di oxid e into the blood causes a decrease in blood pH .
The brain detects the pH decrease and sends impu lses to the
heart's pacemaker, causing the increase in cardiac output.
3. The di stribution of blood changes w hen exerci se starts.
Art eriol es supp lyin g the o rgans of the bod y can narrow or
w iden, decreasin g or increasing the flow of blood . The li sts
below show w hic h organs receiv e more blood during
exercise than at rest, wh ich receive less blood and w hic h
receives the same volume.
M or e dur ing l ess during Same
exercise exercise volu me
Ath letes sometimes increase the amo unt of red blood ce lls, as
a proporti on of the volum e of their bl ood . This is called the
pac ked cell volum e (PCV). At sea level a norm al PCV is
0.4-0 .5. There are several wa ys of increasing PCV above 0.5,
inclu di ng the fo llowing:
1. Injecti o ns of EPO (erythropo ietin), a natu rall y prod uced
ho rmon e that stimulates red blo od cell produ cti on.
2. Blood transfusion s, shortly befor e an event. Often the
transfused blood was removed from the at hlete's bod y long
enou gh before the event for the blood cell s to have been
replaced.
There are clear benefits in terms of perform ance of inc reasing
PCV . As these cell s transport oxygen, the larger the numbers
of them, the greater the rate at w hich oxyge n can be carried
around the bod y by the blood. With more oxygen, skeletal
muscl es can co ntract more vigoro usly .
There are also so me risks. Hi gh levels of PCV increase the
chance of blood clot fo rmatio n (thrombosis). Blood cl ots
cause heart attacks and stro kes. There have been deaths
among cyc lists and ot her athletes, w ho had used one or other
of the methods above to in crease PCV.

skeletal muscle s kidneys brain INJURIES TO MUSCLES AND JOINTS

Vi gorou s exercise sometimes causes injuries to mu scles and
heart w all sto mach joints.
ski n intestines • Torn mu scles - excessive stretc hing causes muscl e fibres,
or mor e rarely an entir e muscle, to tear, for example the
In summ ary, dur ing exercise, blood return s to the heart and is qu adri ceps or hamstrin gs.
pumped out at a greater rate. M uch of thi s blood fl ow s to th e • Sprains - abnormal movement at a joint causes stretch ing
muscles, increasing the supply of oxyge n, allow ing an or minor tearin g of ligaments, for examp le jo ints in the
increase in the rate of aerobic respiration and ATP supply for fingers or the ankle (see fi gure, left).
muscle co ntractio n.
• Torn li gament s - large abno rmal movements cause
ligaments to tear completely, for example the cru ci ate
Ankle sprai ns ligaments in the knee.

• Di slocati on - abnormal movement at a joint causes th e

torn bones to move o ut of alig nment. Usuall y ligament s w ill be
ligament torn at the same tim e.

• Intervertebr al di sc damage - abnormal movements or

heavy loads cause the soft centre of a di sc to bu lge out ,
thr ough a tear in the di sc wa ll (see qu estion 3 on page 120).
swelling
movement causing

ankle sprain

Physiology of exercise 119

EXAM QUESTIONS ON OPTION B - PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE

B1 Hu mans and other mamm als can store ox ygen in the lungs, in m uscles and in the blood . The pie charts below show the vo lume
of oxyge n (cm 3 ) per kilogram of body mass sto red in these tissues in hum ans and in a marin e mammal, the W eddel l seal.

Wedd ell seal Human

2.9

o blood
o muscle
D lung

14.2

3.6

a) Compare the tot al amo unt of oxyge n stored per kilogram of bod y mass in seals w ith that in hum ans. [1]

b) Com pare the pro po rtio ns of oxygen sto red in blo od , muscle and lu ng of seals with those in hum ans.
(N o calculat io ns are required). [3]

c) Suggest t hree facto rs w hich affect how m uch ox ygen can be sto red in m uscle in the bo dy of a ma mmal. [3]

B2 a) Dr aw a di agram to show the structur e of a sarcome re. [3]

b) O utli ne the ro le of ATP in muscle co ntractio n. [3]

c) Compare cardiac output at rest and w hen vi goro us muscle contractions are bein g performed . [1]

B3 The scan (right) show s damage to intervertebr al disc s

in the nec k of a person. Gr ey and w hit e matter in the
spinal co rd can be di stingui shed .

a) State the number of discs that are damag ed . [1]

b) Describe the damage to these di scs. [2]

c) State the othe r part of the person's body that is

affecte d by the disc damage. [1]

d) Suggest how damage to intervertebral d iscs may

be caused . [2]

120 18 Quest ions - Physiology of exercise

14 lAW'" FE""OIIl r? •

EXAM QUESTIONS ON OPTION C - CELLS AND ENERGY

Topics in Optio n C are covered on pages 66-81.

C1 The rate of photosynt hesis in plants can be influenced by many factors . Experim ent s wer e carried out to investigate the effect
of hi gh and low light in tensiti es o n photosy nthesis at differe nt temp eratur es. All other factors w ere kept constant. A sum mary
of the results is presented in the graph below.

.~ 10
c
::>
>­
~ 8
:0
~
'V;
6
<lJ I (high light intensity)
.c
"E 4 <,
~
.8
o
-E. 2 " (low light intensity)

1
e<:
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Ternperature/X.

a) State the name of one lim iting facto r of photosynthesis, apart from temp erature and light intensity . [lJ
b) (i) Dedu ce the facto r limiting the rate of photosynt hesis in experim ent I, betwe en 0 and 30° C.
Give a reason for your answer. [2]

(ii) D iscuss w hic h facto r limits the rate of phot osynthesis in experim ent I, betwee n 35 and 40 °C. [2]

c) Suggest o ne exp lanatio n for the difference betw een the results of experiments I and II. [2]

C2 Enzym es can be inhi bi ted compe titive ly and non- com petiti vely.

a) State one example of :

(i) a co mpetitive inh ibi tor [1]

(ii) a non -com peti ti ve inh ibi to r [1]

b) Compare competitive and no n-competit ive inhibition by stating o ne similarity and one d ifference
in the tabl e below. [2]

Competiti ve inhibiti on No n-co mpetitive inhibi ti on

Simil arit y

Di fference

C3 The reacti on s of part of aerobic ce ll respiration are show n below.

C3
~
~

I { ), Cs
a) Identi fy the com pounds C3 and Cz. [2]
b) Identi fy I and II. [2]
c) State one ot her product of the se react io ns. [1]
d) State the name of the cycle of reacti on s. [1]

18 Questions - Cells and energy 121

15
Origin of life on earth
SPONTANEOUS ORIGIN OF LIFE
Pasteur showed in an experiment in the 19th century that
spontaneous generat ion of life fro m inorganic matter do es not
now take pl ace - cells ca n only be form ed from oth er cells.
Th is is not surprising, as even the simplest prokaryoti c cells
are very co mplica ted. Neve rtheless, w hen the Earth was fir st
formed th ere we re no living ce lls on it, so at some stage the
fir st living cells must have appeared . Claim s that this
happened 3.8 bi llion years ago are now disputed and the
o ldest undi sputed bacterial fossils are in the Gun fli nt che rts of
O ntario, datin g from 1.9 bill io n years ago.
Fo ur proc esses wo uld have been needed for the fir st ce lls to
form :
• chemical reaction s to produce simple organi c mo lecu les,
such as am ino acids, from inorgani c molecul es, such as
water, carbo n d ioxid e and ammo nia
• assembling of these simple organic mo lecu les into
po lym ers, for example, pol ypeptid es fro m am ino acids
• fo rmatio n of poly mers that can self-replicate - this allows
in heritance of characteristics
• develop ment of memb ranes, to fo rm spherical drop lets,
w ith an internal chemistry different from the surro undings,
including the polymers that held the genetic in formation.
The prod uct of these fo ur processes w ould have been cell-like
struct ures. Natural selection co uld have op erated on them,
allowin g evo lutio n to begin .
MILLER AND UREY'S EXPERIMENTS
In 1953, Stanl ey M iller and Harol d U rey investi gated the
theor y that organic co mpounds co uld have formed
spont aneously on Earth . They recreated the co nd ition s that
prob ably existed on Earth before livi ng o rganisms we re
present. Inside their apparatus (belo w) they mi xed the gases
amm o nia, met hane and hydrogen to form a reduci ng
atmosph ere. Electri cal di scharges and the bo iling and
co ndensing of wa ter simu lated lightning and rainfall. After
one wee k, the cl ear wa ter in the apparatus had turn ed to a
mur ky brow n. Analysis revealed many o rganic compounds,
incl udi ng f ifteen amino acids. M i ller and Urey co ncl uded that
organic compounds co uld have fo rmed spo ntaneously on
Earth, before there we re any li ving organisms here.
Miller and Urey's apparatus
water vapour
---:~__
- cold water
in
122 Evolution
ORIGIN OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Vario us possible locatio ns have been suggested for the
synthesis of the organi c co mpounds needed fo r the o rigin
of life.
1. M ille r and U rey's experiments suggest that organic
co mpounds could have been synthesized by chem ica l
react io ns in the atmosphere and in wa ter, o n the surface of
the Earth.
2. There are hydrothermal vents deep in the oceans, w ith
c hemica ls we lling up from the rocks belo w . A round these
vents, there are very unusual chemica l co nd itio ns, wh ich
might have allowe d the spo ntaneous synthesis of the
organic compo unds from w hic h the first o rgani sms
evo lved.
3. Some theories invol ve an extraterrestria l o rigi n for organic
compounds. Experi ments by scientists w orki ng wi th NASA
have shown that organ ic co mpounds and proto -cells could
have form ed in co ld interstell ar space. They might then
have been deli vered to the Earth by meteorites, co mets or
interp lanetary dust. There was a heavy bomba rdment of the
Earth by meteorites 4000 mill ion years ago, w hich mi ght
have brou ght the organi c co mpounds that became
o rganized into the fir st living organisms.
THE ROLE OF RNA IN THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
In modern prokaryot es, the various parts of the genetic
mechanism cannot functio n w ithout each other. For example,
genes cannot be repli cated w ithout enzy mes and enzy mes
cannot be made without genes. It seems incon ceiv ab le that
t he w ho le mech ani sm co uld have evo lved at once, but
grad ual evo lutio n wo uld have requ ired simpler intermed iate
stages. O ne possibili ty is the use of RNA instead of both DNA
and enzy mes. RNA may have had a very significant rol e in
the origin of life. It has two prop erti es that wo uld have
allowed it to do thi s - catal ysis and self-replication .
1. RNA catalyses a bro ad range of chemica l reactio ns. It
co uld therefore have taken the rol e that is carried o ut by
proteins (enzy mes) in the organisms that now exist on
Earth.
RNA st ill catalyses some reactions, for example pept ide
bond fo rmat ion du ring protein synthesis in the ribosome.
2 . RNA is capable of self-replicatio n - one mo lec ule can for m
a templ ate fo r the produ ct ion of another mo lecule,
foll owi ng the rules of com plementary base pairin g. If the
new ly synthesized mole cul e is then used as a temp late, a
repli cate of the o riginal mol ecule w ill be produced .
No biol ogical mec hanisms now exist fo r self-replicati on by
RNA mo lecul es, but this is not surpris ing as RNA was
superseded, bill ions of years ago, by DNA as the genet ic
material and by prot eins as the catalysts of life. There are
var ious reasons for the DN A- protein w orld rep laci ng the RN A
w o rld . O ne possibi lit y is that the maximu m length of RNA
mo lecul es is about 150 0 nucl eot ides - thi s places a severe
restriction o n the amo unt of genetic infor mat io n that can be
held . RNA viruses, for example, have a very small genome .
Origin of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
MEMBRANES AND PROTOBIONTS
To form the fir st cells, membranes we re needed to separate
cytop lasm and its metabo li sm from the surroundin g fluid .
Phospholip ids natur ally group togeth er to form bi layers
in wat er. These bi layers form spherica l structures enc losi ng
a d rop let of f luid , simi lar to the vesicl es th at are now found
in ce lls.
W ater containin g t hese membr ane-bound micro spheres is
call ed coacer vat e and is viscou s and cl o udy in appearance.
Because of th eir hydrophob ic prope rti es, bi layers of
pho sphol ipid wo uld have all owe d an int ernal env iron me nt
to develop , different from the surround in g env ironme nt.
These primitive cell-li ke structures, that may have preceded
living cells, are called protob iont s. To become cells, they
wo uld have had to develop genetic mechanisms to allo w
reprod uct io n and the transmissio n of characteristi cs to
offsp ring. The details of th is transition are not yet und erstood .
PROKARYOTES AND THE ATMOSPHERE
The first organisms on Ea rth to use photosynthesis for the
synthesis of organi c compo unds were prokaryotes. Wh en
these organisms started to use w ater as source of hydro gen in
photosy nthesis, oxygen started being released as a wa ste
product into the atmosphere. There is evid ence that before
this time there w as littl e ox ygen in the atmosphere.
Concen tratio ns of oxygen bui lt up over a relatively short
period - about a hundr ed mill ion years! This w as prob ably
du e to the activ ity of photosynt hetic pro karyotes. Oth er
prok aryot ic organisms w ere able to use aerobi c cel l
" :
respiratio n, once the atmosphere co ntained oxygen.
Rocks in Greenland datin g from 3.7-3 .8 million ago, called
the banded iro n form ation, give evidence of oxygen in the
atmosphere. This suggests that prokaryot ic cells had evo lved
and were producing oxyge n by then. Among existing
organisms, photosynthetic bacteri a in hot springs and ot her
extreme environ ments are prob ably most sim ilar to these
early prokaryotes .
c::
c
~
c Further increase in
eJc::
o atmospheric oxygen
u concentratio n due •
c::
Q)
OJ:!
to photosynthesis in
c-,
X eukaryotes
o
.'=!Rise in
11 atmospheric
~ oxygen I
~ concentration
OJ due to
.~ photosynthesis
~ in prokaryotes
3 2 1 0
billi ons of years ago
THE ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
Eukaryot ic cells co ntain mi tocho ndria and chloroplasts,
wh ich are not fou nd in prok aryoti c cells. If eukaryotic cells
evolved from prokaryotic cells, the origin of these organelles
must be explained.
Accord ing to the endosymbioti c theory , both mito cho ndria
and chlo roplasts have evo lved from ind ependent pro karyoti c
cells, whi ch w ere taken int o a larger heterotro phic cell by
endocy tosis. Instead of being digested, the cells w ere kept
alive and conti nued to carry out aerobic respiratio n and
photo synth esis. The characteristics of mit och ondri a and
ch lorop lasts support the endosymbiotic theory.
• They grow and di vid e like cells .
• They have a naked loop of DNA, like proka ryotes.
• They synth esize some of their own protein s using 70S
ribosomes, li ke prokaryotes.
• They have doubl e membr anes, as expected w hen cells are
taken into a vesicle by endocytosis.
Some biologists have suggested that flagella and cil ia also have
an endosymbiotic origin, but the evidence for this is less clear.
The evolution of eukaryotes from prok aryotes d id not just
involve the developm ent of mitochon dria, chlo roplasts and
possibly c ilia and flagell a. Eukaryotic chrom osom es, meiosis
and sexua l reprodu ction also had to evo lve. On ce th is had
happened, evo lutio n could take place at a much more rapid
pace th an befor e and there wa s w hat has sometimes been
described as an exp losion of life on Earth.
o
o - ~
o Bacterium
o . .~~0)
' .;< :., ~~;- '-:_,~;
~ I...~"', ... ;
wit h aerobic
_," ,
N respiration
' . \i.~
'~"~
_ ; ': ' , . ;.
O
o taken in by
- - ­ endosymbiosis
.<;. • ,- "
,/,\ and evolves
" ... - , ,>
o into the
o o / mitochondrion
Cell wi th a nucleus, which only respires anaerobically
GENE POOLS AND ALLELE FREQUENCIES
A new individual, produ ced by sexual reproducti on, inherits
genes from its tw o parents. If there is random mating, any tw o
individuals in an interbreeding popu lation cou ld be the two
parents, so the indi vidu al could inherit any of the genes in the
interbreeding popu lation. These genes are called the gene pool.
A gene pool is all the genes in an interbreeding population .
Many genes have di fferent alle les. In a typ ical interbreedin g
population, some alleles will be commoner than others. How
common an allele is can be assessed using allele frequenc y.
Alle le frequency is the frequency of an allele, as a proportion
of all alle les of the gene in the population.
All ele frequenc y can range from 0.0 to 1.0.
Evol ution always invo lves a change in all ele frequency in a
popu lation 's gene poo l, over a number of generations.
Evolution 123
Species and speciation
WHAT IS A SPECIES?
Bio logists have been argui ng about the exact meanin g of
the term species fo r ov er tw o hund red years. Before the
di scovery that species can evo lve, a species w as regarded
as a type of livin g organism w ith f ixed characte ristics,
w hic h di stinguish it from other species. This is known as
the mo rphological defi niti on of a speci es. It is sti ll a useful
idea. Species can usuall y be di stinguished from each other
by their characterist ics - this is how speci mens are
identi fi ed.
Howeve r the morp ho logical definitio n does not recogni ze
the fact that specie s ev o lve . If two popu lation s w ith similar
but not identical characterist ics are geographically
separated, they may be in the gradual process of splitt ing
from one species into tw o separate ones. It is not easy fo r a
taxo nomist to decide wh ether to cl assify them as one or
tw o species and some criterio n is needed to deci de. The
reason fo r members of a speci es having co mmo n features
is that they interbreed w ith eac h other. The reason for the
characteristics of o ne species being different from those of
another is that the tw o species do not interbreed and are
evo lving separately . Bio logists now regard interbreed ing as
a mo re imp ort ant criterio n than mor phol ogy. The
bio logical defi niti o n of a species is a group o f actually or
potentially interbreeding populations, with a com m on
gene pool, which are rep roductivel y isolated from other
suc h groups.
O nly if two separated pop ulati ons can be shown to be
capable of interbreed ing should they be classified as one
species.
The bio logical species defini tion is w idely accepted, but it
does cause some prob lems.
• M any sibling species have been fo und . These are
species that cannot interbreed, but show no significa nt
d ifferences in appearance. A lthou gh separate species,
they are ve ry d iffi cult fo r eco log ists to identify. For
example the Pipi strelle bat in Britain w as recently shown
to be two sibling speci es.
• Som e pairs of species that are cl early di fferent in their
c haracteristics w ill interbreed . M any plant species
hybrid ize and some ani mals also, e.g. rudd y d ucks and
w hite-headed ducks (below ).
• Som e species always reprod uce asexually, so the
memb ers of a pop ulatio n do not interbreed . The
bio logical spec ies defi nitio n is therefore unusab le.
• Fossils cannot be cl assified acco rd ing to the bio logi cal
spec ies defi nition, as it is imp ossib le to decid e with
w hic h organisms they wo uld have been able to
interb reed.
Two animal species that can interbreed
Ruddy duck W hite-headed duck
124 Evolution
SPECIATION
The for matio n of new species is called speciatio n. New species
are formed w hen a pre-exi sting species splits. Th is usuall y invo lves
the iso latio n of a popu lation from the remainder of its species and
thus the isolation of its gene pool. The isolated population w ill
gradually diverge from the rest of the species if natural selectio n
acts differently on it. Eventually the isolated population wi ll be
unable to interbreed wi th the rest of the species - it has become a
new speci es. Speci ation can either be allopatric or sympatric.
1. A llo patric speciati on occurs w hen members of a species migrate
to a new area, forming a pop ulatio n that is geographica lly
isol ated from the rest of the species. Interbreedin g is imp ossible
- geographical isolation acts as a barrier betw een the gene pool s
of the populatio ns. The populatio ns can therefore split to form
separate species. This can happen repeatedl y, for example with
the lava lizards of the Galapagos.
Di stribution of lava lizards on the Galapa gos Island s
• Pinta
o Genovesa
Marchesa
~n sa lvado r
4> <t
e • Santa Cruz San Cristobal
San~ Fe 8
Isabela
~ o Espanola
Santa Maria
KEY ~ T.grayii o T. bivittatus
lZill T. albemarlensis • T.pacificus o T. delanonis
. . T.duncanensis T. habelii
2. Sympatric speciatio n occ urs wh en tw o varieties of a species
live in the same geographica l area, but do not interbreed . Two
examp les w il l be co nsidered here:
(a) The apple maggot fly (Rhago letis pomonella) of North
A merica is an example. It used to lay its eggs o nly on
haw thorn fruits, w hic h w ere the foo d of its larvae . It now
also infests non-n ati ve apple trees as well . O ne strain of th is
spec ies now lays its eggs on apple fruits and other strains
o n haw thorn frui ts. Because the fruits ri pen at different
ti mes, adults of the tw o strains emerge and mate at different
times, so there is a behavioural or temporal barrier
betw een the gene poo ls. There are d ifferences in alle le
f requenci es of the tw o strains show ing that sympatric
speci atio n has started to occur.
(b) Barriers betw een gene pools can also occur by hybrid
infertility, often due to polyploid y. If there are some tetraploid
individuals in a population, the gametes that they produce will
be dip loid . Hybrids produced w hen diploids mate w ith
tetraploids w ill be triploid. These hybrids wi ll always be sterile
as meiosis fails in triploid cells. So, diploids can only produce
fertile offspring by mating w ith d iploids and tetraploids by
mating w ith other tetraploids. Plants in the genus Rum ex are
good examples of speciation by polyploidy . The basic diploid
chromosome in thi s genus is 20, but Rumex obtusifolius has
40 chromosomes and so is a tetraploid. Rumex crispus is a
hexaploid wi th 60 chromosomes and there is eve n a decaploid
species - Rumex h ydrolapathum , with 200 chromosomes!
Trends in evol ution
ADAPTIVE RADIATION
Speciation often happens repeatedly, to form a group
of species from one ancestral species. Sometimes each
species then evolves in very di fferent ways. This is called
divergent evolution . By becoming adapted to different
ecologica l roles, the diffe rent species avoid competi tion with
each ot her. If species in a group diverge rapidly in th is way, it
is calle d adapti ve radiation . Thi s can happen w hen the group
has a characteristic that gives it a co mpetitive advantage over
existi ng species or w here there are oppo rtunities that no other
species are utilizin g. Darw in's finches on the Galapagos
archipe lago are an example. Mam mals are another group that
demo nstrate adaptive radi ation . The figure (below) shows
examp les of the mamma lian pentadacty l li mb, derived from
one ancestral mammal.
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
Livin g organisms often fi nd the same solutio ns to partic ular
physio logica l prob lems. If natural selection acts in the same
way , in different parts of the wo rld, species can become
remarkably similar, despite not being closely related. This is
called convergent evolution . It is the converse, in many ways,
of adaptive radi ation . Instead of closely-related species
show ing striking differences, unrelated species show striking
simi larities. Cacti and euphorbias are examples of this. The
photograp hs below show a cactus from the south-west USA
and a euphorbia from Madagascar.
Ocotillo (a cactus) from Allaudia (a euphorbia) from
south-west USA Madagascar
RATES OF EVOLUTION
There has been much discussion among biologists about rates
of evolution. O ne idea, called gradualism , is that evolutio n
proceeds very slowly, but large changes can gradually take
place over long periods of tim e.
This does not fit in wi th the fossil record, w hich shows
periods of stability, with fossils showi ng littl e evolut ion,
fo llowed by periods of sudden major change. The periods of
stability may be due to equi librium w here living organisms
have become we ll adapted to their environment so natural
selection acts to maintain their characteristics. The periods of
sudden change that occasionally occ ur, may correspond wi th
rapid environmental change, caused fo r example by vo lcanic
erupt ions or meteor impacts. New adaptatio ns wo uld be
necessary to cope wi th changed enviro nmental conditio ns,
hence strong directio nal selection and rapid evolutio n. This
view of the pace of evo lution is called punctuated
equilibrium .
TRANSIENT POLYMORPHISMS
A pop ulatio n in w hic h there are two alle les of a gene in the
gene poo l is polymorphic. If one allele is gradually replacin g
the other the popu lation shows transient polymorphism. The
peppered moth, Biston betularia, is an examp le of this. In
bot h Britain and the Un ited States, melanic forms were
discove red in the 19th century (carbonaria and swettaria) .
Both of these forms are due to dom inant alleles of a gene that
affects wing co lour. These domin ant alle les increased in
frequency in some areas, w here air pollution caused natural
selection to favour moths wi th dark wings .
In many areas the domi nant alleles then decreased in
frequency in the second half of the 20th century. This was
because there had been cont rol of air poll utio n and the
cleaner air meant that natural selection favou red the lighter
coloured moths. The dom inant alleles for darker w ings wi ll
probably reduce to very low frequencies in areas w here there
is clean air.
BALANCED POLYMORPHISMS
Someti mes two alle les of gene can persist indefinitely in the
gene pool of a popul ation. It is not therefore a transient
polymorphism and instead is called balanced pol ymorphism .
The most thoro ughly researched example of a balanced
polymorphism is sickle cell anemia (see page 23).
• Individu als with the genotype H&AH&A do not develop
sick le cell anemia but are susceptib le to malaria.
• Individuals wi th the genotype Hb5Hb5 are resistant to
malaria, but develop severe sick le cell anemia.
• Heterozygous indi vid uals (H&A Hb5) do not develop sickle
cell anemia and are resistant to malaria. They are therefore
the best adapted in areas w here malaria is found.
Both of the alle les of the hemoglobin gene therefore tend to
persist in malarial areas. The sick le cell alle le has increased in
frequency to high levels in some of these areas. In parts of
Africa, as many as 40% of the pop ulation are carrie rs of the
sickle cell allele, so show resistance to malaria.
Evolution 125
Human origins

HUMANS AS PRIMATES Ardipithecus ramidus (4 .4 mill ion years)

The prim ates are an o rde r of mammals, incl ud ing apes,
mon keys, tarsiers and lemurs. They we re given this name
because they we re co nsidered to be the highest orde r of
ani mals. Hum ans are classif ied as prim ates, because they
have the anatom ica l features that are characteristic of this
order:
• Grasping limbs, w it h lon g f ingers and a separated
opp osable thumb.
• M obil e arms, w ith sho ulder jo ints allowing m ove ment in
thr ee pl anes and the bon es of the shoulde r gird le allowing
w eight to be transferred via the arms.
• Stereoscop ic visio n, with fo rwa rd facin g eyes on a fl attened
face, giv ing ove rlapping fields of view .
• Skull modified fo r upright posture.
The unavoidable co ncl usio n, so shoc king w hen it was first
draw n, is that hum ans evo lved from other primate spec ies.
There has been a huge research effort to try to fi nd out how
this occurr ed.
Onl y fragments of skulls and other bon es have been found so
far. They suggest c haracters intermed iate betwee n
chim panzees and A ustralop ithecus :
- small numb ers of large molars, like chimps
- inci sors slightly smaller than those of chi mps
- canines blunt and proj ectin g less than tho se of ch imps
- fo ramen magnu m (hole th rough w hich spi nal co rd enters
the skull) furth er fo rw ard than in apes, suggesti ng
A rdipithecus was at least partiall y bi pedal.
Australopithec us afarensis (4 to 2.5 mil lion years)
tall lower
jaw
fairly large molars
Australopithec us africanus (3 to <2.5 million years)

~
projecting ...
TRENDS IN HOMINID FOSSILS / face 0 :'0
Hom in ids are memb ers of the fam ily Hominidae - the family
tall thick ­ --/­
. (JJ\ ~'
that incl udes humans. A notable feature of th is fam ily is bony strut :: .
lower jaw
wa lking on tw o legs - bip edalism.
Homo sap iens is currently the o nly species of hominid but
large molars
ot her species existed in the past. At var io us stages in hom inid
evo lutio n, several species almost certainly co-ex isted, fo r Hom o habilis (2.4 to 1.6 mill ion years)
example Homo sapie ns w ith Homo neanderthalensis. M any
hom inid fossils have been fo und, dated, and assigned to a
species. These fossils show evo luti onary trends:
• includ ing inc reasing adaptat io n to bipedalism
• increasing brain size in relation to body size.

Brain sizes of Homo and Australopithecus large molars

2000 Homo erectus (1.7 to 1.8 million years)
/ receding forehead
Homo sapiens 0
and neanderthalensis3 large
1: 1500 brow
~ o ridges
E "0
:::J
-0
Homo erectus 0 '3f'og
> o

c
o 0 o 0
. ~
1000 Homo habilis o a
o 0
J:J o o~ smaller molars
U
00 o o a
.8
"" Australopithecus -- -~. 8 Homo neanderthalensis (500000 years)
E 00 < ,
'-0; 500 o 0
o
8 0
low forehead
L.LJ
8 0 <9
/ smaller
brow
0 +-----,-- --,--- . -- ...,------,--
3.0 2.0
--,-- - . -­
1.0 o ·J 9 ridges

M illions of years ago

smaller molars
O ther trends are show n in the fi gure (right).
Fossils of Ardipithecus were found in Ethiopi a,
Australop ithecus and Homo habilis fossils we re all fo und in
Southern or Eastern Afr ica. Homo erectus fo ssils we re fo und
in Eastern Af rica, but also in Asia, ind icating th at there was no brow
migration out of Af rica. Hom o neanderthalensis fossils we re ridges
fo und in Europe and Homo sapiens in many parts of the wo rld flat face
indicating further migratio ns. ve ry small jaw
small molars

126 Evolution
Human evolution

TRACING HUMAN EVOLUTION HOMINID DIETS AND BRAIN SIZE

O ur understandi ng of human evo lutio n is based mostly on
fossils and the hominid fossil record co ntains many gaps. It is
not unu sual fo r the fossil reco rd of a group of orga nisms to be
inco mpl ete. O nly a tiny pro portion of animal bodi es becom e
fossilized. It is far mo re usual for animal bod ies to be eaten by
detriti vores, decomp osed by bacteria o r broken down
chemica lly . O rganic acids in decomposing material react
w ith alkali in bones and teeth, for example. Homin id fossils
co nsist o nly of bon es and teeth. These remain s have been
preserved w here dr y sed iments have qui ck ly cove red them
and have remain ed und isturbed.
Because the hom inid fossil record is incomp lete, it is far from
clear how the different species of hom inid are related . Ma ny
detail s of human evolutionary origins are also uncertain.
Di scoveries of small numbers of fossils can cause major
changes in the prevailing theories. For example, there have
been recent finds of an Australopithecus species, w ith
characteristics betw een those of Ardipithec us ram idus and
Australopithecus afarensis. Dati ng of fossils of the three species
from the Afar district of Ethiopia suggests that they did not
co-exist, but instead they form an evolutionary lineage. As w ith
most theories about human evo lution, this has been disputed!
DATING FOSSILS
To place fossils into a sequence it is necessary to know their
dates. Fossils, or the rocks containing fossils, can be dated using
radioisotopes - radioactive isotopes of chemical elements.
Wh en an atom of a radioi sotope decays, it changes into another
isotop e and gives off radiation . The rate of decay varies between
different radioisotopes and is expressed as the half-life.
The half-life is the time taken for the radioactivity to fa ll to
half of its original leve l.
The graph below shows a decay curve for radi oi sotop es.
E100 100
.8
::c: 80 80
~ 1:
'"
Q. 60 60
'0
(l)
'0
.& 40 surviving
parent atoms
40
c:
(l)
::: 20 20
The brains of early homini ds (Australopithecus) we re only
sli ghtly larger in relation to body size than the brains of apes.
The powerful jaw s and teeth of A ustralopithecus indi cate a
main ly vegetarian di et.
Abo ut 2 .5 million years ago Africa became much coo ler and
d rier. Savannah grassland replaced fo rest. This change of
habi tat may have prompted the evo lutio n of the first species
of Homo, w ith the development of increasingly sophisticated
too ls and a change to a d iet that included meat obta ined by
hunt ing and killing large ani mals.
Th is change in di et cor respo nds w ith the start of the increase
in brain size of hom ini ds. Th is w as due to continued rapid
brain growt h after birth . In apes and earl ier hom inids, brain
growth slows after bi rth. The corre lat ion betwee n the change
in die t and the increases in brain size can be exp lai ned in
two w ays:
1. Eating meat increases the supply of protein, fat and energy
in the di et, making it possible fo r the grow th of larger
brains.
2. Catc hing and killi ng prey on the savannas is more di ffic ult
than gathering plant food s, so natural select io n wi ll have
favoured homi nid s w ith larger brains and greater
intelli gence.
GENETIC AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION
The large brai ns of Homo sapiens and ot her species of Hom o
all ow much to be learned, both during the long period of
child hood and during adu lthood.
Language, too l mak ing skills, huntin g techn iques, method s of
agric ulture, reli gio n, art and many ot her for ms of behaviour
are passed on from one generation of a tribe or othe r group to
the next by teachin g and learning. These thin gs are the
culture of the group.
New methods, in vent ions o r customs can be in co rporated
E
o into w hat is passed o n. This is called cultural evolution and is
-;;;
Q:;
diffe rent from the type of evo lutio n that i nvo lves natural
selection betwee n in herited differences - genet ic evolution .
OJ:!
:J
'" • Cultural evo lutio n does not in vol ve changes in alle le
-0
frequenc ies in the gene poo l.
(l)
OJ:! • Changes due to cultural evo lution can happen du rin g one
£3 human li fetim e, w hereas genetic evo lutio n happens ov e r
c:
(l)

~ .•..........
..
_- ~ -_
.
...:
"

; -- - ..
u
Q:;
c,
234 5 0
Time / half-lives
The two radioisotopes that are most com mo nly used are 14C
and 4oK. In radiocarbon dating the percentage of surv iv ing
14Catoms in the samp le is measured. In potassium- argon
datin g, the prop ort ions of parent 40K atoms and daughter 40Ar
atoms are measured. In both methods the age in half-li ves can
then be deduced from the decay curve. The half- life of 14C is
57 30 years so it is usefu l for datin g samples that are betwee n
one thou sand and one hundred thousand years o ld . The half­
life of 4oK is 1250 mi ll io n years so it is useful fo r datin g
samples older than 10 0 000 years.
generations, so cultural can be much more rapid than
genetic evo lutio n.
• Cultural evo lutio n invo lves characteristics acquired du ring
a person 's life (nurture) w hereas geneti c evo lutio n involves
characteristics that are inherited (nature).
In the recent evo lut io n of hum ans, cultural evo lution has
been ve ry important and has been respon sible for most of the
changes in the lives of humans ove r the last few thou sand
years. This is muc h too short a period for genetic evo lutio n to
cause much change. A lso some aspects of cultural evo lutio n,
for exam ple the deve lopme nt of medi cin e, have reduced
natural selectio n between di fferent genetic types and
therefore genetic evo lutio n.

Evolution 127
 The Hardy-Weinberg principle

THE HARDY-WEINBERG EQUATION HARDY-WEINBERG CALCULATIONS

Evolut io n invo lves changes in allele frequency, so it is a useful
skill to be able to do calculatio ns invo lving allele frequencies.
The Hardy- W einberg equation is often used for thi s.
If there are tw o alleles of a gene in a population, the frequency
of the alleles in the popu lation is usually represented by
the letters p and q. The total frequency of the alleles in the
popu lation is 1.0, so
p + q = 1.
If there is random matin g in a popul ation, the chance of
inherit ing two co pies of the first of the two alle les is p x p. The
chance of in heritin g tw o copies of the second of the tw o
alle les is q x q. The expec ted frequency of the two
homozygous genotypes is therefo re rl- and q2. The expected
frequency of the heterozygous genotype is 2pq . The sum of all
of these frequencies is 1.
p2 + 2pq + q2 =1
Thi s is calle d the Hardy-Weinberg equati on. It is represented
by the figure below .
The Hardy- W einberg equation can be used in calculatio ns if
certai n assumptio ns can be made :
• that there is random mati ng in the pop ulat ion
• natural selectio n does not cause higher mortalit y of
indi vid uals w ith one allele than the other
• there is no mutatio n
• the populatio n is not very small
• there is no immigratio n or emigra tio n.
If these assumptio ns are co rrect, the po pulation is said to be
in Hardy-Weinb erg equi libriu m and the equatio n is valid for
that populat io n.
1. Example of calculating phenotype frequencies
A n experimental plot of pea plants is established by sow ing
seeds of pure breed ing tall and dwa rf variet ies, in a ratio of
three tall to one dwa rf. The plants are allowed to produ ce
and disperse seeds natu rally.
The co nd itio ns on the plot ensure that all the ass umptions
fo r the Hardy-Weinb erg equatio n are satisf ied. W hat
proporti on s of tall and dwarf pea plants are expected after
several generatio ns?

Genotypes of pu re-breed ing varieties are TT and tt

p q
Frequency of T (p) is 0.75
Frequency of t (q) is 0.25
Frequency of dw arf plants (tt) = q2 = 0.25 2 = 0.0625
Frequency of tall plants = 1 - q2 = 1 - 0.0625 = 0.9375
p pq This frequency co uld also be calculated as rl- + 2pq
2. Example of calculating all ele fr equencies
The gene that contro ls t he ability to taste
phenylthiocarbamid e (PTC) has two alle les.

q pq Abi lity to taste PTC is due to the dom inant allele (D and

non -tasting is due to the recessive alle le (t).

1600 peopl e w ere tested in a survey.

461 were no n-tasters - a frequency of 0.288 .

Their genoty pe was hom ozygo us recessive (t t).

If q = frequency of t alle le, q2 = 0.288 so q = 0.537

Occas io nally it is possible to test w hether the proportio ns of

If P = frequency of T alle le, p = (1 - q) = 0.4 63

genoty pes in a populati on f it this equatio n. Both allele

frequencies and genotype frequencies must be know n. 3. Example of calculating genoty pe frequ enci es
The table below shows the results of a survey of the M N Cystic fib rosis is a genetic di sease caused by recessive
blood group gene in a Japanese town. The tw o alleles of this alleles of a chlo ride channel gene.
gene are co-dom inant.
M ore than 27000 peop le in Scot land, no ne of w ho m had
cystic fibr osis, were screened to see if they we re carriers of
A llele frequencies in the parental generatio n
an allele for cysti c fib rosis.
M alle le: p = 0.52 5 N allele: q = 0.475

From t he frequency of carriers, the allele frequencies in the

population co uld be deduced:
Genotype frequencies in the offspr ing

Frequency of nor mal allele = p = 0.9776

Predicted Actual
Frequency of cystic fi brosis alle le = q = 0.0224

MM p2 = 0.276 0.274
MN 2pq = 0.499 0.502 Wh en these peop le have chi ld ren, the chance of their child
NN q2 = 0.225 0.224 being homozygous fo r the cystic fibrosis alle le is
q2 = (0.0224)2 = 0.000502
The results of the survey show that the actual genotypes fit
This is equivalent to about one child in 1900 w ith cystic
those predicted by the Hardy-Wei nberg equatio n very cl osely.
fib rosis.
The populat io n therefore follow s the Hard y-Weinberg
Principle. The chance of their chi ld being a carrier is
2pq = 2(0.9776 x 0.0224) = 0.0438
Thi s is equivalent to abo ut o ne chi ld in 23 being a carrier.

128 Evolution
 Classification and phylogeny

REASONS FOR CLASSIFICATION

Classificatio n in bio logy is arranging li ving organisms into - Hy lobates syndactylus
(siamang)
groups. There are many advantages:
• Species ident ificat ion - it is easier to fi nd out to w hi ch
species an organism belo ngs with organisms classified ba tes conc olor
rather t han forming a disorgan ized catalogue . (w hi heeked gibbon)
• Predictive valu e - if several members of a group have a
characteristic , another species in this group w ill probably
Hylobates klossi
also have this characteristic. Kloss's gibbon)
• Evolutionary links - species that are in the same group
probab ly share characterist ics because they have evo lved
from a common ancesto r, so the cl assification of grou ps can Hylobates lar
(w hite eaded gibbon)
be used to predict how they evo lved.
These are advantages of a natural cl assificatio n - one that
matches the evo luti onary origi ns of the species in the group .
Artificia l classif icatio n systems sometimes help with species r'o ngo pygmaeu s
identification, but have no other value. An example of an (orang-utan)
artificia l classifi cation is putti ng insects, bird s and bats into
one group because they fly. The w ings of these ani mals are
examp les of analogous st ructures - structu res with a common -
fun ction , but a d ifferent evo lutionary ori gin . Natu ral Pan troglod ytes
(co rnrn: n chimpanzee)
classification is based o n homologous st ructures - structures -
that have a common evo lutionary orig in, even if their
function is differe nt. The pentadactyl limb (see page 125) is Pan pani scus
an examples of a homologous structure in mamma ls. (pygmy chimpanzee)
Organisms with homol ogous structu res shou ld be classified in '­

the same group because they must have commo n ancestry, Hom o sapiens
even if they look superfici ally d ifferent. (human)

Corilla gorilla
BIOCHEMISTRY AND COMMON ANCESTRY (gorilla)
There are remarkable simi larities betwe en living organisms in
their bioc hemistry.

• A ll use DNA (o r RNA) as their genetic material.
• A ll use the same universal genetic code, with only a few
insignifi cant variatio ns.
• Al l use the same 20 amino aci ds in their proteins .
• A ll use left, and not right-h anded amino acids.
The simil arities in ami no acid compositio n are striking
because many ot her amino acids, in bot h left and right­
handed versions, were available w hen life evolv ed, according
to Miller and U rey's experim ents.
These bio chemica l simi larities suggest very strongly that all
organisms have evo lved from a common ancestor, which had
all of these characteristics.
PHYLOGENY AND BIOCHEMISTRY
Tracin g evolutionary links and origins is called phyl ogeny.
The phylogeny of many group s has been studied by
comp aring the structure of a protein or othe r biochem ical that
they contain . Usual ly the results match the existing
classification of the group. The di agram (above right) shows
VARIATION AND EVOLUTIONARY CLOCKS
D ifferences in the base sequence of DNA and therefore in the
amino acid sequence of protei ns, accumu late gradually over
lo ng periods of time . There is evide nce that differe nces
accumulate at a roughly co nstant rate. They can therefore be
used as an evo luti o nary clo ck . The number of differe nces in
amino acid sequence can be used to deduce how long ago
species split from a co mmo n ancestor.
For example, mito chondr ial DNA from three humans and four
related primates has been completely sequenced. From the
differences in base sequence, a hypothetical phylogeny has
been constructed, show n (below ). Usi ng the numbers of
differences in base sequence as an evo luti onary clock, these
appro ximate dates for splits betwee n groups have been
deduced :
70 000 years ago, Europeans-Japanese split
140 000 years ago, Afr ican-European/Japanese split
about 5 mil lio n years ago, human-ch impanzees split.
Phylo genetic tre e for humans and clo sely relat ed apes
~ E u ro p ean

the results of a study based o n DNA seque nces.

~ L - Japanese
Chimpanzees and gorill as are currently in a family with
orang-utans, but shou ld prob ably be placed in the same I African
---
fami ly as humans, acco rdin g to this DNA evidence.
y Common chimpanzee
~

, Pygmy chimpanzee

I Gori lla

I Orang-utan

Evolution 129
 Cladistics

CLADES, CLADOGRAMS AND CLADISTICS CLADOGRAMS AND CLASSIFICATION

The tree di agrams shown on the previous page started to be The classif icat io n of many groups has been re-examin ed
produ ced in the second half of the 20th century. Neither t he using c1 adograms. In many cases, c1 adograms have co nfirmed
data on base o r ami no acid sequences no r the powerful existing cl assification s. Thi s is not surprising as both
co mputers needed to analyse the data we re available before traditi onal classification and clad ist ics are attempti ng to
then. The di agrams use branch ing poin ts, or nodes, to show refl ect phylogenetic relati on ships - the evo lutio nary origins
groups of o rganisms w hic h are related, and therefor e of groups of livi ng o rganisms.
presumably had co mmo n ancestry. These groups are called Cladogra ms can be difficul t to recon ci le w ith traditional
clades, from the Greek wor d klados - a branch . cl assification s, because the nodes can occu r at any po int. It
A clade is a group o f organisms that evolved from a comm on can therefo re seem rather arbitrary how the hierarchy of taxa
ances tor. is fitted to the clades.
Clades can be large groups, with a common ancestor far back
In some cases, cl adistics suggests radicall y different
in evo lutio n, o r smaller groups w ith a more recent commo n
phyl ogenies. Should the existing classificatio ns be tru sted in
ancestor.
these cases, or the new ones based o n cl adisti cs?
The tree di agrams show ing cl ades are called c1adograms.
The strength of clad istics is that the co mparisons betw een
Cladograms have been used to re-evaluate the classification
o rganisms are object ive, based, as they are, on mo lecular
of many groups of o rganisms. The method s used are very
di fferences. The wea kness is th at these mol ecul ar differences
di fferent from procedures traditi on all y used by taxonomi sts,
are analysed on the basis of prob abili ties. Occas ionally
so a new name has been given to this type of cl assification ­
imp robable events occu r, maki ng the analyses wro ng. So,
cladistics.
although cladistics should not be treated as infallible, in many
Cladistics is a method o f classification o f living organisms cases it can st imulate a reint erpretation of the data o n w hich
based on the construction and analysis o f cladograms. traditional cl assification s have been based.

CONSTRUCTING CLADOGRAMS
The co nstructio n of c1 adograms usuall y invol ves extremely comp licated calculations that are don e by powerful co mputers. The
aim is to wo rk out how the d ifferences in base or amino acid sequence could have evo lved w ith the smallest number of
mutation s. Thi s is called parsimon y analysis and although it does not prove how evo lutio n did occ ur, it gives the most likely
course. A simpl er method of co nstructing a c1 adogram is given here. The amino acid sequence of hemoglob in has been
com pared in many vertebrates. The table (below ) shows the numb ers of differences in the ami no acid sequence of ten
vertebrates. The data in this table, and the detail s of w hat the ami no aci d differences are, has been used to co nstruct the
c1 adogram below . A tim e scale has been incl uded by cali brating the rate of change in the amino aci d sequences. By co mpar ing
the table and the c1adog ram, it is possibl e to deduce how a c1adog ram can be co nstructed from numbers of d ifferences in base or
ami no acid sequence.
A simple c1 adogram co uld also be co nstructed using inform ation about the form (mo rpho logy) of o rganisms.

Numbers of differences in the amino acid sequence of hemoglobin in ten vertebrates

Elephant Platypus Ostrich Starling Crocodi le Lungfish Coelacanth Goldfish Shark
Human ---26 40 43 41 47 83 70 68 71
Elephant ---45 45 48 50 84 72 63 74
Platypus- - ­ 54 52 51 89 74 70 76
Ostrich 26 36 91 75 68 73
Starling 47 91 77 67 70
Crocodi le- ­ 85 78 70 77
Lungfish 90 94 86
Coelacanth- ­ 83 78
Goldfish - - - 88

Phylogenetic tree diagram for ten vertebrates

I I I I I I
60 50 40 30 20 10

'--­
-----1
----1
I I

400 290 200 140 80 40

130 Evolution
 EXAM QUESTIONS ON OPTION D - EVOLUTION

0 1 The scatte rgram below sho w s th e relation ship between brain size and tot al body mass in species
of mamm al. Prim ate species are shown as so lid c ircle s and other specie s of mam mal as open circ les.

o
humans

~
C1l
\ o·
. 0 0
0 0

U
'"
on
.2
<lJ

'v;
c
'§
co
• primates
o other mammals

Body mass (log scale)

[Source: CU P, Encyclopaedia 01 Human Evolution,]

a) Using the data in the scatte rgram,

(i) state the relatio nship between body mass and brain size in mam mals n
(ii) co mpare the brain size in relati on to bod y mass of p rim ates with that of other mam mals [2J
(iii) exp lai n brief ly how the scatte rgram ca n be int erpreted to show that human brains are larger than those
of other pr imates. [2J
b) Increases in brain siz e in relatio n to bod y mass could be du e either to increases in brain size or decreases
in bod y mass. Suggest one advantage to pr im ates of redu ced bod y mass. [1]

0 2 The fi gu re below sho ws the base sequence of part of a hemoglobi n gene in four species of mam mal.

Human TGA CAA GAA CA - GTT AG AG - TGTC CGA

O rang utan TCA CGA GAACA - GTT AGA G -TGTC CGA

Lemu r TAA CG A TAA CAG GAT AGA G - T ATC TGA

Rabbit TGG TGA TAACAA GAC A GA GATATC CGA

a) Calc ulate the number of diffe rences betwee n base sequence of

(i) hu mans and orang utans

(ii) hu mans and lemu rs

(iii) humans and rabbits

(iv) orang utans and lem urs

(v) ora ng utans and rabbits

(vi) lemurs and rabbits [6]

b) Using the di fferences in base sequence betw een the fo ur mamma l species, construct a c1 adogram . [4J

0 3 In Africa, south of the Sahara and north of the Zam bezi , the sick le ce ll allele Hb , is very co m mon. In some ethn ic
gro ups th e proportion of newb orn babi es that are homozygous recessive can be as high as 0.053 (5.3% ). These babi es
suffer from sick le ce ll anem ia.

a) Calculate the frequency of th e sic kle ce ll allele in these ethn ic groups. [2]

b) Calcu late the percentage of the po pulatio n th at are car riers of the sickle ce ll allele. n
c) O utline th e reason s for the high frequency of the sic kle ce ll alle le in these ethnic gro ups, despite the serio us
consequences of sick le ce ll anem ia. [2]

18 Questions - Evolution 131

16
Stimulus and response
REFLEXES
O ne of the basic activities of the nervou s system is the
coord ination of rapid responses to st imuli, includ ing reflexes.
A stim ulus is a change in the environment, eithe r internal or
external, that is detected by a receptor and elicits a response.
A response is a change in an organism, produced by a
favour a different type of response. Tw o examples related to
stim ulus.
global warming are given here, but there are many others from
A reflex is a rapid un conscious response to a stim ulus.
A ltho ugh t hey are the simp lest type of coo rdination, reflexes
invol ve a precise pathw ay of neuron s, with at least thr ee
synapses. The pathw ay is called a reflex arc. An examp le of a
reflex is pu ll ing away the hand after touching a hot obje ct ­
this is called the pain w ithdrawa l reflex. The reflex arc that
coo rd inates t his is show n in the diagram (below) . Reflex arcs
invo lve these five parts:
• receptors - to detect a stimulus; receptors can be sensory
cells or nerve end ings of sensory neuron s
• sensory neurons - to receive messages across synapses,
from receptors and carry them to the central nervou s system
(spinal co rd or brain)
• relay neurons - to receive messages, across synapses, from
sensory neuron s, and pass them to the moto r neurons that
can cause an appropri ate response
• motor neurons - to receive messages, across synapses, from
relay neuron s and carry them to an effector
• effectors - to carry out a respo nse after receiving a message
from a moto r neuro n; effectors can be muscles, wh ich
respo nd by contracti ng, or glands, w hich respond by
secreting.
NATURAL SELECTION AND RESPONSES
Ani mal respon ses can be altered by natural selection if they
are genetica ll y programmed and affect the ani mal's chances
of survival and reproduction. Offspring inherit successful types
of response from their parents. Sometimes the environment
of an animal species changes and natural selecti on may then
all around the wo rld.
1. Migration in Sylvia atricapilla (blackcap)
This bi rd breeds in the early summer across much of central
and no rthern Europ e. It then migrates to w armer areas befo re
th e w inter.
U ntil recentl y, popul ations in Germany mi grated to Spain or
other M edit erranean areas. Recent studies have show n a
chan ge in migratio n pattern, w ith 10% of the birds migrating
to the UK.
Experim ents w ith eggs have shown t hat the directi on of
migration is genet ically programm ed and inh erited. The
blackcaps th at migrate from Germany to the U K for t he w inter
instincti vely tend to fly west, w hereas those sti ll mi grati ng to
Spain tend to fly southw est.
2. Timing of breeding in Parus major (great tit)
Parus major breeds in spring o r early summer throughout
much of Europe.
The tim ing of egg laying is genetica lly determin ed. Day length
is used to determine the ti me of year.
Recent stud ies in the Netherl ands have shown that the mean
date of egg layin g is becoming earlier. Adults that breed
earlier enjoy greater reprodu cti ve success. Thi s is due to the
earlier opening of leaves o n decid uous trees and an earl ier
peak in the bio mass of invertebrates feedi ng on tree leaves.
These invertebrates are the main food that ad ults co lle ct and
feed to off spring.

Components of a reflex arc

o00- receptor
cells or nerve relay
endings cell body of
nerve fibre neuron
sensing pain sensory neuron
of sensory
in the dorsal
neuron
root ganglion

nerve fibre

of motor
~
neuron ~ ~
"::=t+= ::=

effector
(muscle

that pulis hand

away from

pain when

white grey
it contracts)
matter matter

spinal cord

132 Neurobiology and behaviour

Perception of stimuli

DIVERSITY OF SENSORY RECEPTORS

Hum ans have a di versity of types of receptor and so can perceive a w ide range of stimuli .

Type Stimulus Example

Mec hanorecepto rs Mechanical energy in the form of sound w aves Hair cells in the cochlea of the ear
Movements due to pressure or gravity Pressure receptor cells in the skin

Chemo rece pto rs Chemical substances di ssol ved in w ater (tongue) Receptor cells in the tongue
Chemical substances as vapours in the air (nose) Nerve end ings in the nose

Therm orecept ors Temperature Nerve endi ngs in skin detect w arm or co ld

Photorecept or s Electromagneti c radi ation, usual ly in the form Rod and cone cells in the eye
of light

Stru ctu re of th e human ea r

bones of parts of inner ear

bones of skuII middle ear concerned wit h balance
pinna

I I

musclesattached ! ! /

ear drum 'I

outer ear

round w indow

PERCEPTION OF SOUND
1. Ear drum
Wh en sound w aves reach the eardrum at the end of the outer
ear, they make it vibrate. The vibrati o n consists of rapid
movements of the eardrum, tow ards and awa y from the
midd le ear. The role of the eardrum is to pick up sound
vibrations fro m the air and transmit them to the midd le ear.
2. Bones of the middle ear
There is a series of very small bon es in the midd le ear, called
ossicl es. Each ossicle tou ches the next one. The first ossicl e is
attached to the eardrum and the third one is attac hed to the
o va l w indow. The ossic les' role is to transmit sound w aves
fro m the eard rum to the ov al w indow . They also act as levers,
reducing the amplitude of the w aves, but increasing their
force, w hic h amplifies sounds by about 20 tim es. The ov al
w indow's small size, comp ared w ith the eardrum, helps wi th
amplification. M uscles attached to the ossicl es prot ect the ear
from loud sounds, by co ntracting to damp down vibrations
in the ossicles.
3. Oval wind ow
This is a membranou s structure, like the eard rum. It transm its
sound w aves to the flu id filli ng the cochlea. This fluid is
incom pressible, so a second membranou s w indow is needed,
called the round wi ndow. W hen the oval wi ndow moves
tow ards the coc hlea, the round w indow moves away from it,
so the fluid in the coc hlea can vibr ate freely, with its vo lume
remain ing co nstant.
4. Hair ce lls in th e co chlea
The cochlea co nsists of a tub e, wou nd to form a spira l shape.
W ith in the tube are membranes, with receptors called hair
cells attached. These cells have hair bundl es, w hich stretch
from one of the membr anes to another. Wh en the sound
waves pass thro ugh the fluid in the cochlea, the hair bund les
vibrate. Because of gradual variations in the w idth and
thickness of the membranes, different frequencies of sound
can be d isti nguished, because each hair bund le o nly
reson ates w ith particular frequenci es. Wh en the hair bundle s
vib rate, the hair cells send messages across synapses and o n
to the brain vi a the audi tory nerve.

Neurobiology and behaviour 133

Vision in humans

PHOTORECEPTORS Struct ure of th e eye (in hor izontal sectio n)

The photo recepto rs of the eye are lens
sclera
contained in the retin a. The figures
(right) show the structure of the eye
aqueous

and the structure of the retina. humour

choroid
There are two types of photoreceptor
ce ll - rod ce lls and co ne ce lls. These
cell types bot h absorb light and then pupil retina
transmit messages to the brain, via the
optic nerve. They are different in fovea
iris
these ways :
1. Rod ce lls are more sensit ive to light
than co ne cells, so they functio n blin d spot
conjunctiva
better in dim light. Rod ce lls
beco me bleached in bright light,
but co ne cells funct io n we ll. cornea
2. Rod cells abso rb all w avelengths of
visible light, so they give
monochrome vision , w hereas there vitreous optic
are th ree types of co ne cell, humour nerve
sensitive to red, green and blue
li ght, w hic h give co lou r visio n.
3. Groups of up to tw o hund red rod
cells pass impu lses to the same
sensory neuron of the opt ic nerve,
w hereas many co ne cells have
their own indi vi du al neuron
th rou gh w hic h messages can be
sent to the brain . Cone cells direction of light
therefo re giv e greater visual acuity
th an rod cell s.
4. Rod cells are more w idely
di spersed through the retina so they
give a w ider f ield of v isio n, w hereas '-r---J

co ne cells are very co ncentrated

I
nerve fibres
near the fovea, givi ng one acute of ganglio n
area of the field of vi sion. cells

The Herm an grid illusion PROCESSING OF VISUAL STIMULI

•••••
•••••
Betw een the percepti on of photons of light and imp ulses reachin g the brai n, there
are a series of stages of processing of visual stimuli.
1. Con ver gence
Bipolar cells in the retin a co mbine the imp ulses from groups of rod or co ne cells and

•••••
pass them on to ganglio n cell s (sensory neuro ns of the optic nerve).

2. Edge enhancem ent

•••••
Eac h ganglio n ce ll is st imulated w hen l ight fa ll s on a sma ll c irc ular area of ret in a
ca lle d t he recept ive f ie ld . There are tw o types of gang lio n ce ll . In o ne typ e, the
gang lio n is stim ulated if li ght fa lls o n th e ce nt re of th e recept ive fiel d, but th is

•••••
The grid (above) is a famo us example
of an optica l illusion .
Grey areas appear at the intersecti ons
st imulat io n is redu ced if li ght also falls o n the periph ery. In th e ot her typ e, l ight
fall ing o n th e periphery of th e recept ive fi eld stim ulates th e ganglio n ce ll, but
t hi s st imulat io n is redu ced if l ight also fa lls o n t he ce ntre. Bot h typ es of gang lio n
ce ll are th erefore mor e st imulated if the edge of l ight/ dark areas is wit hin th e
receptive field . W hite areas of t he Herman grid look w hi ter if th ey are next
to a blac k area.
Contralat eral processing
of the w hite lines, w hic h are not real.
The left and right optic nerves meet at a structure ca lled the optic chiasma. Here all
If all of the grid is cov ered up apart
the neuro ns that are carry ing impulses from the half of the retina nearest to the nose
f rom o ne w hite line, the grey areas
cross ove r to the opposite optic nerve. As a result the left optic nerve carries
d isappear. This ill usion can be
informatio n from the right half of the field of vision and vice versa. Th is al lows the
explained in terms of the processing
brain to deduce di stances and sizes.
of visual stimuli.

134 Neurobiology and behaviour

Innate and learned behaviour

INNATE BEHAVIOUR IN INVERTEBRATES Quantitative investigation of kinesis in slaters (woodlice)

Most behaviour in invertebrates is innate, not learned. Innate
70 g

r
behaviour is sometimes called instinctive. It develops 350
independently of the environmental context. In contrast,
learned behaviour develops as a result of experience. Innate
behaviour can be investigated by simple experiments with
1
~ber of turnings
( 35

60 300r
invertebrates, for example chemotaxis in Planaria (flatworms).
A taxis is a movernent towards or away from a directional
stimulus. If Planaria are placed in a shallow dish with small 250

I 1 30

pieces of food in part of the dish, they usually move towards 2

25
the food. Other variables need to be kept constant, for 50 ~ +-'
Vl
·E ~
example the amount of light in different parts of the dish. Q3 200 ~
Also, in behaviour experiments like this, results should be Q. 20 Q)
tJl
quantitative, not rnerely descriptive. For example, a line could ~
Q)
'E
'0
be drawn across the middle of the dish to mark the halves of E 150
Q3
the dish with and without food. The numbers of Planaria in ...0 15 ?fi
E E
each half of the dish could be recorded each minute during :::::i

the experi ment. z

100
I 1 \ ~ -110
The graph (right) shows the results of an experiment, using 30
slaters (wood Iice), to investigate a behaviou I' pattern called
kinesis. Kinesis is response to a non-directional stimulus, 501 I ~ -.J5
in which the rate of rnovement or the rate of turning depends
on the level of the stimulus, but the direction of movement is 20
not affected.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100%0
Relative humidity

LEARNED BEHAVIOUR AND SURVIVAL The graph shows that as humidity rises, the movement of the
In diverse and changeable environments, animals can slaters is less and although the number of turns per hour is
improve their chances of survival by learning new behaviour less, the number per metre moved is more. Slaters often
patterns. Examples: congregate in small, humid spaces, increasing their chances
• Some chimpanzees learn to catch termites by poking sticks
of survival and reproduction.
into termite mounds.

• Birds learn to avoid eating orange and black striped

DEVELOPMENT OF BIRDSONG
cinnabar moth caterpillars, after associating their

Birdsong is an interesting example of behaviour, because it

colouration and unpleasant taste.

has been shown in some species to be partly innate and partly

• Many bird species learn to take avoiding action when they

learned. The chaffinch (Fringi//a coe/ebs) is an example. Male

hear alarm calls warning them of a predator.

chaffinches use their song to keep other rnales out of their

• Foxes learn to avoid touching electric fences after receiving
an electric shock.
• In Britain, hedgehogs have learned to run across busy
roads, instead of rolling up into a ball.
PAVLOV AND CONDITIONING IN DOGS
Ivan Pavlov investigated the salivation reflex in dogs. He
observed that his dogs secreted saliva when they saw or
tasted food. The sight or taste of meat is called the
unconditioned stimulus and the secretion of saliva is called
the unconditioned response.
territory and to attract females. The song varies a little
between males, allowing identification of individuals. It also
has recognizable features to show that it is a chaffinch
singing. The figures (below) show the normal song of a male,
reared where he cou Id hear the song of adu It chaffi nches, and
the song of male that was reared in isolation in a soundproof
box. The song of the bird reared in isolation had some
features of the normal song, including the correct length and
number of notes, which must have been innate. However,
there is a narrower range of frequencies, and fewer distinctive
phases. These must be learned from other chaffinches.
~ (a) a normal chaffinch song

j: ~,~~~,~,\~
Pavlov then gave the dogs a neutral stimu Ius, such as the
~8
sound of a ringing bell or ticking metronome, before he gave
the unconditioned stimulus - the sight or taste of food. He
found that after repeating this procedure for a few days, the
dogs started to secrete saliva before they had received the
l
unconditioned stimulus. The sound of the bell or the
a I....-.--­
I I I I
metronome is called the conditioned stimulus and the 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
secretion of saliva before the uncond itioned stimu Ius is the ~ (b) a song from a bird time / sec
conditioned response. ~ 8 reared in isolation
u
The dogs had learned to associate two external stimuli - the ~ 6
:::::i

~ ~ ~ ~~~~,i_
sound of a bell or metronome and the arrival of food. This is
caIIed conditioning - an alteration in the behaviour of an 1 2t 4

I
anirnal as a result of the association of external stimuli. o'----__---'-­ I I
..1...-.-_ _----'­ ---'-_

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

time / sec

Neurobiology and behaviour 135

Neurotransmitters and synapses

EXCITATORY AND INHIBITORY SYNAPSES Electro n micrograph show ing adjacent neur ons co nta ining
A lt hough there is a w ide variety of synapses in th e nervou s vesicles of differ ent neur otransmitters
system, especia lly the brain, there are tw o main types.
Excitat ory synapses
This type of synapse wa s describ ed in page 52. The
neurotr ansmitt er released by the presynapt ic neuron causes
sodium ion s o r other positiv ely charged ions to enter the
postsynaptic neuro n, hel pin g to depo larize it and cause an
actio n potentia l. Postsyn apti c transmission is therefore
exc ited (stimulated).
Inhibitor y synapses
In these synapses, the neurotr ansmitt er released by the
presyn apti c neuron causes negatively charged chlo ride
ion s to move into the postsyn apt ic neuron, increasing its
polari zation. This effect, called hyp erpolarization , makes it
more diff icult to depol arize a neuron suff icie nt ly to cause
an actio n potential. Postsynapt ic transmission is therefo re
inhibited.
The electron mi crograph (above right) show s adjacen t
neurons co ntaini ng different neurotransmitt ers.
The graphs below show the effects of exc itato ry and
inhibitor y neurotransmitters on the membran e pote ntial of
a postsynaptic neuron .

DECISION-MAKING IN THE CNS

action potential O ne of the fundamental roles of the brain and spinal co rd is
in presynaptic deci sion-m akin g. This can be a simple process, as in a reflex, or
neuron much more co mp licated, fo r examp le w hen choosing a partner.
Synapses are the sites at w hic h deci sion s are made.
On e pulse of exci tato ry neurotransmitter, released w hen an
actio n po tential reach es the end of a postsynaptic neuron, is
unl ikely to be eno ugh to cause postsynaptic transmission . A
rapid sequence of pul ses of neurotransmitter is needed . These
- 70
co uld co me from the same presyn apti c neuron, or mo re likely
from a number of different ones. Thi s is possible because
postsynaptic neuron s have synapses w it h more than o ne pre­
5 10 15 synaptic neuron e, sometimes w ith hundreds.
excitatory post­ W here many presynaptic neurons fo rm synapses w ith a
synaptic potential postsynapti c neuron, some of these synapseswi ll be excitatory
and others w il l be inhibitory. The effects of exci tatory
neurot ransmitters may be cancelled out if an inhibito ry
neurotransmitter is also being released. Wh ether an action
-7 (H - --'
potenti al is initi ated in the postsynaptic neuron is therefore
decid ed by the summation of messages from all of these synapses.
inhibitory post­ In this way, deci sions can be made by the central nervous system.
- 7lJ-t- - <, / synaptic potentia,-
I _--­ The fi gure (below) shows a postsyn aptic motor neuron and
some of its associated presynapti c neurons.

Synapses between many neurons and one motor neuron

fir(
Neurons forming
synapses wit h a
summation of motor neuron.
excitatory c--- --'==------.. The propagation
postsynaptic of an impulse is
-70 potentials /'~:----~'--- s t im u lated by the
neurotransmitter in
some synapses and
inhibited by the
5 10 15 neurotransmitter in
time / mill iseconds other synapses.

136 Neurobiology and behaviour

Psychoactive drugs

EXCITATORY AND INHIBITORY DRUGS ADDICTION TO PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

Drugs are chemical substances that are ingested, injected,
inhaled or put into the body in some other way, to cause a
change in the functioning of the body. Psychoactive drugs
affect the brai n and personal ity.
Most psychoactive drugs affect the functioning of the brain by
disrupting synaptic transmission. Excitatory drugs work either
by promoting transmission at excitatory synapses or inhibiting
transmission at inhibitory synapses. Inhibitory drugs do the
opposite.
Examples of psychoactive drugs
Excitatory Inhibitory
nicotine benzodiazepines
cocaine alcohol
arnphetam ines THC
Psychoactive drugs can affect synaptic transmission in a
variety of ways:
• Some psychoactive drugs have a chemical structure sirnilar
to a neurotransmitter and so bind to receptors for that
neurotransmitter in postsynaptic membranes. They block
the receptors, preventing the neurotransmitter from having
its usual effect.
• Other psychoactive drugs with a chemical structure similar
to a neurotransmitter have the same effect as the
neu rotransrn itter. However, un like the neu rotransm itter,
they are not broken down so when they bind to the
receptor the effect is much longer lasting.
• Some psychoactive drugs interfere with the breakdown of
neurotransmitters in synapses or its reabsorption into the
presynaptic neuron and so prolong the effect of
neu rotransm itters.
The causes of addiction to psychoactive drugs have been
widely studied, because of the physical and social damage
that addictions can cause. Three factors increase levels of
addiction, especially when they are combined.
1. Dopamine secretion
The first factor affecting whether addiction develops is the
drug itself. Some drugs are addictive and some are not. A
feature of many addictive drugs is that transmission is
stimulated at synapses using dopamine as a neurotransmitter.
These synapses are involved in the reward pathway, which
gives us feelings of well-being and pleasure (see the example
of cocaine below).
Users of addictive drugs find it very difficult to stop, because
they have become dependent on the feelings that dopamine
promotes.
2. Genetic predisposition
Even with many drugs that are potentially addictive, not
everyone becomes an addict. Addictions, especially
alcoholism, are much comrnoner in some families than
others. This suggests that genes can make some people
predisposed. Researchers are now trying to identify the genes
that are involved.
3. Social factors
It is sti II not certai n that a person who is genetically
predisposed to develop addictions will do so when exposed
to an addictive drug. Social factors can either prevent or
encou rage it.
Cultural traditions, peer pressure, poverty and social
deprivation, traumatic life experiences and rnental health
problems all increase the chances of an addiction developing.

EFFECTS OF COCAINE AND THC

1. Cocaine 2. THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)
Cocaine is an excitatory psychoactive drug. It stimu lates Cannabis contains a mixture of chemicals, but one of them
transmission at synapses in the brain that use dopamine as a called THC causes rnost of its psychoactive effects.
neurotransmitter. Cocaine binds to membrane proteins that
THC affects transmission at an unusual type of synapse, where
pump dopamine back into the presynaptic neuron. It blocks
the postsynaptic neuron can release a signalling chemical that
these transporters, causing a build-up of dopamine in the
binds to receptors in the membrane of the presynaptic neuron.
synapse.
It is not yet certain what these signalling chemicals are. THC
The synapses that use doparnine as a neurotransmitter are also binds, giving thern their name - cannabinoid receptors.
responsible for pleasurable feelings that we get during certain When THC binds to cannabinoid receptors, it blocks the
activities, for example eating or having sex. Because cocaine release of excitatory neurotransmitter. THC is therefore an
causes continuous transmission at these synapses, it gives inhibitory psychoactive drug.
feelings of euphoria that are not related to any particular
Cannabinoid receptors are found in synapses in various parts
activity. It also causes users to have increased energy,
of the brain, including the cerebellum, hippocampus and
alertness and tal kativeness.
cerebral hemispheres.
Cocaine is highly addictive and is a widely abused drug.
Users make various claims about the effects of THC, most of
Tissue taken frorn the brains of cocaine users after death had
which are not backed up by any evidence. There is good
lower than normal levels of dopamine, suggesting that the
evidence for disruption of psychomotor behaviour so it is not
body adapts to cocaine use by reducing secretion. This would
safe to drive vehicles or operate machinery. Short-term
explain cocaine-induced depression.
memory impairment, intoxication and stimulation of appetite
Crack is a form of cocaine that forms a vapour when it is are other effects.
heated. It can therefore be inhaled and absorbed very rapidly
and gives very intense effects. These cause greater addiction
and overdose problems than other forms of cocaine.

Neurobiology and behaviour 137

 The human brain

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE BRAIN Structure and functio n of parts of the brain
The brain is made up of parts, each of w hich has a d istincti ve
Cerebral hemispheres
structure and carries out speci fic funct ions. The struct ure of
the brain is shown in the d iagram (right). The parts labell ed in ~~§~~~$~2~--- Hypothalamus
the diagram have these funct ions:

M edull a oblongata - co ntrols auto mat ic and hom eostatic Cerebellu m

activities, such as swallow ing and vo miting, di gestio n,
breathin g and heart activity

Cerebe llum - coor d inates unconsciou s funct ions suc h as

balance and movements, incl udin g hand-eye coord inatio n.
Hypothalamus - maintain s homeostasis using both the
nervous and endocr ine systems; produces the hormo nes t hat
are secreted by the posterio r pit uitary gland; sends releasing --tt1 L.1-<"------ --t'---­ - MeduIIa
factors to stim ulate horm one secretio n by t he anterio r oblongata
pituitary gland

Pituitary gland - posterior lobe stores and secretes horm ones

produ ced by the hypoth alamu s; anterio r lob e produ ces and
secretes horm ones th at regul ate many body functio ns '---H-HHt -+ I - - -­ Pituitary gland

Cerebral hemispheres - receives im pulses from the eye, ear,

nose and tongue; acts as the integratin g centre fo r highe r
co mplex funct io ns, including learning, memo ry, emotio ns
and co nsciousness.
INVESTIGATING BRAIN FUNCTION
Vario us techniq ues have been used to fi nd o ut w hat the
fun cti on of each part of the brain is.
1. Animal experiments
M any ex perime nts have been perfo rmed o n animals,
includ ing pr imates, often invo lv ing surgica l procedures ­
parts of the skul l have to be removed to get acce ss to the
brai n. The anima l must be kept alive so th at the brain is stil l
f unct io ning. Experi mental proc edur es are ca rried o ut o n th e
brai n and the effec ts o n t he animal are t hen o bserved, either
during the operat io n o r afterw ards.
M any scientists have et hica l o bj ect io ns to these experiments
as th e animals may ex perience som e suffe ring and are often
sacrif iced .
2. l esions
Accide nts, strokes and tumours can damage specific parts of
the brain . The damaged areas are called lesion s and from
them, the locatio n of partic ular brain functio ns can be
deduced . For example, lesion s in Broca' s area in the left
cerebral hemi sphere cause dysphasia - inab ility to speak, but
readin g and wr iting are sti ll possible. The craving-ce ntre of
the brain w as fir st ident ifi ed from the case of a man w ho lost
the desire to smo ke cigarettes, after a stroke damaged a region
in his brain called the insula.
3. Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Funct io nal magnetic resonance imagin g (fM RI) is a technique
for determini ng w hic h parts of the brain are activated by
specific tho ught processes . Active parts of the brain receive
increased bloo d fl ow , w hic h fM RI records.
THE PUPIL REFLEX AND BRAIN DEATH
If a bri ght light shines into one eye, the pupils of both eyes
co nstrict. Thi s is called the pupi l reflex. Photo recepto r cells in
the retina detect the light stim ulus. Nerve impulses are sent in
sensory neurons of the optic nerve to t he brain. The medu lla
oblo ngata (brain stem) processes the im pulses and then sends
impu lses to ci rcu lar muscle fib res in the iris of t he eye. These
muscle fib res contract, causing the pup il to co nstr ict.
In the past, w hen a vital organ of the bod y ceased to function,
the w hole body wo uld rapidl y d ie. Advances in medicin e
now allow the rest of the body to be kept alive w hen certain
o rgans are not fun ct ionin g. So meti mes an o rgan of the bod y
recov ers after a tim e and the pati ent can enjoy a good quality
of life again.
If a patient is in a com a (pro longed unconsci ousness) because
of damage to the cerebral hemispheres, recovery may be
possible. However, damage to the medulla oblongata is much
more serio us and recovery cannot be expected. Doctor s
therefo re use tests of brain stem functio n to decide w hether to
try to preserve a patient's life. The pup il ref lex is often used. If
an uncon sci ous patient 's pup ils do not co nstrict w hen a li ght
is shone into the eye, thi s suggests that they have injuries
serious enough to have caused brai n death.

The expe rimental subjec t is placed in the scanner and a high­

resoluti on scan of the brain is taken. A series of low ­
resoluti on scans is then taken, w hi le the subjec t is being
given a stimulus. The scans show w hic h parts of the brai n are
activated du ring the response to the stimulus. A n example of
fMR I is shown (right). It indicates acti vity in the visual co rtex.

138 Neurobiology and behaviou r

 Brain and behaviour

UNCONSCIOUS COORDINATION FORAGING BEHAVIOUR

The part of the ne rvou s system that is used to con tro l internal Wh en animals search for foo d, they are foraging. Research
processes unconsci ou sly is called the auto nomic nervou s has show n that animals opt imize foo d intake by their fo raging
system. Impulses are sent from the brain through the two parts behaviou r. Tw o exam ples of this are descri bed here.
of this system - the parasympa thetic and sympathetic systems.
1. Bluegill sunf ish (Lep om is macr och iru s)
Three of the processes controlled by these tw o systems are
These fish li ve in ponds, w here th ey prey on small
outlined in the table (below ).
invertebrates, incl uding Dap hnia. W hen there is a low density
Organ Parasympathetic Sympat het ic of prey, bluegill sunfish consume all sizes of them. At
system system medi um prey densities, bluegill sunfish co nsume only prey of
moderate o r larger sizes. At high prey densiti es they mostly
Heart Heart rate is Heart rate speeds consume large prey, plus some of med ium size. Consumi ng
slowed as the bod y up so that more small numbers of large prey takes less energy than large
is relaxed and less bloo d can be pumped numbers of small prey, hence the preference fo r large prey. At
blood flow is needed. to the muscles. low prey densities, smaller prey have to be eaten as w ell , to
get eno ugh food in total.
Blood flow Blood vesse ls are Bloo d ve ssels are
to the gut d ilated, in creasing co nstricted, decreasing 2. Starli ngs (Sturn us vulgaris)
blood flow to the gut. blood flo w to the gut. Starli ngs are birds that feed their you ng mainly on crane-fly
larvae, w hic h they obtain by probi ng into so il w ith their beak.
Iris of Circular muscle fib res Radial muscles Starlin gs beco me less effic ient at probing for larvae, as the
the eye co ntract, so the pu piI co ntract, di lati ng the num ber of larvae they are holdin g in their beaks increases. The
constricts to protect pupil to g ive a better few er journ eys back to the nest, the less tim e and energy is
the retina. image. used in transpo rting the larvae to the offspring.

PERCEPTION OF PAIN
Pain recepto rs are located in the ski n and ot her organs. They
co nsist of free ne rv e endi ngs, w hic h perceive mechanical,
thermal o r chemical stim uli. Impu lses are sent from these pain
receptors to sensory areas of the cerebral cortex, causing
feeli ngs of pai n.
The optimum number of larvae for starli ngs to catc h and carry
back to the nest depends on the di stance between the fo raging
area and the nest. As the distance increases, the optimum
num ber of larvae also inc reases.
When starli ngs have been observed, th e number of larvae
actually caught and transported has been found to be very
close to the theoreti cal opti mum.

These feelings are necessary to allow us to kno w w hen o ur

body is being damaged, so t hat we can take avo idin g
act ion - pain w ithdrawa l refl exes fo r exa mple.
H o w ev er , pa in sometimes becomes excess iv e or stops us
fro m concentrat ing o n impo rtant act iv ities. In th ese
sit uations, th e pitui tary gland releases en dorphins. The
endo rphins are carried in the bl ood to the br ain . They bind
to receptor s in the membranes of neuro ns that send pai n
signa ls and blo ck the release of a neurotr ansmitt er th at is
used to transmi t the pain sign als w it hi n the brain .
RHYTHMICAL BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS
M any animals show rhythm ical patterns in behaviou r. These
usually follow either a diurnal (daily) or an annual (yearly) cycle.
On e example of each is given here. There are longer cycles, for
examp le the 13 and 17-year reproductive cycles of cicadas.
1. Moonrats
Like many mammals, moonrats (Echinosorex gy m nura) are
nocturnal. They live in Asia, in lowl and forests includ ing
mangroves.

Endorp hin s are secreted during stressful times, after inj uries
and eve n durin g physica l exe rci se such as run nin g.
M ale red deer fi ghting (rutting) in th e fall
Their excelle nt sense of smell helps th em to fo rage at night
w hen much of their prey is active - insects and other
invertebrates. They are less vu lnerable to predat io n at night
and in the day they rest in hol es amo ng tree roots o r in
holl ow logs, w here they are unlikely to be di scovered.
2. Red deer
Reproducti on fo llo w s an annual cycl e in red deer (Cervus
elap hus). M ales and females are only sexually active in the
fall (autumn).

M ales fight to establish domi nance ov er groups of females

(figure, left) w it h w hom they mate. The adva ntage is that if the
females start gestatio n in the fall, the offsprin g are born in
spri ng. Most foo d is available in spri ng and summer fo r
feed ing the offsp ri ng, so th is type of season breeding giv es the
offspri ng the greatest chance of su rv iv al.

In the fall , males try to take possession of as large a group of

females as they can and mate w ith them w hen they co me into
oestrus.

Neurobiology and behaviour 139

 Evolution of animal behaviour

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION EVOLUTION OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOUR

Some anima ls live in co lo nies w ith clear socia l o rganizatio n. A dicti o nary definit ion of altruism is simply ' unselfish
Two examples are describ ed here: behavio ur'. In Bio logy it has come to mean something mo re
1. Hone y bees live in co lo nies consisti ng of up to sixty speci fic - altruism is defined as actio ns that in crease anot her
thou sand indi viduals. The co lo ny acts like a super­ individ ual's lifet ime nu mber of offspri ng at a cost to one's
organism that lives or d ies together, and can reproduce to ow n survival and reproduction. Parental care is therefore not
for m extra co lo nies by swarming. There are three castes of altruism. There has been much d iscussio n about the evo lutio n
honey bee, each of w hich has di fferent tasks. The single of altruistic behavio ur. We might expect natural selectio n
queen bee is no rmally the only member of the co lo ny to always to be against behavi our that reduces the chances of
lay eggs. The wo rker bees do all the j obs that are needed to surviva l and reproducti on, yet there are some we ll -know n
maintain the co lo ny. The drones do nothing to help the examples of altruistic behavio ur.
co lo ny to survive, but if they successfully mate w it h vi rgi n
1. Non-breeding naked mol e rats
queens they spread the genes of the co lony to new
The tasks of non -breeding workers in a naked mo le rat co lo ny
co lo nies. Wo rkers eject d rones from the co lo ny at the end
are described (left). These tasks allo w the breeding male and
of the season in w hich virgin queens are available. The
female in the co lon y to reprod uce successfully. The evolutio n
table below summarizes the tasks of the three castes.
of this type of altruism, sometimes called kin selectio n, is easy
Caste Gender Tasks to explain. The mo le rats in a colo ny are all genetically
related, so altho ugh the wo rkers are helping to rear offspring
Q ueen Fertil e female Layi ng eggs. that are not their own, they are help ing to ensure the surviva l
Produci ng a pherom one to of their ow n genes.
control the activities of wo rkers.
2. Blood sharing in vam pire bats
Drone Fertile male M ating w ith virgin females. This behavi ou r was investigated in a pop ulatio n of vampire
Worker Inferti le female Collecting nectar and po llen. bats in Costa Rica. They live in groups and feed at night by
Converting po llen into honey. suck ing blood from larger animals. If o ne of the bats in the
Secreti ng wax and using it to group fails to feed for more than two co nsecutive nights it
bui ld the comb. may di e of starvation. However, bats that have fed
Feeding and looking after larvae. successfulIy regurgitate blood for a bat that has fai led to feed.
Guard ing the hive. Tests have show n that this is done w hether the two bats are
genetically related or not. This is called recip rocal altruism
Wa ggle dance of honey bees because the bat that don ates food to a hungry bat may in the
future receive blood w hen it is hungry. There is an advantage
for the w ho le group, because the benefit of receivi ng blood
w hen starving is greater than the cost of don ating blood after
feeding we ll.

EVOLUTION OF EXAGERRATED TRAITS

Some species of ani mal have characteristics or behaviour
patterns that seem to be developed excessively. The long and
brightly colou red tail feathers of a peacock are an examp le.
These are on ly used during courtship, to try to attract a
female. At other tim es, the tail feathers wi ll be an
encumbrance, hi ndering rapid moveme nt, especially durin g
attacks by predators. This may be the explanati on for the
evo lut io n of an exaggerated trait: any indi vidu al that survives,
despite the exaggerated trait, must be well -adapted in other
ways and so is a good mate to choose.
2. Naked mole rat s (H eterocephal us glaber) li ve in colonies
of up to 80 ind ividu als, in bu rrow systems in parts of East
Af rica. O ne dominant female mol e rat acts li ke a queen
bee. She is the only female in the co mmunity to reprodu ce,
mating w ith o ne of the males in the co lo ny. Three other
castes of mo le rat help her.
• ' Frequent wo rkers' dig the tun nels and bring food.
• ' Infrequent wo rkers' are larger and occasionally help
w ith heavier tasks.
• ' No n-workers' live in the central nest, keepin g the

breedi ng female and her young offsp ring war m and

defending the co lo ny if it is attacked.

The large and complex bu rrow systems could probably not

be co nstructed or defended w ithout social o rganizatio n.
A co lo ny of social organisms is someti mes co nsidered to be
one super-organism. Either the co lo ny as a w hole survives
and reproduces to form new co lo nies or it does not.
Natural select io n therefore exists at the level of the co lony .

140 Neurobiology and behaviour

EXAM QUESTIONS ON OPTION E - NEUROBIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR

E1 O do rants are substances whi ch can be detected inactive calcium calcium-dependent

by chemoreceptors in the nose. M any different adenylyl channel chloridechanne\ (closed)
cycl ase (closed)
odo rants can be detected but each
chemoreceptor cell is sensit ive to only one type.
The di agrams (right) show the mechanism used in
the chemoreceptor.
a) Deduce wh ich part of the mech anism is
different in chemoreceptor cells that are -+
sensitive to di fferent odor ants. [2] active
receptor G-protein
b) Wh en the odorant binds to the receptor protein, protein / odorant adenylyl
cy ~ lase
the receptor protein starts activating G protein. T/l
Using the data show n in the di agrams outli ne
the effects at activated G protein. m
c) Predict the effect of entry of calcium ions and
exit of chlo ride io ns on the chemo receptor
cell. [1]

activated
G-protein
[Source of data : Gold et al, Nat ure, (1997), 385 , page 677 ]

E2 a) State w hich type of receptor is found in the eye. [1]

b) Outli ne the neural pathway involv ed in th e pupil ref lex. [2J

c) State how this reflex can be used to find out the co nditi on of the central nervou s system, [l J

E3 The electron mi crographs (centre and right) show

the structur e of hair cells in the coc hlea. /
The scanning electron mic rograph (centre) shows
two cells, each sitting in the cup-shaped upper
surface of a Di eter's cell.

a) Suggest a fun ction for the strut-like proje ction

from th e Di eter' s cells, [1]

b) Percept ion of sound depends on movement of

the hair s (stereoci lia) that proj ect from the

upper surface of the hair cells.

(i) Describ e the group of stereoci lia proj ectin g

from one hair cell. [3]

(ii) Calcu late the length of the longest

stereoci li um. The scale bar is 5 urn

lo ng. [lJ

(iii)Explain how the stereocili a of hair cells

that perceive high and low frequency

sound s would differ. [1]

c) There are two types of hair cell in the coch lea,

inn er and outer. The hair cell s show n in the

mi crographs are outer hair cells. They do not

pass impu lses di rectly to neurones, but act like

cel lular pistons, lengthening and shortening at

the same frequency as the sound that they

perceive.

(i) Suggest how the acti on of outer hair cells

helps in hearin g. [21

(ii) Deduce, from the structure of the hair cell

shown in the transmissi on electron

micrograph (right), where energy is expended

to shorten and lengthen the cell. [2]

IB Questions - Neurobiology and behaviour 141

17
Classification of microbes

CLASSIFICATION IN THREE DOMAINS DISTINGUISHING THE THREE DOMAINS

A system of classification of living organisms into five
kingdoms was deve lo ped in the second half of t he 20th
century. Biologists mostly accepted it. In this cl assificatio n, all .s '"
pro karyotes were placed in one kingdo m and euka ryotes in
Signi fic ant characters that ~
'" t
.
'0
>­
fo ur kingdoms. How ever, w hen the base sequence of nucleic
aci ds was compared, two very di fferent groups of prokaryotes
are useful in distinguishing
betw een t he t hree domain s .'"
..c
<.I
<t:
t
'"
..c
:::l
u.l
'"
..:.:
:::l
u.l

were identified. These groups are as d ifferent from each other

as from eukaryotes. A higher grade of taxonomi c group w as
needed to reflect th is, now cal led a doma in. Three dom ains A re cell w alls made of
None A ll No ne
have been described : pepti dog lycan?
• A rchaea
• Eubacteria What are the bo nds in
Ether Ester Ester
• Eukaryota. memb rane lipids?
The o riginal evidence for th is came from base sequences of
ribosomal RNA, w hich is found in all organisms and evo lves
Wh at size are riboso mes? 70S 70S 80S
slowly, so it is suitabl e fo r studying the earl iest evo lutiona ry
events. More evidence has since been obtained fro m gene
sequenci ng stud ies. The table (right) shows the fundam ental Do most genes contain
No No Yes
d ifferences that also ju stify the new cl assification . A n introns ?
explanation of intr on s is given in page 61. The figur e (below) I
shows the classification of livi ng organisms into three How many species have
A few None A ll
domai ns. Names of groups w ithi n each domai n have histone proteins?
been om itted.

CELL WALLS IN EUBACTERIA

Cell wa l l structure varies in the Eubacteri a. There are two
Eubacteria main types of structure, whi ch are show n in the d iagrams
(below) . Eubacteri a w it h the structure show n in the upper
di agram are called Gram-positive, as they are stai ned pu rple
by Gram stain, w hereas Eubacteri a wi th the structure show n
in the low er dia gram are Gram-negative, as they stain less
intensive ly and appear red.

Gram-posit ive Eubacteria

Archaea

thick layer
of peptido­
plasma
glycan
membrane

of phospho­

lipids and

Eukaryota proteins

HABITATS OF ARCHAEA Gram-negati ve Eubacteria

The Archaea are very diverse in thei r metabo lism and this
helps them to thri ve in a very wid e d iversity of habitats, thin layer
includ ing some of the more extreme in the wor ld. \ ~l--- of peptido­
• Halophiles li ve in habitats with a very high salt content - at glycan
least 1.5 mo l drrr' and ofte n much higher. These
co ncentratio ns are found in saline lakes such as the plasma
Dead Sea. membrane
• Therm ophiles li ve in very hot habitats, up to 100 °C in some of phospho­
outer layer
cases. Examples of these habitats are hot springs in vo lcanic lipids and
of lipopoly­
areas and geothermally heated regions of the sea f loo r, proteins
saccharide
includ ing hydrothermal vents known as black smokers. and protein
• Me t hanogens live in anaerobic habitats w here organic
matter is available. Examp les are swamps and w aterlogged
soils, in the gut of cattle and other rumin ants and in dumps t
inside
t
outside
of organic w aste created by humans.

142 Microbes and biotechnology

Diversity of microbes

SHAPE IN EUBACTERIA STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES

The cells of Eubacteri a vary co nsiderably in shape . They can M ost bio logists do not co nsider v iruses to be liv ing organisms.

be spher ica l, rod-shaped, spiral, or co mma shaped , for Instead, t hey are regarded as genetic struct ures that can

example. reprodu ce using the cell s of a li v ing o rganism. Every v irus has

cocci spirilla a sma ll num ber of genes composed of nucl eic aci d,

s p~ er ig l bacteria SPi/ral_Shaped bacteria sur rounded by a prot ei n coat. The coat is called the capsid.

Apart from this, there are few sim ilarit ies in structure. Vir uses

<;;I 0 0 Q bacilli vibrios

probabl y are di verse in structure because they evo lved

::::~J~~ShaP.•:..•.e. d
0

o 0
0
00 mdo'h" O '"'" repeated ly, rather than all evo lv ing from a single ancestral

single cocci
(e.g. Pneumo coccus)
G (e.g. Spirillum )
-; .· virus.

There are three key di fferences in virus struct ure:

1 . Is the capsid enveloped?

single bacilli (e.g. Vibri o cho lerae,
(e.g. Escherichi a co li) causes cholera)
A ltho ugh bacteri a can exist as single cells, some spec ies can
also fo rm aggregates - gro ups of ce lls lin ked together. For
example, layers of bacteria called biofil ms can for m o n rock s
or ot her surfaces. The cells jo int ly secrete adhesive
po lysaccharides, stic king the cells to the surface and to each
other. Single cells co uld not produ ce eno ugh of the
po lysaccharid e for efficient adhesio n. The bacterium
Streptococcus muta ns fo rms biofilms on teeth, w hic h are
calle d plaque and can cause dental decay .
In many v iruses, the capsid is naked - it is the outer layer. In
ot her v iruses, there is a lipid bilayer outside the capsid. These
are called enve lo ped viruses.
2. Are the genes DNA or RN A?
The genes in some v iruses are com posed of D NA w hereas in
others they are RNA .
3 . Are the genes single or double-strand ed?
The genes of viruses can be either single stran ded or doubl e
stranded, w hether they are co m posed of DNA or RNA .

DIVERSITY OF MICROSCOPIC EUKARYOTES

A ny li v ing o rganism that is too small to see wi th the naked eye is micro sco pic. There are many types of mi croscop ic eukaryote,
w hic h are very diverse in their modes of nutriti on, their mod es of loco motio n and w hether they have cell wa lls, chlo roplasts and
cilia or flagell a. Five typ es are described below .

CELL STRUCTUREAN D LOCOMOTIO N

j
r 1
Has a cell wa ll but no No cell wall but has a
method of locomotion method of locomotion
I 1 r 1 1
Cell ulose cell Chitin cell Flagellu m for Cili a for Amoeboid movement
wall wall locomotion locomotion (like a phagocyte)

nucl eus nucleus nucleus nucleus

nucleus

, , .
chlorop last

Chlore lle Sacc harom yces Euglena Param e cium Amoeba

Autotrophic Heterotrophic Heterotrophi c and Heterotrophic Heterotrophic
o photosynthesis o saprotrophic autotrophic o ingests living and dead o ingests li ving and dead
using a chloro plast - absorbs sugar and o photosynthesis using organic matter by organic matter by
o needs onIy Iight and other small molecules chloroplasts endocytosis endocytosis
inorganic compounds <endocvtosis of
organic matter

AUTOTROPHIC HETEROTRO PHIC

NUTRITION NUTRITION

Microbes and biotechnology 143

The nitrogen cycle

ECOLOGICAL ROLES OF MICROBES NITRATE FERTILIZERS AND RIVERS

M icrob es are ve ry var ied in their metabo lism and so can have A lthoug h nitrate is an essential nutr ient fo r plants, its
many d ifferent ro les in eco systems. For example, some eco logica l effects in rivers can be detr imental.
microbes are produc ers. Other mi crobes are decomposers. 1. N itrate ion s are solu ble and are leached from soils very
M icrobes can also be nitro gen fixers in ecosystems. easily if excessive amo unts are app lied to crops. If
phosphate and other minerals also reach a high
co ncent ratio n, a river beco mes eutrophic.
MICROBES AND THE NITROGEN CYCLE 2 . The eutrophicatio n causes algae to proliferate. Ni trate from
M any mi crobes, includin g nitrogen f ixers, have rol es in the fert ilize rs sometimes causes an excessive growt h of algae,
nitrogen cycle . The w ho le cycle is show n in the di agram called an algal bloom . Som e of the algae are depri ved of
(below). light and die.
3. Bacteria decom pose the dead algae. The bacteria create an
1. Nitrogen fixation increased biochemical oxygen demand and so cause
Free-liv ing Azotobacter and Rhiz obium living mutu alistically deo xygenation of the wate r.
in root nodu les both fi x nitr ogen. N itr ogen fi xation is 4. Low oxygen levels ki ll fish and ot her aquatic animals.
conversio n of nitrogen from the atmosphere into ammo nia, The graph (below) shows the results of an experiment in
using energy from ATP. w hic h a lake was ferti li zed w ith nitrates every year starting in
2. Nitrification 1969 . The density of algae was estimated by measuring
The co nversio n of ammo nia to nitrate (nitrificatio n) invo lves chlo rop hyll co ncentrat ion in the wate r. Befo re the
tw o types of soil bacteria. N itrosomonas co nve rts ammo nia to experiment, the con centratio n was below 5 ug drrr-'
nitrite and N itrobacter co nve rt nitr ite to nitrate. throughou t the year.
N itrifi cati on happens very rapid ly, as long as soils are we ll
aerated w ith abundant supplies of oxyge n.
1=: 200 1969
v
3 . D enitrificati on ~
1970 "
I I
<, 150 1972 / }"\
N itrate is somet imes co nve rted into nitrogen in a type of
>­ 1973 f : 1:
anaerob ic respiratio n. This process is called denitrificat ion as
it reduces nitrate levels in soils.
.s:
Q.

2 100
o
,,:.....: ~ \
Pseud om onas denitrificans is an examp le of a bacterium that ::cu ' :
,:
I ';
I ~- ,

c ;:,;~:; ,;o~jL!.I~)~:~:\:;;:;2:
carries out denit rification . N itrate is broken dow n w hen it is
used as a terminal electron accepto r in respirati on instead of SO l
oxygen.
1
Anaerobic soi ls therefore enco urage denitr ificatio n. Bad
d rainage and wa terlogg ing are a frequent cause of anaerob ic F M A M A SON D
co ndit io ns in soi ls.

The nitr ogen cycle

Nitro gen fixation

living organisms

Denitrification e.g. , •
by Pseudomonas ' Active transport of )rt~,
nitrate ions by plants ~ 1
(N i t~~t~~ ·\ .) Plant " '\,.~v~p " Animal,
:NOi" ) prote~~ j Tra n sfe r of nitrogen ', protein
"
in the food chain
Nitrification': r
e.g. by nitrifying
Death and d eco mpos i~io n
Free-living bacteria such as'

nitrogen-fixing nitrogen-fixing Nitrobecte r ,

bacteria in root bacteria in the Industrial nitrogen
Putrefacti on (by
nodu les, e.g. soil, e.g. decomposers; mainly fixation by the
Rhiz obium Azo tobacter bacteria and fungi) Haber process
Nitrification
e.g. by nitrifying C-:J .)

bacteria such as
Nitrosomonas
Ammonia

NH 3

144 Microbes and biotechnology

Sewage treatment and methane generation

SEWAGE IN RIVERS USING MICROBES IN SEWAGE TREATMENT

Raw sewage ofte n contai ns 1. Trickle filter beds
pat hogens. If it is released into Rotating boom
rivers, and peop le drink water
from the river or swi m in it, they
Decomposers
may become infected w it h the Rock digest organic
pathoge ns. fragments matter
Raw sewage also has ecologica l with a large
effects on rive rs, shown in the surface area
figu re (below) . on wh ich Nitrifying
microbes bacteria
grow convert
ammonia to
nitrates
Releaseof
inflow of
raw sewage
raw sewage
2. Reed beds
gravel or other
Saprotrophic solid substrate reeds
bacteria feed
on organic matter
in the sewage
- the bacteria use Decomposers
up large amounts #" Denitrifyi ng
break down organic bacteria
of oxygen so the matter, releasing
sewage creates a convert
ammon ia and Nitrifying bacteria convert Plant roots nitrates to
high bioc hemical mine ral ions ammonia to nitrites and nitrates absorb nitrates nitrogen
oxygen demand.

The water may
be deoxygenated,
ki lling fish.
Decompositio n of
the organic matter
resuIts in release of
ammonia and
phosphate.
Ammo nia is
converted to nitrate.
High nitrate and
phosphate levels
(eutrophicat ion)
METHANE GENERATION
Biomass already provides large amo unts of fue l, in the fo rm of wood, crop residues and
\ '.:1 dri ed manure. Me thods now ex ist fo r co nverti ng biomass into fue ls that are more
co nvenient to use, such as ethanol and methane.
Methane is sometimes called marsh gas, beca use it is natu rall y produced by mi crobes in
anaerobic co nditions. These con ditions are recreated in bioreactors used fo r methane
generation.
A variety of types of organ ic matter can be the feedstock, incl uding manure from farm
anima ls and cellu lose, The feedstock is loaded into the bioreactor w here anaerobic
co nditio ns enco urage the growth of three gro ups of natur all y occurring bacte ria.
The first group convert organic matter into organ ic acids and alco ho l.
The second group convert o rganic acids and alco ho l into carbo n diox ide, hyd rogen and
acetate .
The third gro up of bacte ria are the methanogenic archaea - they produce methane from
carbon diox ide, hyd rogen and acetate.
Carbo n diox ide + hydrogen methane + water

stimulate algal
growt h. COz + 4H z CH 4 + 2H zO

Acetate ~ met hane + carbo n d ioxide

CH 3COO H ~ CH 4 + COz

The gas that is prod uced in bio reactors is someti mes called biogas and is 40-70% methane.
It is renewab le fuel. Production of it helps to dispose of potent ially po ll uting organ ic wastes.
A bioreacto r

Photosynthesis by
algae increases
oxygen levels in
~
the water. M anure

Wate r seal

Assuming that an
excessivealgal bloom
does not develop,
\
Ii ,>P,..
~~
Digested slurry
used as ferti lizer on
the river then recovers
fields or gardens
from the sewage Partition
pollution, usually many (retains coarse slurr y)
kilometres downstream.

Microbes and biotechnology 145

Microbes and biotechnology

GENE THERAPY RISKS OF GENE THERAPY

Gene therapy is the treatment of genetic di sease by altering
the genotype. In the case of a di sease caused by a recessive
allele, a fully functio nal domin ant alle le must be inserted into
defective cells. The situatio n is more co mplex w ith genetic
di seases caused by do minant alleles - expressio n of the
defec tive gene must be prevented and a functioning allele
may also need to be inserted.
There are tw o stages in the life cycle w hen gene therapy
co uld be attempted:
1. Somatic-cell therapy - body ce lls are altered, w hich do not
develop into gametes. Ofte n very large num bers of cells
wi ll need to be altered , and altho ugh the genetic disease
may be cured in the treated ind iv id ual, it can still be
passed on to offspri ng.
2. Germ-line therapy - sperm or egg ce lls are treated (or ce lls
that w ill d iv ide to prod uce sperm or egg cells). The disease
shou ld be com pletely absent in offspring fo rmed using the
gametes, but the parent in w hic h the d isease has been
d iagnosed still has the disease.
VIRAL VECTORS IN GENE THERAPY
Viruses have had millions of years to evo lve efficient
mechani sms fo r entering mamma lia n cells and del ivering
genes to them. They sometimes also incorporate these genes
into the host cell's chromoso mes. Viruses are therefo re
obv io us candida tes fo r the gene de live ry system, needed in
gene therapy. Mod if ied vi ruses must be produced co ntaining
the desired gene, w hic h w ill infect target cells but not
repl icate to fo rm more vir us particles. A modified vir us that is
used in this w ay is ca lled a vector.
The most w idely used virus vectors are retrov iruses.
O ne exam ple of thei r use is in the t reatment of SCiD (severe
com bined immuno-deficiency), a genetic disease that is due
to the lack of an enzyme ca lled ADA. A famous early case
involved a baby called A nd rew :
Gene therapy for SCi D
Most attempts at gene therapy so far have not been successful
and the hopes of patients and their families have been raised
and then d isappoi nted . There have also been cases w here the
treatme nt has harmed the patients. One examp le of this
invo lved a tria l of gene therapy for SCiD using retroviruses, in
a group of ten ch ild ren in France. Two of t he c hi ldre n
deve loped leukemi a. The viral vecto r had inserted DNA into
a cancer-ca using gene and activa ted it. Adenoviruses are
possib le alternative viral vectors , as they do not insert thei r
genes into host cell chromosomes, so should not activate the
cance r-causing genes.
USE OF REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE IN
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Retroviruses, suc h as H IV, are viruses that use RNA as their
genetic material. They co ntai n an enzy me that cata lyses the
pro duction of DNA from RNA. This enzy me is called reverse
transcriptase. Retrov iruses use it to make a DNA copy of their
RNA genes, after they have entered a host cell. The DNA
copy beco mes inserted into the host cell's chromosomes .
Molec ular bio logists use reverse transcriptase to make cop ies
of t he genes that they use in gene transfer.
1. Cells that are transcribi ng the require d gene are obtai ned
and mRNA transcripts are ext racted.
2. Single-stranded DNA copies of the m RNA are made using
reverse transcriptase. This is ca lled eDNA.
3. DNA po lymerase is used to co nvert the single-stranded
DNA into double-stranded DNA, producing genes that can
be transferred into anot her organism .
The fig ure (below) is a summa ry of the proced ure.
The genes prod uced contai n no introns, so if they are
transferred to bacte ria, w hic h do not ed it out intro ns, the
correct protein w ill nonetheless be prod uced.

e ~

Production of eDNA f rom mRNA

3' 5'

Genetic screening before birth
shows that Andrew hasSCiD
The allele that codes for ADA
is obtained. This gene is
inserted into a retrovir us j Reversetranscriptase
synthesizes a DNA strand
comp lementary to the RNA

Blood removed from Andrew's
placenta and umbili cal cord
immediately after birth contains
stem cells. These are extracted
from the blood
3 ' 5'
5' I II I 1! I I II I I I I I I I I I ! ! I I I I I ) ! I I I I I I 111) I 1111II ! ) 111 I 3'
Retroviruses are mixed wi th
the stem cells. They enter
them and insert the gene into

~@
@ @
@ -:
/
the stem cells' chromosomes
j Reverse transcriptase breaks
dow n the strand of RNA

@ @ 5' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3'

•
Stem cells containing the working ADA gene are

' r

injected into Andrew's blood system via a vein.

<·~Z~-\=; , · · ,
For four years T-cells (w hite blood cells),
3'
y
DNA polymerase
synthesizes a DNA strand
comp lementary to the
other DNA strand

5'
5' I , II 11I , II I I II I 1I I I I I I I 1I 1I 1II , , I I I I , , I I I I I I I I I I I I 13'
produced by the stem cells, made ADA
enzymes, using the ADA gene. After four years
more treatment was needed.

146 Microbes and biotechnology

Microbes and food production
SACCHAROMYCES AND BREWING
Beer, w ine and other alco ho lic drink s are brew ed using yeasts
h om the genus Saccharom yces.'Whe n oxygen \s absent, the
yeast switches to anaerobic cell respirati on and excretes the
ethano l and carbo n di oxid e produ ced in this process.
An aerobi c cell respiration is also called fermentation . D uring
fermentatio n, t he ethano l concentratio n of the fluid around
the yeast cells can rise to approxi mately 15% by volume,
before it becomes tox ic to the yeast and the fermentation
ends. Most of the carbon dio xid e bubbles out into the
atmosphere.
1. Wine production
Grapes are crushed to make ju ice, w hich is pl aced into large
vessels, or vats. Yeast cells are naturally present on the grapes
and they grow and divid e in the jui ce. Sometimes selected
varieties of yeast are added. W ithin a few days, all of the
oxygen in the jui ce is used up and the yeast cells respire
anaerobically from then onw ards. The fermentation ends w hen
the sugar in the jui ce has been used up or w hen the ethano l
content reaches 15%. The jui ce has then becom e w ine.
2. Beer production
Starch, rather than sugars, are the feedstock for beer
produ ction. Yeast cannot ferment starch, so there must be an
extra stage in t he produ ction process. Barley seeds are we tted
and allowe d to start germinat ing. Am ylase is produ ced in th e
germi nating seeds. The amylase can convert starch to
maltose. The barley seeds are dri ed after a few days to kill
them and preserve the amylase. The dried, semi-germi nated
barley seeds are called malted barley.
Beer produ ction involves mixin g malted barley, w ith oth er
sources of starch, and a selected variety of yeast into wa ter in
a vat. Hops are added as fl avouring. Amyl ase from the malted
barley di gests starch, to release maltose, w hic h the yeast
converts to ethano l by anaerobic cell respirati on .
PRODUCTION OF SOY SAUCE
The traditional method of producing soy sauce takes about six
month s and invol ves a fungus, Aspergillus.
1. Soya beans are coo ked and are mi xed w ith ground roasted
w heat grains.
2. The mi xtur e is ino cul ated w ith Aspergillus, which grows
rapi d ly ove r the soya and w heat.
3. After a few days, the mi xtu re is transferred to vats and salt
solutio n is added.
4. The mi xtu re is left in the vats for about six months, during
w hich tim e the Aspergillus ferments the starch and prot ein s
into alco hol, organic acids, sugars and ami no acids.
5. Soy sauce is the liquid produ ced by pressing the mi xtur e
extracted from the vats at the end of the fermentatio n. It is a
complex combination of sweet, salty, sour and unami
flavours. Its traditio nal use is in ori ental coo king, but it is
now used w idely thro ughout the wor ld.
SACCHAROMYCES AND BAKING
Yeast is used in bakin g bread. It is mix ed into the dou gh
b e\ore b aK\ng. 1he yeast oroouces ethano\ ana carbon
dioxid e by anaerobic cell respiration . The carbon dio xid e
form s bubbl es w ithin the dough, makin g the dou gh rise - it
increases in volume. This makes the dou gh less dense - it is
leavened. Wh en the dou gh is baked most of the ethano l
evaporates and the carbon dio xid e bubbl es give the bread a
li ght texture, w hich makes it more appetizing.
TRADITIONAL FOOD PRESERVATIVES
There are many ways of preservin g foods. All of them w or k by
preventin g the grow th of microbes in the food . Several
tradition al methods involve adding chemicals to the food.
1. Acids
Vin egar, containing ethano ic acid, can be used to preserve
foods, because microbes cannot grow at low pH .
Yoghurt is made w hen bacteria convert lactose in milk to lacti c
acid . This reduces the pH of the milk , preventing the growth
of most microbes and therefore preservin g the milk as yoghurt.
2. Salt
If salt, usuall y sodium c hlo ride, is added to food s, to c reate a
high salt concentratio n, mi crobes cannot grow in the food
and it is preserved. An y microbes in the food are kill ed
because water is drawn out of them by osmosis.
3. Sugar
Honey is naturall y preserved, because of its high sugar content.
If honey is properly ripened, no microbes can grow in it,
because the sugar is so concentrated. As wi th salt, water is
drawn , by osmosis, out of any microbes in honey, killin g them.
If enough sugar is added to a food then it is also preserved.
Jam is an example of a food preserved by high sugar
co ncentrati ons.
FOOD POISONING
Some mi crob es that are found in food produ ce tox ins, w hich
are harmful to human health . This is called food poi sonin g.
On e of the co mmonest form s is caused by certain strains of
Staphylococcus aureus.
Symptoms
If food co ntaining the toxin is eaten, nausea, vomiti ng and
di arrhoea develop w ith a few hou rs.
Method of transmission
If food is co ntaminated w ith the pathogenic strains of
S. aureus during handling and the food is stored above 4 °C,
the bacteri a multipl y and produ ce harmful toxin s. A w ide
variety of foods can carry the bacteria and therefore toxin s:
poultry, meat, eggs, salads, puddings, sauces and bakery
produ cts co ntaining cream.
Treatment
The main aim of treatment is to repl ace substances lost in
d iarrhoea. O ral rehydrati on fluids are used, w hich are dilute
so lutio ns of min eral ions, includin g sod ium and c hlo ride,
together w ith a littl e sugar and some flavou rin g to make it
palatable. Intravenous fluid s are o nly given w hen vomitin g
prevents rehydration . Ant ib iot ics are not norm ally used as the
bod y cl ears the infection w ithout them.
Microbes and biotechnology 147
 Metabolism of microbes

SOURCES OF ENERGY AND CARBON

Mi crob es, especia lly prokaryotes, are much mo re varied in SOURC EOF CARBON
their metabo lism than larger organisms. They can be divided Inorganic Organic
into groups accord ing to t heir sour ces of two essent ial thin gs ­ -C0 2 compounds
energy and carbo n. The table (right) summariz es the di fferences.

Phot oautotrophs - organisms that use li ght energy to generate

ATP and to prod uce o rganic co mpo unds from inorganic
substances.
Examp le - An abaen a (show n in the diagram below ) Photoautotrophs Photoheterotrophs
>­
LJ
:>::
Phot oh eterotroph s - organisms that use li ght energy to generate L.U
Z
ATP and that use organic compo unds made by other o rganisms. L.U
u...
Examp le - Rhodospirillum (a purple bacterium ) oL.U
Chemoaut otrophs - organisms that use energy from chemical U
:>::
reacti on s to generate ATP and that prod uce organic compo unds :J
fro m inorganic substances.
oVl
~
u
Examp le - Nitrobacter (a nitrifying bacterium) 'E Chemoautotrophs Chemoheterotrophs
Q)
.s:
Chemoh eterot roph s - o rganisms that use energy from chemical U
reactions to generate ATP and that use organic compounds
made by other o rganisms.
Examp le - Lactob acillus (a bacterium used to make yogurt)
Plants are almost all photoautotrophs and most animals are
chemo heterotro phs.

Structure of a cyanobacterium

y y photosynthetic
photosynthetic cells membranes
nitrogen-fixing cell

USE OF BACTERIA IN BIOREMEDIATION

M icrob es can someti mes be used to clean up po llutio n of soil
o r water. This is called bioremediation.
The bacteri a may break the po ll utant down into harml ess
substances o r may remove it from the enviro nment by
co ncentrating it w ithin the mi crobi al cells.
Usuall y the bacterium is already present in th e envi ronment,
but it may need to be stimu lated by applicatio ns of nutri ents,
such as nitrate o r phosphate ferti lizer. Fou r examples of
bioremediation are given here.
1. Oil spills in water
Crude o il co ntains a w ide variety of chem ical compo unds,
many of wh ich have very harmfu l effects w hen released into
the environment. M any different mi crob es are able to ox id ize
hyd rocarbo ns in oil spill s, and so help in bioremedi ation . The
numb ers of these mi crobe s increase naturally on the surface of
the o il, but even so, it can take months for most of a spi llage
to di sappear and some hydrocarbons are very resistant to
microb ial decom position . App lication of inorganic fertilizer
can speed up the process of bioremedi ation .
2. Selenium polluti on
Comp ounds of the metal selenium so metimes pol lute soils or
w ater. Various bacteria absorb selenate ion s (SeO/ - and
SeO/ - ) and ox id ize t hem to metalli c seleni um, w hich is
much less toxic.
3. Pesticide polluti on
A w ide variety of c hemical substances have been develop ed
for use as pestici des. W hen these substances are used,
residu es may be left in the soil or elsewhere in the
environ ment. These resid ues gradually di sappear but the t ime
taken fo r this to happen varies fro m a few days up to fo ur o r
mo re years. This depends on how easy it is for microbes to
break down the pesticid e.
4. Sol vent pollution
Chlo rinated solvents, for example chloro form, are often found
as po ll utants of groundwate r - w ater percol ating thro ugh soil
and rock . There are a few groups of bacteria that dech lor inate
these solvents in anaerobic cond itio ns, co nverting them into
much less toxi c substances.

148 Microbes and biotechnology

 Microbes and disease
LIFE CYCLE OF THE INFLUENZA VIRUS
Influen za is cau sed by an e nve lope d virus, w ith
sing le-s tranded RNA as its gen eti c materi al.
• It bi nds to glyco protei ns on the surface of th e ce lls in the
linin g of th e upper resp iratory tract.
• It is th en tak en into th ese ce lls by e ndocytos is.
• O nce ins ide the host ce lls, the vira l RNA is rep licat ed a nd
ca ps id prote ins are synthesized usin g th e ribosom es of th e
ho st ce ll.
• New influen za viru ses a re asse mb led from th e RNA and
prot ein s.
• Th e host ce ll is bur st o pe n. This is ca lled lysis. The
influen za viruse s a re re leased , e nve lope d in membran e
from th e ho st ce ll's plasm a membran e .
• The viruse s th at have bee n re leased go o n to invade ot he r
host ce lls, spr eadin g th e infection .
This type of life cycle , w he re a vi rus tak es o ve r a host ce ll,
uses it to reprodu ce a nd th en bursts it open a nd kills it, is
ca lled a lytic life cycle .
ACTION OF ANTIBIOTICS
Antibiotics are c he m ica l substa nces produced by microb es
th at kill or in hibit the grow th of ot he r micro bes. Th e ir
d isco very a nd use is o ne of th e triumph s of modern me di ci ne ,
revo lut ion izi ng the treatm e nt of bacter ial diseases.
Antibi otics a ll interfer e w ith so me aspect of microbi a l
metab olism. Most of th em ac t aga inst bacte ria, by o ne of
th ese mec hani sms :
1. Inhibiting of cell wa ll synt hes is - pen ic illin a nd so me oth er
antibiotic s inh ibit e nz ymes tha t a re invol ved in th e
sy nthes is of th e bact er ia l ce ll wa ll
2. Inhibitin g pr ot ein sy nt hesis - e rythrom yc in, stre pto myci n
a nd so me othe r a nt ibio tics block o ne of th e stages in
bacteri a l protein sy nthe sis
3. Inhi biting nucl eic aci d synt hesis - rifampin a nd so me oth er
antibiotics blo ck th e sy nthes is of RNA by RNA po lym erase
in bacteria
Antib iotics can safe ly be ingested becau se these processes
a re sufficie ntly different in hum an cells for th em not to be
blo cked .
CONTROLLING MICROBIAL GROWTH
1. Irradi ation - io nizing radi ation , for exa mp le ga mma
radi ation, ca n be used to kill m icrob es in food , includ ing
path ogen ic bacte ria a nd th ose that ca use food spoi lage .
Free rad icals form ed by th e irradi ation may a lte r flavour,
but not as mu ch as w ith heating. Som e bacteria ca n survive
irradi ation e .g. Clostridium bo tulinum. Irradi ated foo ds do
not become radioactive, but som e co nsumers a re still
re lucta nt to bu y th em .
2 . Past eurizati on - m ilk ca n co nta in pa thoge ns, incl udi ng
the bacteri a t hat ca use tub er culosis. Past euri zat ion kills a ll
path ogen s a nd most bacte ria caus ing de cay. A typ ica l
meth od invo lves heatin g the m ilk to at least n oe for
15 sec o nds , fo llowed by rapid coolin g. Lon ger periods
of heatin g o r higher temperatures ste rilize the milk,
preve ntin g decay mor e effect ive ly, but a lte ring the flavou r
of the milk , so pasteu rizati on is often preferr ed to
sterilizatio n .
ENDOTOXINS AND EXOTOXINS
Ma ny pathogen s harm the ir hosts by producin g toxins.
In so me cas es th e to xin is a prot ein th at is re le ased by th e
pat hogen - this is a n exotoxi n . Ma ny exotox ins are high ly
toxic o r eve n fata l, for exam ple, th e bacte rium th at ca use s
c ho lera rel eas es a prot ein th at perforates the membran es of
ce lls in the intestin e . This ca uses loss of fluid from th e wa ll of
the intest ine a nd extreme ly seve re di arrh oea . Exoto xin s ca n
mov e throu gh th e body of th e host a nd ca use dam age away
from th e a rea of infection .
Another type of toxin is prese nt in th e o uter membran e of
gra m-negative bacte ria . The toxic part of the membra ne is
lipo pol ysacch a ride a nd becau se it is part of th e struc ture of
the bacterium , it is an endo tox in . Th e tox icity of e ndo tox ins is
no t grea t, b ut they ca use feve r a nd ac he s, w h ich exotox ins
usuall y do not.
TYPES OF BACTERIAL INFECTION
Ther e a re two main typ es of bacter ial infect ion :
1. Extr acellul ar bacter ial inf ecti on
Som e pat hogeni c bact eri a invade th e bo dy a nd rem ain in th e
inter cellu lar spaces, usin g th e nut rients th e re .
Exampl e : Streptococcus
This gro up of bacteri a most co mmo nly infe ct s th e upper
respir atory tract. Streptococcus ce lls so met imes fo rm a n outer
covering, ca lled a caps ule, w hic h he lps them to resist the
antibo dies in hum an tissue s.
2 . Intracellul ar ba ct eri al infection
Som e pathogen ic bacte ria inva de the bod y of th e ho st a nd
e nte r its ce lls, re lying o n the met abo lism of th e host ce lls for
so me processes.
Examp le : Chlamydia
Small den se Chlamydia ce lls are a ble to survive o utside ho st
ce lls, but not grow o r d ivide . W he n they mak e co ntac t with a
host cell, the y are taken in by endoc ytosis. Once inside they
c ha nge into larger ac tive ce lls, whi c h use ATP a nd o ther
substa nces produced by th e host, fo r growth a nd
reproduction . Eventua lly these ac tive ce lls become sma lle r
a nd den ser and are re leased . They may th e n be d ispe rsed and
e nte r othe r host ce lls.
3 . Ant iseptics - c he m ica l substa nces th at kill o r prevent the
grow th of bacter ia o n th e skin o r in wound s, helping
to prevent infect ion.
Antise ptics ca n be used o n th e surface of living tissues
bec au se th ey a re not ve ry toxic to tissu e a nd there is little or
no abso rptio n. Ho wever , th ey would be harmful if tak e n
intern a lly. They ca nno t th erefor e be used in food s, a nd th ey
wo uld a lso taste unp leas ant.
4 . Disin fect ants - che mica l substa nces that kill or prevent th e
growth of microb es o n no n- living surfaces. The y ca n be
used to ste rilize medi ca l eq uipme nt, surfaces used in food
preparation a nd man y othe r place s wh ere microbia l growth
m ust be prevented .
Effe ctive disinfectants a re high ly toxic to microbes, but th e
dis ad vantage of this is that they are too toxic to be used on
o r in livin g tissues, o r in food s.
Microbes and biotechnology 149
 Epidemiology
EPIDEMICS AND PANDEMICS '
Epidemiology is the study of the occurrence, distribution and
control of diseases.
There is an epidemic w hen the numb er of cases of a di sease
in a region is unu suall y high. There is a pandemic w hen an
epidemic has spread very wide ly, to affect a large geographic
area, suc h as a cont inent.
Example: the Asian flu pandemic of 1957
Occurrence: pandemic s of influ enza occur irregularly, but
usuall y at intervals of several decades. An epidemic began in
February 1957 , spread into a pandemi c and reached its peak
in O ctob er 1957, w ith 22 million new cases in two weeks,
decl ining from then on w ards.
Distribution: the new strain of influ enza virus that caused the
pandemi c first appeared in M ainl and China, spread ing to
Hon g Kong and then throu ghout the w orld by air and sea
routes.
Control: clearly, there was no effective control of the pandemic
in 1957 . Wh en new strains of influ enza virus appear, vacci nes
are still not immediately available, because developm ent and
manufacture takes months. There we re no effective antiviral
dru gs available and there are still no drugs that are as effective
as antibiotics for bacterial di seases. If a dangerous new strain
of influenza is identifie d early enough, attempts can be made to
prevent its spread by isolating all infected people, but this di d
not happen in 1957.
MALARIA
300-5 00 mill ion peopl e per year becom e ill as a result of
malari a, wi th more than a million deaths, makin g it one of the
w or ld' s most devastating diseases.
Cause
A proto zoan parasite called Plasmodium is the cause. After
enteri ng the bod y, it first invades and reprodu ces inside liver
cell s and then changes into a d ifferent form, w hich targets red
blood cells. In the most severe form of malaria, the parasite
fo ll ows a 48-hou r cycle of invadi ng red blood cells, growing
and reprodu cin g inside them and bu rst ing out into the blood
plasma.
Effects
The w orst symptoms occ ur w hile the parasites are cir cul ating
in the blood pl asma: fever, shiverin g, sweating, headache,
general body pain and sto mach upsets. In severe cases the
attac ks can becom e progressively more serious. Capi llar ies
are blocked by parasiti zed red bloo d cells and bu rst causing
anemia and wides pread damage to o rgans inclu din g the
brain. Death may then fo llow .
Transmission
The parasite cannot by itself get from the body of on e human
host to another. It uses an insect vecto r - female Anopheles
mosquitoes, w hich feed on human blood . If the mosquitoes
ingest blood from a person w ith malari a, the malarial
parasites survive and reprodu ce inside the stomach and then
spread to the salivary glands. Wh en the mosquito next feeds,
usually on a different person, it first inj ects saliva th at cont ains
Plasmodium into the person, infecting them w ith malaria if
they do not already have it.
150 Microbes and biotechnology
TRANSMISSION OF PATHOGENS
On e of the main probl ems in the life of a pathogen is how to
reach a new host and gain entry to the body. There are
various possibl e methods.
• Contact - contagio us diseases are transmitted w hen an
uninfected person tou ches an infected person as the
pathogen can enter the bod y throu gh the skin.
• Cuts - pathogens enter the body w hen the skin is cut or
pun ctur ed by any objec t th at is co ntaminated w ith
pathogens.
• Droplets - diseases of the ventilation system can be
transmitted w hen an infected person coughs or sneezes out
dropl ets cont aining patho gens, w hich are breathed in by an
unin fected person.
• Food or water - pathogens in cont amin ated food o r water
enter the bod y throu gh the soft gut wa ll.
• Sexual intercourse - sexually transmitted di seases gain
entry throu gh the soft mucous membr anes of the penis and
vagi na during sexual intercourse.
• Insects - blood-sucking insects inject their mouthparts
thou gh the skin and can transmit patho gens that are sucked
o ut in the blood of an infected person.
SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHIES
These are serious, incurable diseases of mammals. The best­
kno wn examples are scrapie in sheep, BSE in cattle and
Creutzfeld-Jacob di sease (CJD) in hum ans. In each case the
tissues of the brain are gradually brok en down , giving a
spongy appearance and causing premature aging, dementia
and eventually death.
Spongiform encephalopathies are infectious , but the nature of
the infectio us agent is puzzlin g.
• Enzymes that d igest D NA and RNA do not affect it.
• It is very heat stable and is not easily damaged by ion izin g
radiation .
• It cannot therefore be a livin g organism.
• It is affected by chemic al treatments that denature protein s.
Research has led to a protein of 254 amino aci ds, now called
prion protein or PrP. There are two form s of PrP, the norm al
for m, Prpc, w hic h is found o n the surface of neuron s and
Prpsc, found in d iseased brain tissue.
Accord ing to the prion hypoth esis, Prpc is co nverted into
Prpsc by a conform ation al change and Prpsc causes thi s
change. So, if any Prpsc is present in the brain , it w ill cause
mor e and more to be produced by a sort of positive feed back.
Brain cells attempt to di gest it using protease, but part of the
Prpsc molecul e resists digestion and the resultin g prot ein
fi bri ls accumulate in brain cells, presumably causing
sympto ms of the d isease.
Experim ents have show n th at w hen experimental animals are
inocul ated w ith Prpsc spo ngifo rm encephalo pathies deve lo p.
Ho w ever, not all observatio ns can be accounted fo r by the
prion hypoth esis. It does not exp lain how rapid ly the di fferent
forms of the d isease progress, including sporadic CjD and
variant Cj D in hum ans. No other hypoth esis seems plausibl e
thou gh, so research is focu sing on modifi cation s to the
prion hypoth esis.
EXAM QUESTIONS ON OPTION F - MICROBES AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

F1 The graph below shows some of the effects of di scharge of raw sewage int o a river .

vo
C
<li
Vl 'i::
= '5
::l c
00 bacteria algae and
~ C photosynthetic
<li 0
~ .­ bacteria
E (§
:::J~
C C
<li <li
> ~ /
'';:; 0
'" u 0,
~ ~
ct: 0 . _. 0,
V'
,' \
--, . . . . . . . . . .
... <,
t
--- - - - - ­
- --­
1 \"
: y .- .. ....... :"
I
,., /-
/> <, _ _
-i-,
~ .. < »> NO­
I _ . ::.,. . .. .:-::':": -:-::-=:.:-:? NH/and po/ ­

t
input of sewage
Distance downstream - ­

a) Explain the decrease in oxyge n co ncentratio n downstre am of th e inp ut of raw sew age. [2J

b) Explain the increase in ammo nia and phosphate co ncentratio n down stream of the input of raw sewage. [2]

c) Explain w hy th e max imum co ncentration of nitr ate is down stream of the maximum co ncentration of ammo nia. [2J

d) Expl ain the increase in the numbers of algae and photosynth etic bacteria shown in the graph. [2]

e) Suggest reasons for the decrease in numbers of bacteria, dow nstream of the part of the river w here there
is the maximum numb er of bacteria. [2]

F2 Reverse transcriptase is an enzy me found on ly in cells infected by certain viru ses.

a) Outline the process catalysed by thi s enzy me. [2J

b) (i) State th e name of the group of viru ses that co ntain the gene for thi s enzy me. tn
(ii) State one example of a virus from th is group. [1]
c) Explain bri efly w hy the enzy me is a usefu l tool for mol ecu lar bio logists. [3]

F3 The electro n mi crograph (right) show s adenoviruses,

at a magnification of x120 000. Ad enovi ruses cause the
co mmo n co ld in hum ans.

a) (i) State the name of the out er layer of th ese viruses,

visible in the electro n mi crograph. [1]

(ii ) State wh at materi al is cont ained inside t his o uter

layer of the viruses. [1 J
b) Outlin e how adenov iruses co uld be used in
gene therapy. f2l

c) Explain w hether adenoviruses are intracellul ar or

extracellular in their mode of infecti on . [2]

18 Questions - Microbes and biotechnology 151

18 OPTION G - ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION

Distribution of plants and animals

DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT SPECIES DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMAL SPECIES
The di stributi on of a species is the range of places th at it The d istribut ion of animal species is affected by both abiot ic
inh abits. The di stribution of pl ants is closely linked to t he and bioti c facto rs.
levels of abiotic factors in the environment. The main abiotic • Temperature - external temperatures affect all animals,
factors are temperature, water, light, soil pH , salinity and especial ly those th at do not maint ain co nstant internal body
mineral nutrients. Avicennia ge rm inans, for example, is a tree temperatures. Extremes of temperature require specia l
found in mangrove swamps o n the coast of Mexi co . It grows adaptations, so onl y some species can survive them.
w here the climate is hot and the soi ls are waterlogged and • Water - animals vary in the amount of water th at they
anaerobic, w ith high levels of salinity, a pH clo se to neutral require. Some animals are aquatic and must have water to
and high levels of min eral nutri ents. Few pl ants can grow in live in and at the other extreme some animals including
these co nditions, but Avicenn ia germinans thr ives. desert rats are adapted to survive in arid areas w here they
Sometimes the are unlikely ever to drink water.
Distribution of AsperuJa
di stribution of a plant • Breeding sites - all species of animals breed at some stage
cynanchica (Squinancy Wort)
specie s shows w hat in their life cycle. Many species need a speci al type of site
co nd itions a plant and can only live in areas w here these sites are available.
prefers. The fi gure For example, mosquitoes need stagnant water for egg
shows the distr ibuti on laying.
of Asperula • Food supply - many animal speci es are adapted to feed on
cynanchica in Britain specific foods and can onl y live in areas w here these foods
and Ireland . It is found are obt ainable. For example, blu e w hales feed mainly o n
in areas w ith alkali ne krill and so co ngregate in areas of the ocean w here krill
so ils form ed fro m is abundant.
chalk or lim estone • Territory - so me species of animal establish and defend
rock . It is absent fro m territories, either for feedin g or breedin g. This tends to give
co lder north ern areas the spec ies an even rather th an a clumped di stribution .
even w here the soils Pair s of tawn y owl s defend a single territory t hroughout
are alkali ne. their ad ult liv es.

RANDOM SAMPLING USING QUADRATS Random sampling using quadrats

A sampl e is a part of a popul ation , part of an area or some
1. Mark out gridlines along two edges of the area.
other w hole thing, chosen to illustrate wh at the w ho le

L u

u
popul ation, area o r other thing is lik e. For example, a sample
of a popul ation is some ind ivid uals in the popul ati on but not
all of them.
In a random sample, every individual in a population has an
equal chance of being selected.
2. Use a calculator or tables to generate two random

Random sampling of pl ant population s invo lves count ing numbers, to use as co-ordinates and place a quadrat on the

numb ers in small, randoml y located parts of the total area.

The sampl e areas are usuall y square and are marked o ut using
frames called quadrats.
A method for random sampling, using qu adrats, is show n in
the fi gure (right).
,g 14 L
ground wit h its corner at these co-ordinates

and7 .. L
3. Count how many individuals there are inside the quadrat

of the plant population being studied. Repeat stages 2 and 3

TRANSECTS AND DISTRIBUTIONS as many times as possible.

An alternative to random samp li ng is to investigate pl ant or

animal di stribut ions alo ng a lin e marked out across a site. The
lin e is called a transec t. ~
~ e ~. ~ /
ill= 5 individu als
L.....- ------'
Transects are particul arly useful w hen there is a gradi ent in an
abiotic variable. For example, if the soil in a vall ey is much
wetter in the bottom of the valley than up the sides, a transect 4. Measure the total size of the area occupied by the

across the vall ey can be used to investigate thi s and the population, in square metres.

di stribu tion s of pl ant and animal species that are co rrelated

w it h the variatio n in soil moi sture content.
Transects can be used to investi gate plant and animal
d istributi ons on seashores. The transect should be laid out at
right angles to the high tid e and low tide lin es, so that it
follow s the gradie nt in time of inund ation by sea w ater and 5. Calculate the mean number of plants per quadrat. Then
tim e of exposure to air. calculate the estimated population size using this equation:

mean number per quadrat x total area

population size = -------';-----'';---,----­
area of each quadrat

152 Ecology and conservation

Niches and interactions

THE NICHE CONCEPT FUNDAMENTAL AND REALIZED NICHES

Stud ies of the d istributio ns of organisms and of interacti on s
betw een o rganisms show that there are many di fferent ways
of existing in an ecosystem. The mode of existence of a
species in an ecosystem is its eco logica l ni che. The niche
includ es:
The niche that a species co uld occupy is often smalle r than
the niche that the species actually occ upies. These potential
and actual niches are call ed the fundamental niche and the
realized niche of the species. Differences betw een the
fundamental and realized niches are due to competitio n.

• Habitat - w here the species lives in the ecosystem.
• Nutrition - how the species obtains its food.
• Relationships - t he interactio ns wi th other species in the
ecosystem.
If tw o species have a similar niche, they w ill compete in the
overlapping parts of the niche, for example for breedi ng sites o r
fo r food. Because they do not compete in other w ays, they w ill
usually be able to coexist. However, if two species in an
ecosystem have exactly the same niche they w ill compete in all
aspects of their life and one of the tw o species wi ll inevitably
prove to be the superio r competitor. This species w il l cause the
disappearance of the other species from the ecosystem.
The principle that only one species can occupy a niche in an
ecosystem is called the competitive exclusion principle .
O ther species prevent a species from occupying part of its
fundamental niche by out-co mpeting o r by excl ud ing it in
some other way .
The fundame ntal niche of a spe cies is its potential mode of
ex istence, given the adaptations o f the species.
The realiz ed niche of a species is its actual mode of ex istence,
which results from its adaptations and competition from
other species. .
Competitive excl usion happens w hen a speci es is unable to
occ upy any part of its fundamental nic he in an area, so it has
no realized niche in that area.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SPECIES

A ll living organisms are affected by the acti vities of ot her livi ng organisms. A situat io n in w hich tw o species affect each other is
call ed an interaction . The tabl e below shows a classificat io n of interacti ons.

Interacti on Terrest rial example Marine exampl e

Herbivory - a primary co nsumer
feedi ng on a plant or other producer.
The prod ucer's growt h affects food
availa bility for th e herbivore.
The beetle Epitrix atropae feeds only on
leaves of Atropa belladonna, often
causing seve re damage to them. To
most other organisms the leaves are
highly toxi c.
A lgae grow ing o n rocks in shallow seas
are often heavily grazed. For example,
a snail Lacuna pallida feeds on the
brow n seaweed Fucus serratus on rocky
shores in Europe.

Predation - a consumer feeding o n
anot her co nsumer. The numbers and
behavio ur of the prey affect the
predato r.
The Canada lynx is a predator of the
Arctic hare. Changes in the numbers of
hares (up or down ) are fo llo wed by
similar changes in lyn x num bers.
Bonitos feed on anchovetas in the
Pacific Oc ean west of Peru. W hen the
anchoveta popu latio n crashed in the
1970s starving bo nitos were found,
wi th completely empty stomachs.

Parasitism - a parasite is an organism
that li ves o n o r in a host and obtains
food from it. The host is always harmed
by the parasite.
The ti ck Ixodes scapularis is a parasite
of deer and of w hite-footed mi ce in
northeast USA. The ti ck feeds by
sucking blood from its hosts and
therefore wea kens them.
O rganisms that cause infectiou s di seases
are all parasites. Fo r example,
Sph ingomonas bacteria cause a di sease
in elliptical star corals on the Florida
reef.

Competition - tw o species using the
same resour ce compete if the amo unt
of the resource used by each species
reduces the amo unt available to the
other species.
Dou glas Fir and W estern Heml ock
grow together in mi xed forests in
O regon and other states in northwest
USA, co mpeting w it h each other for
li ght, w ater and minerals.
Speci es of coral co mpete w it h each
other on coral reefs. Pocillop ora
damicornis competes w ith many other
cor als, including Pavona varians, w hich
benefit w hen predators feed on
Pocillopora dam icornis.

Mutuali sm - mutualists are members of
different species that live together in a
close relatio nship, from w hich both
benefit.
Usnea subfloridana and other li chens
co nsist of a fungus and an alga grow ing
mut ualist icall y. The alga suppl ies food s
made by photosynthesis and the fungus
absorbs mineral ion s.
The clea ner wrasse is a small fish of
warm trop ical seasthat cleans parasites
from the gills and bod y of larger fish
such as ret icul ate damsel fishes. The
cleaner benefits because the parasites
that it removes are its foo d.

Ecology and conservation 153

Biomass and trophic levels
MEASURING BIOMASS
Eco logists often use a measure ca lled biom ass.
Bioma ss is the total dry mass of organic matter in organisms
or eco systems.
For example, if an eco log ist wa nted to compare the amo unts
of o rganisms in each trophi c level in an ecosystem, biom ass
mi ght be used . M easurin g biomass is a destruct ive techn iqu e,
so the samp les used are as small as possible.
Method
1. Representative sampl es of al l living o rgani sms in the
ecosystem are co llected, fo r example from randomly
positioned qu adrats.
2. The organisms are sorted into trop hic levels.
3. The organi sms are dri ed, by bein g placed in an oven at
60-80°C.
4 . The mass of o rganisms in each trophic level is measured
using an electronic balance.
5. Dr y ing and measuring the mass may be repeated to c heck
that samp les we re co mpletely d ry.
DIFFICULTIES WITH TROPHIC LEVELS
Sorting organisms into trophi c levels can cause co nsiderable
di ffi cu lti es. Thi s is because many species exist partly in o ne
trophic level and partly in anot her. The fo llowi ng examp les
illu strate th is.
• Euglena, a uni cellular orga nism fo und in po nds, has
c hlo rop lasts and photosynthesizes, but it also feeds
heterorophicall y by endocytos is.
• Chimpanzees main ly feed on fru it and ot her plant matter,
but they also sometimes eat termit es and even larger
animals such as monk eys, so they are bot h fi rst and second
co nsumers.
• Herrin g are second co nsumers w hen they feed on Calanus
(a cope pod) and other first co nsumers but they are thi rd
co nsumers w hen they feed on sand eels and other second
co nsumers.
• Oysters (Ostrea species) and many other filter feeders
co nsume bot h ultraplanktoni c producers and
mi croplanktoni c consumers, so they are first and second
consumers. They also consume dead organic matter, so
they are also detriti vores.
It is di ffi cu lt to decid e into w hic h trophi c level these types of
organism should be classif ied. O ne practi cal so lutio n is to
classify each species acco rd ing to its main food source.
NUMBERS AND BIOMASS OF ORGANISMS
IN HIGHER TROPHIC LEVELS
Pyramid s of energy show that there are large losses of energy
at each trop hic level. Reasons for losses of energy are
explai ned on page 41 . Losses of energy in ecosystems are
acco mpanied by losses of biom ass.
Respir ation is an examp le of a process in w hic h bot h energy
and biom ass are lost. Wh en glucose or anot her respiratory
substrate is ox idi zed in respirati on , energy from the gluco se is
released fo r use in the ce ll and is then lost as heat. The mass
of the glucose does not disappear - it passes into the carbon
d iox ide and wa ter that are produ ced in respiration . Wh en
154 Ecology and conservation
CONSTRUCTING PYRAMIDS OF ENERGY
Pyramids show the energy f low th rou gh each trop hic level in
an ecosystem. To constr uct a pyra mid of energy, energy fl ow
throu gh each species in the ecosystem must be measured . In
each troph ic level the energy f low through all species is
added up.
The lo west bar of a py ramid of energy is the total amo unt of
energy that flows th rough the producers in the ecosystem .
This is also called gross pro duction.
Cross production is the total amount of organic m atter
produced by plants in an ecosystem.
Gross producti on and all the other energy fl ows in a pyra mid
are measured in ki lojou les of energy per square metre per
year (k] m-2 year").
Gross produ ction does not have to be measured d irectl y, as it
can be calcu lated from net production and plant respirati on.
Net production is the amo unt of gross production in an
eco system rem aining after sub tracting the amo unt used by
plants in respiration.
gross prod uction = plant respiration + net pro ductio n
Exa mple - an old field com m unity in Michigan, USA.
net prod ucti on = 20.79 x 10 3 k] m-2 vear '
plant respiration = 3.68 x 10 3 kj m-2 vear'
gross prod uct ion = (20.79 + 3.68) x 10 3 k] m-2 vear'
= 24 .47 x 10 3 k] m-2 year'
The upp er bars of a py rami d of energy are the total amo unts
of energy th at flo w throu gh the variou s groups of co nsumers.
This is the amo unt of energy in the food that the co nsumers
ingest.
The data below was obtained from an Arcti c tundra
ecosystem on Devon Island in northern Canada.
Trophi c level Energy f low (k] m-2 year:")
Producers 4925
Primary co nsumers 24
Second ary co nsumers 4
Thi s data can be used to co nstruct a py ramid of energy. Each
bar of the pyramid should be draw n to the same scale and
labelled w ith the trophic level.
these waste produ cts are exc reted, biom ass is lost. As a result
of respiration and other processes, both energy and bio mass
are lost at each stage in a foo d chai n.
The energy co ntent per gram of foo d does not decrease alo ng
a food chain. If anything, the foo d eaten by the higher trop hic
levels is richer in energy per gram than that eaten by low er
trophic levels. However, the total biom ass of foo d available to
higher troph ic levels is very small. It cannot suppo rt large
numb ers of o rganisms, especi ally if these organi sms need to
be large to over power their prey. Hi gher trophi c levels
therefore usually co ntain very small numbers of large
organi sms, wi th a low tot al biomass per un it area.
Succession and biomes

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION BIOMES AND BIOSPHERE

A n eco logica l successio n is a series of changes to an Ecol ogical successio n usuall y stop s w hen a stable ecosystem
ecosystem, caused by co mplex interactio ns betw een the develop s that contains a group of organisms called the cl im ax
community of li vi ng organisms and the abiotic environment. co mmuni ty. Di fferent types of ecosystem develop in d ifferent
Tw o types of successio n are recognized: parts of the w orld . A type of ecosystem is called a biome .
Primary succession starts in an environment w here livi ng
Rainfall and temperature are the two main factors that
organisms have not previo usly existed, for example a new
determ ine w hat typ e of ecosystem develo ps in an area, and
island, created by vo lcanic activity.
therefo re w hat the distributi on of bio mes arou nd the wo rld is.
Secondary succession occ urs in areas w here an ecosystem is
The c1imograph below show s the relatio nship betwee n the
present, but is replaced by other ecosystems, because of a
levels of these tw o facto rs and the types of biome. The
change in co nditions. For example, abandoned farmland
characterist ics of six major bio mes are descr ibed below .
developing into forest.
Du rin g an eco logical successio n, the co mmunity causes the The biomes of the wo rld together make up the bio sphere. It is
abio tic environment to change. As a result, some species di e now wel l know n that the ecosystems and bi omes of the wo rld
out and others join the co mmunity . A lthough the co mmunity functio n as one overall ecological system; so the biosphere is
may continue to c hange in this w ay for hundreds of years, the thin layer of interdependent and interrelated ecosystems
eventually a stable community develops, called the cl imax and bio mes that cover the Earth.
co mmun ity.
The changes to the abioti c environment dur ing ecological
~ 30 r' -,------,I--------~
successio ns vary, but some often occ ur. ~ 25 ' ,
• The amount of organic matter in the soil increases as
o rganic matter released by plants and other o rganisms ~ 20
accumulates. [ 15
• The soil becomes deeper as organic matter helps to bind E
2 10 NB. This c1 imograph
mi neral matter together. shows probable
~ 5 biomes at particu lar
• The soil structure improves as the organic matter content t:
levels of rainfall and
rises, increasing the amount of water that can be retained ~ 0 temperature, but other

and the rate at wh ich excess water drains throug h. ~

Il)
-5 U- I (
?
/ facto rs, incl uding fire,

'/:}'"
affect distribution of
• Soil erosio n is reduced by the bindi ng actio n of the roots of E -10 ",.§ ' biomes.

larger plants. -15 h---/ I

• The amounts of mi neral recycli ng increases, as the soil can 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4 000 4500
hold larger amo unts and more minerals are held in the rainfall / mm year:'
increasing biom ass of the community.

AN EXAMPLE OF PRIMARY SUCCESSION MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD

O n t he slopes of Vol can O sorno, in southern Chile, there are
large areas of bare vo lcanic ash, released duri ng recent Desert Rainfall very low ; Very few plants,
eruptio ns of the vo lcano. Adj acent areas show the stages in wa rm to very hot some stor ing water
an eco logica l successio n. days and co ld and some grow ing
• M osses spread over the ash, eventually forming a complete nights. qu ickly after rain .
cover.
Grassland Rainfall low ; w arm Dom inated by
• Small herbs jo in the mosses.
or hot summers grasses and other
• Shrubs, including Pernettya, Eucryphia and Emb othrium, enter
and co ld w inters. herbs that can
the community and gradually replace the herbs and mosses.
w ithstand grazing.
• Trees, inclu ding Nothofagus, gradually spread to replace
the shrubs w it h dense fo rest. Shrubland Coo l wet w inters D rought-resistant
and hot dry shrubs dom inate,
A stage in succession to forest on Volcan Osorno
summers, often often w ith
w ith fires. evergreen fo liage.

Temp erate M oderate rainfall Trees th at shed

deciduous w ith wa rm th eir leaves in the
forest summers and cool w inter do m inate
w inters. w ith shrubs and
herbs beneath.
Tropical Rainfall high to A huge d iversity of
rainforest very high and hot pl ants: tall
o r very hot in all evergreen trees,
seasons. smaller trees,
shrubs and herbs.
Tundra Very low Very small trees, a
temperatures; littl e few herbs, mosses
precipitation and li chens are
mostl y as snow . present.

Ecology and conservation 155

Biodiversity and rainforests

BIODIVERSITY RAIN FOREST CONSERVATION

The w or d biod iversity w as only invented in 1986. It is an
abbrevia tio n of ' bio log ica l di versity' and enco mpasses the
d iversity of ecosy stems o n Earth, the di versity of specie s
w ithi n them, and the genetic di versity of each spec ies. O ne of
the main tasks of eco log ists is co nservatio n of the w orld 's
bi od iversity .
THE SIMPSON DIVERSITY INDEX
It is sometimes useful to have an overall measure of species
ric hness in an ecosystem. The Simpso n index is one of th e
most co mmo nly used.
M eth od
1. Use a random sam pling tec hnique to search for o rganisms
in the ecosystem.
2. Identify each of the orga nisms found .
3. Co unt the to tal num ber of ind iv idu als of each species.
4 . Calc ulate the index (D).
A ll of the wo rld's bi om es m ust be co nserved, but trop ical
rain forests have been part icul arly th reatened recently and
there are many reasons fo r strenuo us effo rts to co nserve them .
Economic reason s
o New com mo di ties, for examp le medi cin es or materials,
may be found in rainforest speci es.
o New crop plants or farm animals co uld be developed from
rainfo rest spec ies or ex isting varieties co uld be improved
using thei r genes.
o Ecoto urism cou ld prov ide conside rable incom e.
Ecological reasons
o Rain fo rests fi x large amounts of carbo n dioxid e and,
wi thout them, the greenho use effect and globa l wa rming
wo uld probab ly be more severe.
o D amage to rainforests can have widespread effects
including soi l ero sion , sil ting up of rivers, f loodi ng and even
changes to wea ther patterns.

D = N (N - 1) Ethical reasons
~ n (n - 1) o Every species has a right to life, regardl ess of w hether it is
useful to hum ans or not.
N = tot al numb er of organisms
o The w ild life of rain forests has cultural imp ortance to the
n = numb er of indiv idu als per species
ind igeno us hum an popu lation s and it is therefor e wro ng to
Example
destroy it.
O rganisms w ere fou nd and id entified in the River
o It wo uld be w ro ng to deprive hum ans of the future the ric h
Enni ngdalselva in a part of Swe de n w here some lakes and
experiences th at the Earth 's biod iversity provid e to us.
rivers have been affected by acid rai n. Six sites in the riv er
w ere chosen random ly and kick sampling w as used at each Aesth et ic reaso ns
site alo ng a 10m transect. Nets w ith a 25 cm x 25 cm o Rain forests have species in them that are beauti ful and give
opening and 0.5 mm mesh we re used . The results are shown us great enjoyment.
in the tab le below. o Painters, w riters and co m posers have been and co ntinue to
be inspired by rainforests.
Group Species Name
Ephemerida Oixa species Mayfly larva 8
Odonata Tipu fa species Dragonfl y larva 5 BIOMAGNIFICATION
Species unidentified Caddisfly larva Som e po ll utants are absorbed into living o rgani sms and
Trich op ter a 4
accumu late because they are not effic ient ly exc reted . W hen a
Plecoptera Nemoura variegata Stonefly larva 4 predator co nsumes prey co ntaining the pol lut ant and absorbs
Hemiptera Gerris species Pond skater 3 it, the level in the body of the predator rises and can reach
levels much higher than those in the bodi es of its prey. Th is
Isopoda Asell us aquaticus Water louse 2 increase is calle d bi om agni fi cat ion and it can happen at each
Acari Arrhenurus species Water mite stage in the foo d chain.
Platyhelminth Oendocoefum fact. Flatworm 4 Biom agnifi catio n is the p rocess by w hic h chem ica l
Platyhelminth Ougesia species Flatworm substances beco me mor e concentrated at each trop hic level.
3
Hirundi nea Species unidentified Leach Polych lor in ated bipheny ls (PCBs) are chemica ls that w ere
used as insu lators in elect rica l devi ces and as flame­
O ligochaeta Lumbricufides Annelid worm 2 retardants. It was shown as long ago as 1953 that mod erate
Gastropoda Lymnaea species Snail 4 do ses ki lled experimental rats, but manufact ure co nt inued
unt il the 1970s.
Bivalvia Margaritifer Pearl mussel
PCBs have escaped into the environme nt and are now
D = 42 (42 -1) = 12.3 detectable thr ou ghout the w or ld . They are bot h persistent and
140 hi ghly toxi c. Bioaccu mul ation facto rs (BAF) for PCBs vary
The high diversity index suggests that the river has not been co nsiderably. Examples are give n below .
damaged by aci d rai n, o r any other disturbance. This fits in
w ith observation s of a thr ivi ng salm on pop ulatio n in the riv er.
Pathway BAF
If the Simpson divers ity index w as calcu lated for another river
in the same area, or a river in the same biom e elsewh ere in So il to earthworm 10
th e w or ld, the eco logical health of these rivers co uld be Fish to bird or mamm al 90
compared with River Enni ngdalselva. This wo uld help to W ater to f ish 50000
assessw hether co nservati on measures w ere needed in any of W ater to shell fish 10 000 000
the rivers. It would also allow rivers w it h high biodi versity to
be identified and given appro priate co nservatio n status, fo r
examp le as nature reserves.

156 Ecology and conservation

Impacts of humans on ecosystems
IMPACTS OF ALIEN SPECIES
A n alien species is a type of organism that hum ans have
introdu ced to an area w here it does not naturally occ ur. A lien
species are someti mes very invasive and cause co nside rable
ecologica l damage. For examp le, the f loati ng fern, Salvinia
molesta, has damaged many lakes in the trop ics and sub­
tropi cs. It grows rapidl y, doubli ng the num ber of leaves in
about two weeks, spreading ove r the wa ter surface and
elim inating native pl ant species by interspecific competition .
it has been contro lled by introdu ci ng anoth er alien species­
salvi ni a weevil (Cyrtobag us salviniae), w hich feeds on the
fl oating fern. This is an example of biological control.
Salvinia m olesta was deliberate ly transported around the
wor ld as an aquari um o r pond plant. A lien species have also
been introduced acc identally. For example, three species of
rat we re introduced to the mai nland of New Zealand duri ng
the 19th century. They caused many species of bird to
d isappear from the mai nland. This is calle d species extinction.
Some of these bird s were able to survive on islands that
remained free of rats. Until the 1950s, Big South Cape Island
in th e far south of New Zealand remained rat-free and was a
haven for many rare bird s. Three types we re, by then, found
nowh ere else: South Island sadd leback, Stewart Island snipe
and Stead's bush w ren.
South Island Saddleback Islands in the far south of
New Zealand
OZONE AND ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION
Ultra-vi ol et radi ation has very damaging effects on living
organisms and biol ogical produ ctivity.
• It increases mut atio n rates, by causing damage to DN A.
• It can cause cancers, especially of the skin.
• It causes severe sunburn and cataracts of the eye.
• It redu ces photosynthesis rates in pl ants and algae and so
affects food chains. chemica l co mpounds manufactur ed by hum ans and released
The amou nt of damaging ultr a-viol et rad iation reachi ng the
Earth's surface wo uld be much greater w ithout the ozo ne
layer in the atmosphere. Ozone absorbs shortwave rad iation,
especia lly ultr a-viol et. At low altitudes in the atmosphere, the
concentratio n of ozo ne is usuall y about 0.0 1 ppm, but at
20-50 km above the Earth' s surface, in the stratosphere, ozo ne
is much more concentrated - about 1-1 Oppm . This is the
ozo ne layer.
In the mid-1950s black rats (Rattus rattus) reached Big South
Cape Island. Their numbers rose exponentially and by 1964
there were huge num bers on th e island. They attacked eggs,
you ng bird s in nests and even adult bird s, wh ich w ere not
behaviour all y adapted to resist them. Thi s is an examp le of
alien species causing damage by predation .
It became obv ious that human interventi on was needed to save
the three rarestspecies of bird . Ecologists from the New
Zealand W ildlife Service trapped as many of the remain ing
indiv iduals as they could. O nly two Stewart island snipe we re
trapped and they died soon after, so this species became
ext inct. N ine Stead's bush w rens we re trapped and transferred
to another island that was still rat-free. Unfortunately they failed
to breed and gradually died out, so'this species also became
extinct. Forty-one South Island saddlebacks we re caught and
transferred to two other rat-free islands. They survived and bred
and were eventually distrib uted to other islands. In the 1980s
they we re re-introduced to Little Barrier Island after another
alien species had been eli minated - w ild cats.
The South Island saddlebac k was the first species of bird to be
saved fro m extinctio n by human interventi on. Its future for the
moment seems rel atively secure.
Stead's bush wren
South Island of
New Zealand is
r 20km to the north
Measurements of ozo ne concentratio ns in the stratosphere
have show n th at there has been dep letio n throughout the
wo rld. Since the 1980 s an ozo ne ' ho le' has appeared over the
A ntarctic every year between September and October, wh ich
persists for several month s.
CFCs are the mai n cause of ozo ne depletio n. They are
into the atmosphere. U ltra-vio let light causes CFCs to
d issociate and release atoms of chlo rine. These chlorine atoms
are highl y reactive and cause comp lex reaction s in whi ch
ozone is con verted to oxygen. The reacti ons form a cyc le,
with the chlo rine atoms being released again, so that they can
go on to cause the destructi on of more ozo ne. O ne chl orin e
atom can potentially cause th e destruction of hund reds of
thousands of ozo ne mol ecul es.
Ecology and conservation 157
 Conservation
IN-SITU CONSERVATION METHODS ACTIVE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
The best place to co nserve a species is in its own habit at. Thi s Some pri stine nature reserves can be left in their natural state,
is ca lled in situ conservatio n. M any terrestri al and marin e but often hum ans have caused changes and acti ve
natur e reserves have been established for thi s purpose, but management is therefo re needed to ensure the surv ival of rare
ot her areas can also be important, incl udi ng farmland and o r endangered species. The Hin ew ai Reserve in the South
gardens. Island of New Zealand is a good examp le of limited, but
effect ive, management. Va lleys that had been cl eared of
In situ conservatio n has several adva ntages.
nativ e forest to becom e farm land have been allowed to revert
• Species remain adapted to thei r habitats.
to native fo rest, by secondary successio n. Acti ve co nservatio n
• Greater genetic diversity can be co nserved .
measures have included th e cull ing of goats. They are an
• An imals maintain natura l behaviour patterns.
alien speci es and damage nativ e plants by grazing. Native
• Speci es interact w ith each other, hel ping to co nserve the
plants are now re-establ ishin g at H inew ai at an amazing rate.
w hole ecosystem.
The size and shape of nature reserves affects their conservation
value. The di stributi on of ecosystems withi n a natur e reserve is
MONITORING ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
also imp ortant. These are the biogeographi cal feat ures of a
Problems in natural ecosystems are detected qu ickl y if there is
nature reserve. Large nature reserves usually promote
frequent environmental mon itorin g. Abi oti c factors can be
co nservat io n of biodiversity mor e effect ively than small ones.
measured direct ly, but another usefu l technique is the use of
The eco logy of the edges of ecosystems is different f rom the
living organisms to detect changes. Ind icato r species are very
central areas, due to edge effects. An example of an edge
useful, as they need particul ar enviro nmental conditions and
effect is the egg-lay ing habits of the cowbird of the w estern
therefore show w hat the co nditio ns in an ecosystem are.
Un ited States. It feeds in open areas on insects disturbed by
Lichens are valuable indica tor species because their to lerance
large grazing mamm als, but it lays its eggs in the nests of
of sulphur di oxide varies considerably from the most tolerant to
songbirds, near the edges of forests. Fragmentation of forests
the least tolerant species. Indi cator species are also often used
has led to a co nsiderable inc rease in cowbird popul ati on s
to assess poll ution levels in aquatic ecosystems. Stonefly,
and the nest parasit ism due to them, because of the increase
mayfly and caddisfly larvae (below) requ ire unpo lluted, we ll­
in forest edge.
oxygenated wa ter. Other aquatic species, incl uding chironomid
W here a habitat is fragmented, w ild life co rrido rs can be very mid ge larvae, rat-tailed maggot larvae and tubifex w orm s,
valuable in allowing organisms indica te low oxygen levels and excessive levels of suspended
to move between different areas, for example tunn els under organic matter, from untreated sewage for example.
busy roads.
Ind icator species in aquatic ecosyste ms

Indicators of high Indi cators of low

EX-SITU CONSERVATION METHODS
Despite the adva ntages of in situ co nservat io n, it is not always
enough to ensure the surviva l of a species. ~O"' O"-::J'no",

• Some speci es becom e so rare that it is not safe to leave

them unprotected in the w ild .
• Sometimes destructi on of a natural habit at makes it 5tonefly nymph Chiron omid
essential to remove threatened species from it. (up to 30mm) (bloodw orm: a midge larva)
(up to 20mm)

~
In these situatio ns ex situ measures are needed.

1. Capt ive br eedin g - some or all memb ers of a speci es are

caught and moved to a zoo , wh ere they are encouraged to
breed. Wh en numb ers are high eno ugh, some are return ed
M ayfl y larva Rat-tail ed maggot larva
to the w ild to re-establ ish a natur al populatio n. An exam ple
(up to 15mm) (up to 55mm incl uding tube)
of a species help ed by captive breedin g is the Haw aii an

kestrel.

~
2. Bot anic gardens:- sites w here many di fferent species of
r): · -
" "
"
plants are culti vated, either in greenhouses or in the ope n. .~kF, <'! ~ .

O ne of the largest, the Royal Botanic Ga rde ns of Kew , has

more th an 50000 of the world' s 250 000 kno wn species in
its co llect io n.
3. Seed bank s - seeds are kept in co ld sto rage at - 1OQC to
- 20Q C. Seeds of most species remain vi able for mor e than a
hundred years in these conditions. Ot her specie s that are
not as lon g lasting can be germinated and grow n to
prod uce rep lacement seed befor e vi abilit y is lost. The Kew
Mi llenn ium Seed Bank w ill eventually hol d seed of 25000
endangered species.
Caddisfl y larva Tubifex
(up to 30mm) (sludge wor m)
(up to 40mm)
To obtain an ove rall env ironmental assessment of a riv er or
other ecosystems, a biotic inde x can be calculated. There are
various method s, whi ch usuall y invo lve mu lti plyin g the
numb er of individuals of each indi cator species by its
po llution to lerance rati ng. An abundance of tol erant species
gives a low ove rall sco re and an abunda nce of int o lerant
species gives a high score.

158 Ecology and conservation

 Population ecology

ESTIMATING ANIMAL POPULATION SIZES r-STRATEGIES AND K-STRATEGIES

It is usually impossible to count every individual in a
popul ation . Instead an accurate estimate is made.
Ecol og ists often need to measure the size of a popu lation .
T nere are many rnern oos 'or maKin g estim ates popul ation
size. The capture- mark- release-recapt ure meth od is suitable
for ani mals that move around and are di ffi cult to find .
Liv ing organisms differ great ly in their life cycl es and their
patterns of reprodu cti on . As a result, there are different
patterns of popul ati on grow th. Natural select io n can cause
0' th ese ch<ln.cte~ istics to Chan'f,e, so th at th e)' a~e adapted to the
nich e of a species. Tw o extreme patterns of po pulati on
grow th have been defi ned .

Strategies for an unstable environment

In an unstable environment, life exp ectancy is very short and
CAPTURE-MARK-RELEASE-RECAPTURE few individua ls survive long enough to reprodu ce even once.
METHOD The po pulatio n of a spec ies in these env iro nmental
condit io ns is unlik ely ever to becom e large enou gh for
1. Capture as many individuals as possible in the

density-dependent factor s such as co mpet itio n to becom e

area occupied by the animal population,

using netting, trapping or careful searching

im port ant. The most successful species use r-strategies:

• o nly growi ng to a small body size, whi ch can be qui ck ly

reached
• maturing early, so reprodu cti on happens wh ile still young
• reprodu cin g once only, with all available energy and
resources devoted to it
• prod uci ng many offspring, wi th a relatively small body size
• givi ng offspring littl e or no parental care.

If all or most offspring survi ved and reached reproductive

2. M ark each indiv idual, without making them
more visible to predators. maturity, there wo uld be exponential population growt h and
probably over -populatio n. W ith r-strategists thi s is ver)' unlikel)'
because the chance of survival of their offspring is so small .
e.g. marking the inside
of the snail shell w ith a Exampl es of r-strategists
dot of non-toxic paint. Eschschoftzia cal ifom ic a (Califo rnian popp y)
Lemmu s lemmus (lemming)
Clup ea harengus (herring)

Strategies for a stable environment

In a stable environme nt, life expectancy is much lo nger and
3. Release all the marked individuals and
many indi vidual s w ill survive lo ng enou gh to reprodu ce
allow them to settle back into their habitat.
repeatedly. The popu lation of a species in these

~~--. environmental co nditions is likely to becom e large eno ugh for

density-dependent factors such as competitio n to become
c:~. L---£..
_J:.~> important. The most successful species use K-strat egies:

~~ ~
. •
- ".1. , -~.- • grow ing to a large body size, w hich is an advantage in
intra-spec ific com petition
• maturing late, with reprodu cti on not beginning until an
4. Recapture as many indivi duals as possible and count individual is rel atively o ld
how many are marked and how many unmarked.
• reproducin g mor e than once and sometimes many tim es
. ", .~" ;"
du rin g the extended life-span
'•.'Ii :
~ ~ ~ ~I ~ ~ -~ 'lifi'.o..I
~ •.1 _ .1:.. _II. .
• producin g few offspring, w ith a relatively large body size
24 marked
";d~&b.;~.iG~~~ • giv ing much parental care to offspring.

Larger numbers of small offspring would make a higher rate of

16 unmarked pop ulation grow th possible. With K-strategists, rapid

populatio n grow th is unlikely ever to continue for long,

because it w ill lead to intense co mpetitio n. Small offspring, o r

5. Calculate the estimated population size by offspring that are not nurtur ed by their parents, are unlikely to

using the Lincoln index: co mpete effectively enough to reach adu ltho od.

population size = n1 x nz Examples of K-strategists

n3 Q uercus petraea (sess ile oak tree)

Loxodon ta africana (Afri can elephant)

n1 = number caught and marked initi ally Oermo chel ys coriacea (leatherback turt le)

nz = total number caught on the second occasion

n3 = number of marked individuals recaptured

Ecology and conservation 159

 Fish conservation and species extinctions

SUSTAINABLE YIELDS OF FISH ESTIMATING SIZES OF FISH STOCKS

W ild populatio ns of fish are an importa nt food source fo r It is very difficult to estimate the size of commercia l fish
many human pop ulatio ns. They are a renew able resour ce - a stocks accurately . Thi s is because fish cannot be seen f rom
resou rce that need never run out, if it is used in a sustainable above the wate r surface and many species move around
way . A renew able resou rce is constantly replaced or rapidl y o r are not distrib uted evenly, so random sampling
replenished, in the case of fi sh by them reprodu cin g and methods are ineffective.
grow ing. The usual method of est imati ng stocks invo lves co llecting
data on fish catc hes. The num bers of fish of each age are
Sustainab le use of renew able resource means harvesting at a
cou nted and an age distr ib ut ion for the pop ulat io n is
rate that avo ids a decl ine in the resource. This is particul arly
obtai ned. Survivors hip curves and spawning rates can then be
im po rtant w ith fish popul ation s. If they are over-ex ploite d and
ded uced, from wh ich esti mates of the total stoc k can be
the num bers of adult fish fall below a cr itical level, spaw ni ng
made. However there are great uncertainties, fo r examp le
fai ls. The disastrous co llapse in the Peruvian anchoveta
w hat proportio n of the total populatio n has been caught.
fishery is an example of thi s. Indu stri al scale explo itatio n of
Capture-mark-release- recapture methods have been used,
the anchoveta began in 194 0 and grew at a rapid rate until
with fish marked using internal or external tagging. This
1973, w hen the annual catc h dropped from 12 mill ion tonn es
method can wo rk we ll in lakes, but it is less successful in the
to zero. The fall in anchoveta egg production in the years
ope n sea. By the time the marked fish have mixed back into
preceding the pop ulatio n crash is show n in the graph below .
the ove rall populatio n by migratio n, the proport io n of marked
An EI Ni no event was partly respon sibl e, but ove r-fishi ng w as
fish that can ever be recaptured is too smal l for accurate
also a major facto r.
estimates of the size of the stock.
Graph showing a collapse in anchoveta egg production Other method s of estimatio n of fish stocks have been used in
6000
specific situatio ns. Echo sounders can be used to measure the
size of shoals of fish, or even single fish in some cases. The
5000
<11 fish must not be swim ming too deeply and trawl s must also
Q.
E 400 0 be used for calib ration and to check w hich species offish has
:Jl 30 00 been detected by the echolocat ion.
Qj No ne of these methods can estimate stoc ks with anythi ng
Q.
2000
'"
CD approachi ng certai nty and, as a result, di sputes between the
CD
U.J 1000 fishing indu stry and conservation agencies abo ut stocks are
0 very co mmo n.

EXTINCTION OF SPECIES
W ith fisheries, sustai nable use means not catc hing fish faster
W hen the last members of a species die, the species beco mes
than the stocks can replenish themselves. The maximum
exti nct. The rate of species extinctio ns is probably at an all­
sustainable yield is the largest amo unt that can be harvested
time high at the moment, as a result of human activities.
wi thout a declin e in stocks. One of the aims of research into
There are unfortun ately many exti nct species from w hic h to
fisheries is to determin e wh at the maximum sustainable yie ld
select examp les for study, including the passenger pigeo n and
of particular fisheries is. Internation al co-o peratio n is then
the do do. The example described here is the Caro li na
usuall y needed to ensure that th is yield is not exceeded.
parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis.
These brightl y co loured parrots (rig ht) were once common in
forests to the east of the
INTERNATIONAL CONSERVATION OF FISH
Mississipp i, from New
International measures are needed to promote fish
York to Florida, feeding
co nservatio n because most fish live in internatio nal wa ters,
on seeds of trees and
wh ere ships from any cou ntry can catch fish. Var io us
herbs: Clearance of forests
measures w ould help.
reduced their habitat and
• Monito ring of stoc ks and of reprodu ction rates. they started to feed o n
• Q uotas for catc hes of species with low stocks . c rops. Farmers ki lled
• Closed seasons in w hich fishing is not allowed, especially many of them. Others
during the breedi ng season. were caught to obtain
• Excl usio n zones in w hic h fishi ng is banned. feat hers, which we re used
• M o ratori a on catc hi ng endangered species. to make fashio nable
• M inimum net sizes, so.that immature fish are not caught. women's clothing . They
• Banning of d rift nets, w hich catc h many di fferent species of we re also trapped and kept
fi sh indi scrimin ately. as pets. By 1900 there
we re no Caroli na
Some of these measures have been used already in parts of
parakeets in the wi ld and
the wo rld, w ith lim ited success. Enforcement -is very di ffi cult
the last specimen d ied in
and relies on a level of internat io nal trust and co -operatio n
Ci ncinnati Z oo in 1918.
th at is not always seen.

160 Ecology and conservation

EXAM QUESTIONS ON OPTION G - ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION

Gl Food chains are d ifficult to study in natural ecosystems, so a group of eco logists set up co mmun it ies in cu lture
vessels. They used them to investigate the effects of varying nutrient co ncent ratio ns. In all of the vessels an aquatic
bacterium , Serratia tnetcescens, was present. Three co ncentratio ns of the nutri ents on wh ich S. m arcescens feeds
we re used. In some of the cu ltures Colpidium striatum, a predator of S. mercescens, was added. In some of these
cultures Didinium nasutum, a predator of C. striatum, was added . The cultu res therefore each had one, two or three
trophic levels. The populatio n density of S. m arcescen s at the end of the experi ment is shown in the bar chart below.

1000000

'"
.9

'5
---0
~~
~
Q,j -
U
.... u
c

::J
100000
iDS o
o
merc esce ns only
s. marcescens and C. striatum
S. marcescens and C. striatum and O. nasutum
I

~'O ,I
.

::: ~
(j)

10000
I
0­
>-0
~ > f---­
0;j) ."::: -
c: c: -
CJ ::J
~~
s W~ 1000 ====== ======
.~ = =
- ..0
~E
o ::J
=
-
-
=
-
-
c:
Q..

100
5 75 1000
Nutrient level/mg litre- 1
[Source: Kaunzinger, Nature (1998), 395, pages 495-496]

a) (i) Explain the effect of the nutrient co ncent ration on the popu latio n density of S. marcescen s. [1]

(ii) Explain the effect of t he presence of C. striatum on the po pul ation density of S. marcescens . [1]

(iii) Explain the effect of the presence of D. nasutum o n the popu lation density of S. marcescens. [2]

b) In the culture wi th the lowest nutrient level D. nasutum eventuall y died out but C. striatum survive d.
Explain the reason s for D. nasutum dy ing out. [2]

c) Using the results of this investigatio n, predict a relationship betwee n nutrient level s and length of food chain
in natura l ecosystems. [1 ]

G2 a) Explain how indicato r species may be used. [2]

b) O ut li ne two ex situ methods of conservatio n of endangered species. [2]

G3 The graph below shows inputs of mercury from the UK to marine waters and flow rates of rivers, betwee n 1990

and 2004 , as a percentage of levels in 1990.

160
-- ---- --- Riverine flow rate

140 - - - mercury I
I ,
,

I ,
I ,
/ \ ..- \
(j) 120 ..., / ,'0__ _ / " \\
::J
~ 100 --_!_<~ ~-~-~ -~ ~:. ~-~ . _::>.,,< ~ ~-~~/ :: _.:'\ /'
o
~ 80
'0 60
~
o 40

20
oj
1990
' "1994
1992
,
1996 1998
, 2000
, 2002
[ -,
2004
year

a) State the trend in mercury in puts from the U K to marine waters. [1]

b) Using the data in the graph, deduce the reason s for fluctuations, from year to year, in mercury in puts. [2]

c) Biom agni ficati on of mercur y can occ ur in marine ecosystems. Suggest two co nsequences of
biomag nification of mercur y in ecosystems.
. ,.

Ecology and conservation - IB Questions 16 "!

 Hormonal control

HORMONES Structures of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

Hormones are chemica l messengers, secreted by
endoc rine glands directl y into the blood . The blo od carries
Cell bodies of neurosecretory cells
them to target ce lls. w here they elici t a response. A w ide
in two hypothalamic nuclei (other
range of chemica l substances is used as hormones in nuclei indicated by dotted lines)
hum ans: Neurosecretory ceIIs
Steroids w ith nerve endings HYPOTH ALAM US
on the surface of (area inside dashes)
e.g. estrogen, pro gesteron e, testosteron e
Peptides blood capillaries _--------- --- ---- ------ 1_
e.g. insul in, ADH, FSH, LH
Tyrosine derivatives
e.g. thyrox in .>: C,\\
MODE OF ACTION OF HORMONES
Hormones do not all w ork in the same way. There are tw o
main types of mechanism.
... i
1. Steroid horm ones enter target cells by passing throu gh
the plasma membr ane. They bind to receptor prot eins in
the cytoplasm of target ce lls, to fo rm a hormon e-receptor
complex. This co mplex acts as a regul ator of gene
transcription , by binding to specific genes. Transcr iption Nerve tracts
Portal vesse l,
of some genes is promoted; other genes are inhibited. In containing axons
Network of link ing two
th is way steroi d hormon es co ntro l w hether or not of neurosecretory
capiIlaries capi lIary cells
particul ar enzymes or other proteins are synthesized.
receiving networks
They therefore can help to co ntro l the activ ity and
hormones from Netwo rk of
developm ent of target cells.
neurosecretory capillari es that
2. Peptid e horm on es do not enter ce lls. Instead they bind cells release
to receptor s in the pl asma memb rane of target cells. The hypothalamic
bindin g of the hormon e causes the release of a Nerve endingsof hormones and
second ary messenger insid e the cell. The secondary neurosecretory cells absorb anterior
messenger causes a change to the activi t ies of the cell, secreting hormones into pituitary
usuall y by act ivating or inhibiting an enzy me. capillaries (not show n) hormones

POSTERIOR LOBE O F ANTERIO R LOBEOF

HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY GLAND
The hypoth alamu s is a small part of the brain th at links the
nervou s and endocr ine systems. It co ntrols hormon e
secretio n by the pituitary gland located below it (show n in
the figure, above right ). The anterio r and posterior lob es of
the pitu itary gland are co nt rolled in a d ifferent way by the
hypoth alamus:
Anterior pituitary - neurosecretory cells in the
hypoth alamus secrete ho rmon es, called releasing
hormon es, into capillaries in the hypoth alamu s. These
capillaries join to form a blood vessel that lead to the
capillaries in the anterio r pituitary. Thi s vessel is a port al
vein - an unusual type of blood vessel that carries blood
directl y from one capillary netw ork to another. The
releasing horm on es st imulate the anterior pituitary to
secrete hormones. For example, G nRH stimulates the
release of FSH and LH .
Posterior pituitary - neuro secreto ry cells in the posterior
pituitary synthesize horm on es, pass them via axons to
nerve end ings in the posterior pituitary and contro l their
secretio n. The secretion of ADH is controlled in thi s w ay
(see right ).
PITUITARY GLAND PITUITARYGLAND
CONTROL OF ADH SECRETION
Neurosec reto ry ce lls in the supra-optic nucl eus of the
hypoth alamus synthesize A D H, transpo rt it down their axons
and store it in nerve end ings in the posterio r pituitary gland .
O smorece pto r ce lls in the hypoth alamu s monitor the
co ncentrat ion of the blood pl asma. If the plasma becom es too
concentrated, impulses are passed to the ADH-secretin g
neurosecretory cells, w hic h convey the impulses to their nerve
endi ngs in the posterior pitu itary. The impul ses sti mulate release
of A D H into the blo od from the sto res in the nerve end ings.
ADH causes a reduction in the concentratio n of the blood
pl asma, by stimulati ng the kidn ey to produ ce hypertonic urin e
(see page 102).
If the osmorece pto r cells detect that the co ncentratio n of blo od
pl asma is too low , the neuro secretory ce lls are not stimul ated to
release A D H and the blood ADH level rapidl y drops , allowing
larger vo lumes of dilute hypotonic urine to be exc reted .

162 Further human physiology

 Secretion of digestive juices

SUMMARY OF DIGESTION CONTROL OF GASTRIC JUICE SECRETION

Food is digested as it passes along th e alimentary canal, from
the mouth to the anus. Longit udi nal and ci rcular mu scle fibr es
in the w all of the alimentary canal contract and relax,
squeezing the food and breaking up large so lid lumps.
D igestive j uices, contai ning enzymes, are mixed w ith th e
food . The enzy mes di gest proteins, nucl eic aci ds, starch and
other macro molecu les. Di gestive jui ces are secreted by the
saliva ry glands, by glands in the wa ll of the sto mach and by
t he pancreas. These are all examples of exocrine glands.
Some macromo lecules cannot be d igested by humans, fo r
example cellulose. The enzy me cellulase digests cellulose,
but humans lack the gene that cod es for this enzy me, and so
cannot make it.
U ndigested cellulose is an important part of d ietary fibre,
w hic h has beneficial effects o n the d igestive system.
EXOCRINE GLANDS
The secretory cells in an exocr ine gland are in a layer that is
food that has entered the stomach to fall to about pH 3.0.
only one cell thi ck . The total area of the layer of secretory
The control of di gestive j uice secretio n invol ves both nerves
and hormones. The contro l of gastric j uice secretion is
described here as an example.
Before food reaches the stomach, gastric jui ce is already
being secreted, as a result of a ref lex actio n. The sight or smell
of food stimu lates the brain to send nerve impul ses to
exocri ne gland cells i n th e wa ll of the stomach . Th e gland
cells start to secrete gast ric juice in respo nse.
Mu ch more gastric juice is secreted w hen food enters the
stomach. The food is detected by tou ch receptors and
chemo receptors in the linin g of the sto mach and by stretc h
recepto rs in the stomach wa ll. Impulses are sent from these
recepto rs to the brain, w hich sends more nerve impulses to
the exocrine gland cell s.
W hen food is in the stomach, impulses are also sent to
endoc rine gland cells in the stomach lining that secrete a
hormone called gastrin. Gastrin is carried to the exocrine gland
cells in the stomach w all, w here it stim ulates them to increase
the secretio n of hydrochloric acid. This causes the pH of the

cells can be very large because of invaginatio n and

MEMBRANE-BOUND DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

branch ing. The digestive jui ce is released from the cells by

Enzymes secreted by exocrine gland cells become mixed w ith

exocy tosis. It is then d ischarged from the gland by travell ing

the food in the alimentary canal and carry out all the init ial
alo ng ducts. O ne group of secretory cells, cl ustered around

stages of digestion . How ever, some of the enzymes that

the end of a duct, is called an acinus .

complete the process of di gestion wo rk in a different w ay.

The ducts and acini in part of the pancreas that secretes

They are produced by the wa ll of the small intestine, but are

panc reatic j uice are show n below .

not secreted. Instead, these enzymes remain in the plasma

Structure of exocrine gland tissue in the pancreas
membranes of cells on the surface of t he villi (epithelium
cells). The active sites of the enzymes are exposed to the food
in the small intestine. They can di gest their substrates and the
products of d igestion can then immediately be absorbed.
Epithelium cells tend to be lost from the tips of villi by
abrasio n, but t he memb rane-bound enzymes continue to wo rk
as they becom e mixed into the food in the small intestine.
one
acinus
Electron micrograph of an exocrine gland cell in the
pancreas (X 6000 ). The cent ral regio n of one cell is show n
incl udi ng the nucl eus.

basement membrane

wall of duct

EXOCRINE GLAND CELLS

Exocrine gland cell s have distinctive features.
• O ne or tw o prominent nucleoli inside the nucleus, for
producti o n of riboso me subunits.
• A n extensive "area of rough endop lasmic reticul um, for
protein synthesis.
• Go lgi apparatuses for processing proteins.
• M any large vesicles, sometimes called sec reto ry granules,
for storage of the substances being secreted and transport of
them to the plasma membra ne. The vesicl es are usually
densely stained because of the concentratio n of proteins.
• M itochondria, to provid e ATP for protein synthesis and
other cell act ivities.
The figure (right) is an electron micrograph of a pancreas cell
and show s these disti nctive features.

Further human physiology 163

 Digestive enzymes

SOURCES OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES DIGESTION OF LIPIDS

Food co ntains many different types of substance that have to The di gesti on of lipids poses special problems, because they
be digested before they can be absorbed. D igestion therefore are insolub le in water. Foods and the di gestive ju ices added
invo lves many different enzymes, secreted by exoc rine to th em are mainly composed of w ater. In the ali mentary
glands. The table allows the co ntents of saliva, gastric j uice canal, li pids in foods melt and form liquid droplets. Because
and pancreati c ju ice to be co mpared - there are both of their insol ubil ity, these drop lets tend to coa lesce to form
sim ilar ities and differences. larger droplets.
Lipase is w ater-so lub le so it does not enter the lipid drop lets,
Di gestive ju ic e Source Cont ent but its active site is hyd rophobic (shown on page 68) and
- salivary amylase hydro lyses lipid s on the surface of drop lets.
saliva salivary
- mucus The dropl ets gradually decrease in size as the li pid s o n their
glands
surface are digested. However, food does not remain in the
gastric juice glands in - pepsinogen alimentary canal lo ng enough for large droplets to be digested
sto mach - hydrochloric acid co mpletely.
wa ll - mucus Bile helps to ove rcome thi s probl em. It contai ns substances
- pancreatic amy lase called bile salts, w hich are natu ral detergents. Bi le salt
pancreatic juice pancreas
mo lecules have a hyd rophobic end and a hydroph ili c end.
- pancreatic lipase
They are therefore attracted to both water and lipids and coat
- phospholipase
lipid drop lets, causing them to break up into smaller dropl ets.
- trypsinogen
This process is called emulsificat io n.
- carboxy peptidase
- HC0 3 ions (alkaline) Bile is secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
W hen it is di scharged into the small intestine it emulsifies
lipids, w hich speeds up their di gestion, because many small
Pepsin and trypsi n are potenti all y very harmfu l to the

drop lets have a larger total surface area, accessible to lipase,

exoc rine gland cells that secrete them. They are therefore

than one large d roplet of the same vo lume. With the help of
secreted as inactiv e precur sors, called pepsinogen and

bi le, lipids can be co mpletely di gested in the small intestine.

tr ypsinogen. Pepsinogen is activa ted by hyd rochlori c acid,

whi ch co nverts it into pepsin. Di fferent cells in the wa ll of

the stomach secrete pepsinogen and hyd rochl o ric acid

(below) . Pepsinogen is therefore o nly activated after it has

THE EFFECTS OF HELICOBACTER PYLORI

Heli cobacter py lori is an acid-to lerant bacterium that infects
been secreted. An enzy me, enterokinase, w hich is secreted

the lining of the sto mach. There is evidence that it causes

by t he lin ing of the small intestine, activates trypsinogen.

several d iseases of the stomac h.

Acti vation therefore only happens w hen trypsinogen enters

the small intestine.

1. Stomach ulcers
These are areas of damage to the lin ing of the stomach. O ld
medical textbooks state that they are caused by excessive
Structure of th e sto mach wall secretio n of gastric j uice , containi ng acid. There is now strong
evidence t hat infect io n of the sto mach w ith H. py lori is a
pits more signif icant factor than gastric aci d.
epitheli um • Ant acid treatments may relieve the symptoms of ulc ers for a
w hile, but not permanentl y.
• A ntimicro bia l treatments that eliminate H. py lori infection
cure ulc ers o n a lon g-term basis.
• H. py lori infecti on is strongly associated with the presence
of stomac h ulcers.
cells in neck --1----l---l~
• Vo lunt ary infect ion w ith the bacterium has show n that it
of gastric gland
can cause gastrit is, w hich often leads to ulcerati on.
(secrete mucus)

• Abo ut half of the H. p ylori strains isol ated from patients

wi th sto mach disease produ ce toxin s that cause
infla mmatio n - and patients infected with these strains tend
to have the most severe ulceration .
• Proteases and other enzy mes that are released by H . py lori
damage the stomach lin ing.
oxyntic cells --+---+---4~

(secrete
2. Stomac h cancer
hydrochloric
Stom ach cancer is the growth of tum our s in the wal l of the
acid)

sto mach. As w ith sto mach ulcers, a far higher percentage of

peptic cel l s - -- -+----J,;:1DJ
patients w ith stomach cancer are infected w ith H. pyl ori than
(secrete
the general popu lation . H. py lor i infect ion is associated with
pepsinogen)
redu ced vita mi n C concentratio n in gastric j uice. This wi ll
increase the c hance of a tumour fo rming, but further research
is needed to establish a causal link between H . p ylori
infection and stomach cancer.

164 Further human physiology

 Absorption of digested foods

STRUCTURE OF THE ILEUM

Digested food s are abso rbed in the small intestine, mainly in the latte r part, ca lled the ileum . The tissue laye rs of the wall of the ileum
are show n in the transverse sec tion be low (left). These tissue layers are visible in the light micrograph of the ile um be low (right).

Tran sverse sect io n of ileum Micro graph of ileum in longitudinal section (x 40)

longitudinal
muscle layer
villi

circular
muscle layer

VILLUS EPITHELIUM CELLS Micrograph of villus epithelium cell s (x 25 00)

Digested fo od s a re abso rbe d by villi In the ileum. The __
"lI.~ , ~ "", .;-.y .
JIo:O;W

st ruc ture of a villus is shown o n page 4 7. The o ute r laye r of l!!"~#i

ce lls wh ere a bso rptio n oc c urs is the e pithe lium. The figure
(right) is e lect ro n mic rograp h of e p ithe lium ce lls, show ing the
structura l featu res t hat are typica l of this ce ll type . The plasm a
membranes of adjacent ce lls a re firm ly linked togeth er ne a r
the free su rface by struc tures ca lled tight junctions. These
structures prevent mo lecu les from lea king betwee n the
e p ithe lium ce lls. To be abso rbed, di gested food s have to pass
throu gh the p lasma membra ne of the e pit hel ium ce lls, and
abso rpt ion ca n the refo re be ca refu lly co ntro lled . The table
be low desc ribes the mech an isms used to abso rb foods a nd
the struct ura l features used in these mec han isms.
Som e mate ria ls a re not abso rbed, inclu din g ce llu lose , ligni n,
bile pigmen ts, bacter ia and a brade d intest inal ce lls. The y are
the refore egested in the feces .

Relationship s betw een st ructur e a nd function in villu s epithelium cell s

Structural feature Function

Microv illi - prot rusio ns
of the free surface of the
p lasma me mbran e into
the lume n of the ile um;
abo ut 1urn lo ng and
Oil urn w ide .
Mic rovilli great ly increase the surface area of plasm a memb ran e exposed to th e d igested food
in the ile um. This increases the rate of a bso rptio n of foo ds by d iffusion .
Lip id s, and othe r foods th at ca n pass eas ily thro ugh the hyd ro pho bic ce ntre of the plasma
membran e of the epithel ium ce lls, are abso rbed by simpl e diffu sion .
Fructose a nd so me ot her hydro p hilic food substa nces at a low co nce ntration inside bod y ce lls
a re abso rbed by facilitated diffu sion . Ther e is a stee p e no ug h co nce ntration grad ient fo r
abso rpt ion of these substa nces by d iffusion , but they need ass ista nce to pass thr ough the
plasma membrane. Ch ann e l pro te ins hel p them to cross the hyd rophobi c ce ntre of the
me mb ra ne.

Mitoc hondria - ther e a re
man y mitoc hond ria
sca tte red thro ugh the
cyto plasm.
Pinocytic ves icle s - ther e
a re man y sma ll ves icles,
es pecia lly near the
mic rovilli.
Mito chond ria prod uce the ATP that is need ed for abso rption of substa nces by active tra nsport.
Pump proteins in the plasm a membrane of the mic rovi lli ca rry o ut the active transport.
G lucose, a mino acid s and miner a l io ns incl ud ing sod ium, ca lcium and iron a re abso rbed in
th is way.
Pinocyt ic vesicles a re form ed by endocytosis. Eac h ves icle co nta ins a sma ll drop let of fluid
from the lumen of the ile um. The memb ra nes of these ves icles are fo rmed fro m the p lasm a
mem b ran e a nd so co nta in c ha nne ls for faci litated d iffusion and pu mps for ac tive tran sport .
Digested food s ca n be a bso rbed from the vesicle s into the cyto p lasm.

Further human physiology 165

 Liver

BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE LIVER ROLES OF THE LIVER

The li ver is the largest organ in the human abdo men. It Nutrient storage and regulati on
contai ns huge numbers of cells call ed hepatocytes, w hic h Wh en certain nutri ents are in excess in the blood,
carry out many vital processes. The liver is supplied w it h hepatocytes absorb and store them, releasing them w hen they
blood by two vessels - the hepatic portal vein and the hepatic are at too Iow a level. For example, w hen the bloo d glucose
art ery. O ne vessel, the hepatic vein, carries bloo d away . level is too high, insulin stimu lates hepatocytes to absorb
The blood bro ught by the hepati c po rtal vein is glucose and conve rt it to glycogen for storage. W hen the blood
deoxygenated, because it has already flowe d thro ugh the wa ll glucose level is too low , glucagon stimulates hepatocytes
of the stomach or the intestines. The level of nutr ients in this to break down glycogen and releaseglucose into the blood .
bloo d varies considerably, depend ing on the amo unt of Iron, retinol (vitamin A) and calcife rol (vitamin D) are also
di gested food th at is being absorbed. O ne of the main stored in the liver w hen they are in surplus and released w hen
funct io ns of the li ver is to regulate levels of nutrients befo re there is a deficit in the blood .
the blood f lows on to the rest of the body. Excessively high
Breakdown of erythrocytes
levels of glucose and other nutrients wo uld cause damage to
Erythrocytes, also called red blood cel ls, have a fairly short
the organs of the bod y, especially the brain.
lifespan of about 120 days. The plasma membrane becomes
Inside the liver, the hepatic port al vein d ivides up into vessels
fragile and eventually ruptures, releasing the hemoglobin into
called sinusoids. These vessels are w ider th an normal
the blood plasma. The hemoglobin is absorbed by phagocytosis,
capillaries, w ith wa lls that are more po rous. The wa lls consist
chiefly in the liver. Some of the cells in the wa lls of the sinusoids
of a single layer of very thin cells. There are many pores or
are phagocytic, called Kupff er cells. Inside these cells the
gaps betw een the cells but no basement membr ane. Bloo d
hemoglobin is split into heme groups and glob ins. The globi ns
flowi ng alo ng the sinusoids is therefore in close contact w ith
are hydrolysed to amino acids, which are released into the
the surro und ing hepatocytes.
blood. Iron is removed from the heme groups, to leave a yellow
The hepatic artery supp lies the liver wi th oxyge nated blood
coloured substance called bil e pigment or bi li rubin . The iron
from the left side of the heart via the aorta. Branches of the
and the bile pigment are released into the blood . Mu ch of the
hepatic artery jo in the sinusoids at vario us poin ts along their
iron is carried to bone marrow , to be used in production of
length, provi di ng the hepatocytes w ith the oxygen that they
hemoglobi n for new red blood cells. The bi le pigment is used
need for aerob ic cell respiration.
for bil e producti on in the liver .
The sinusoids drain into w ider vessels that are branches of the
hepati c vein. Blood from the liver is carried by the hepatic
Glo bins ~ A mi no acids
vei n to the right side of the heart via the infer io r vena cava.
The fig ure (below) shows the relatio nshi ps betw een blood
Hemoglob in /
vessels in li ver ti ssue.
<, Heme groups Iro n
St ructur e of a sinusoid in th e li ver
< B'I '
I e pigment

Synt hesis of plasma proteins

The rou gh endoplasmic reticulu m of hepatocytes produces
90% of the protei ns in blood plasma, incl ud ing all of the
albumin and f ibrinogen.

Synt hesis of cho lesterol

A lthough some cholestero l is absorbed fro m food in the
intestine, a larger quantit y is synthesized each day by
hepatocytes.
hepatocytes
Det oxific ati on
Hepatocytes absorb toxic substances from bloo d and convert
them by chem ica l reaction s into non-toxic or less toxi c
lumen of substances.
sinusoid

LIVER DAMAGE FROM ALCOHOL ABUSE

Liver cells absorb alco ho l and co nvert it into ot her
Kupffer substances to detox ify it. Excessive consu mption of alco ho l
cell th erefor e damages liver cells mor e th an most other parts of
branch of the body. Fatty deposits bu i ld up, w hic h can cause
hepatic vein hepat it is. A lco ho lic hepat iti s is inf lamm at ion of t he liver,
ofte n associated wi th nausea and ja und ice . If this is
persistent (c hro nic), fo r examp le after ten or more years of
heavy d rinki ng, it can cause ci rrhosis - no rmal liver t issue
f is grad ually replaced by scar ti ssue. Live r cells gradually
die and are not repl aced, so liver fu ncti on becom es
inc reasing ly poo r and eve nt ually deat h can result f rom
liver fai lure.

166 Further human physiology

 Cardiac cycle

EVENTS OF THE CARDIAC CYCLE Contractio n of the chambers of the heart is ca lled systole and
The sequence of actio ns occ urring repeatedl y in a beating relaxat ion is calle d dia stole.
heart is called the cardiac cycle . The cardiac cy cle is
1. Atrial systole
descr ibed briefl y on page 48. The figure below shows the
The cardiac cycle begin s w ith the co ntraction of the w all of
pressure and vo lume changes in the left atrium, left ventricle
the atrium. Th is happens wh en the ventricle is already 70%
and aorta, duri ng tw o cycles. It also show s electric cur rents
fu ll. The co ntractio n of the atrium pumps more bloo d into the
(electrocard iogram) and sounds (phonoca rd iogram)
ventricl e, fi ll ing it to its maximum capaci ty before the start of
genera\eo 'Dy \ne 'Dea\\'i'\%nean..
aortic aortic ventricul ar systol e.
valve atrioventricular valve 2. Ventricular systole
open valve open open
,.....--0-----. • ..----.. Contractio n of the ventricle wall causes a rapid increase in
120 pressure insid e the ventric le. This causes the clo sure of the
atrio-ventric ular valve, wi th resulting vibratio ns in the valve
and adj acent w alls of the heart. These vibration s are the fir st
heart sound . The pressure in the ventricle rapid ly rises above
the pressure in the aorta, causing the aortic (semi-lunar) valve
to open. Blood can then be pumped from the ventricle into
the aorta, raising the aortic bl ood pressure and decreasing the
volu me of blood in the ventr icl e to a mi nimum . W hi le the
ventricle is contracti ng, the atrium is relaxin g and blood
enters it fro m the pu lmona ry veins.
3. Ventricular dia stol e
Relaxation of the ventricle w all causes pressure in the
ventr icl e to fall below the pressure in the aorta. The sem i­
lunar valve therefore closes, with the resulti ng vibrations that
R are the cause of the second heart sound . W hen the pressure in
the ventricle falls below the pressure in the atrium, the atrio­
® ventric ular valve opens and blood that has accumulated in the
T
electrocardiogram atrium flow s into the ventricle causing a rapid rise in
ventric ular vo lum e. With both the atrium and the ventricle
@ relaxed, blood co ntinues to drain from the pulm onary veins
through the atrium into the ventricle until by the end of the
phonocardiogram
cycle it is about 70% full.

CONTROL OF THE HEART BEAT Structures involved in th e contro l of the heart beat
Heart muscle cells are sti mulated to co ntract by
electr ica l impu lses. Interconnecti ons between
adjace nt cells all ow impu lses to spread th rough the sympathetic nerve
(accelerates heart)
wa ll of the heart, stimu lating it to co ntract. A small
region in the wa ll of the right atrium init iates each
impu lse (right). This region is called the SA node
" I
(sinoatrial node) and acts as the pacemaker of the
heart. Impu lses in it iated by the SA node spread out in
all d irecti ons throu gh the wa lls of the atria, but are
prevented from spreading direct ly into the wa ll s of the
ventr icles by a layer of fibrous tissue. Instead,
im pulses have to travel to the ventricle s vi a a second
node, call ed the AV node (atrioventricular nod e). Thi s
node is posit ioned in the w all of the right atrium,
cl ose to the jun ction between the atria and ventricles.
Impulses reach the A V node 0.03 seconds after being
emitted from the SA node. There is a delay of 0.09
seco nds before impulses pass on from the AV node,
w hic h gives the atria time to pump blood into the
ventricles before the ventricles co ntract. Impu Ises are
sent from the AV node alo ng tw o bu nd les of
co nducting fibres that pass throu gh the septum branches of
betw een the left and right ventricles, to the base of conducting
the heart. Narrower co nducti ng fibres branch out fro m wall of right fibres
these bund les and carry impu lses to all parts of the ventricle
wa ll s of the ventricles, causing almost simultaneo us
contraction throu ghout the ventricles. The effects of Numbers represent the time taken for impu lses from the
nerves and horm ones on the heart beat rate are pacemaker to reach different parts of the heart wall
descri bed on page 48.

Further human physiology 167

 Coronary heart disease

ATHEROSCLEROSIS FACTORS AFFECTING THE RISK OF CHD

Atherosclerosis is a degenerative di sease of large and medium Atheroscle rosis and co ronary thromb osis are together know n
sized arteries. Phagocytes are attracted to sites of damage to as co ro nary heart di sease (CH D). The rates of CH D vary
the in ner lin ing of the arteries. The phagocytes release growth w idely between co untries.
factors that st imulate the muscle and fib rous tissues in the
artery w all to thicken. LDL may penetrate the damaged areas Country
and release cho lesterol, w hich can buil d up to form large
New Zealand
deposits. The grow th of wa ll ti ssue and accumulatio n of
United States
cho lesterol cause the artery wa ll to bul ge inw ards, reducin g
or even preventing the fl ow of blo od. The thickened wa ll
loses its elasticity and calci um salts are so metimes deposited Germany

in it, making it hard. Sweden

Australia

The fi gure (below) shows a healthy coron ary artery and

another that shows signs of atherosclerosis. Italy

Spain
10 males I
France i=-=~=::::J
-----' 10 females
smooth Japan
-f=;=;.....,.--.--~~--r-~~---.~~,......,~~..--1
inner lining
of endothelium o 50 100 150 200 250
cells Deaths per 100,000 population

M uch research has been don e to try to identify factors that

increase the risk of CHD. The fo llo w ing factors all increase
the statistical risk:
• Increasing age
• Being male rather than female
• Havi ng a famil y history of CH D

unobstructed These three factors are not influ enced by a person' s lifestyle,
outer layer
lumen but some of lifestyle facto rs th at increase the risk are:
of artery
• Obesity
• Physical inactivi ty
• Hi gh blood pressure
Structure of an artery showing atherosclerosis • Tob acco smo king
The effect of d iet is more equivocal. There is some evidence
thickened blood clot for di etary factor s increasing the risk of CHD :
lining

of artery
• Trans fat - positively co rrelated with CHD rates and the
data is difficult to explain in any way other than that trans
fats cause CH D
layer of
• Saturated fat intake - posit ively co rrelated w ith CHD rates
elastic and
muscle in some countries, but evidence of a causal li nk is lacking.
fibres • Cho lesterol intake - redu cin g d ietary cho lestero l tends to
redu ce blood cho lesterol levels slig htly , and there is a
positive co rrelat io n between blood cho lesterol levels and
CH D, but it is a w eaker co rrelatio n than w ith saturated fat,
outer layer and again the causal lin k is not proven. Cholesterol in
of artery blood can be part of both low-density and high-density
li popr otein (LDL and HDL). W hereas high LDL levels are
associated with an increased risk of CH D, high HDL levels
are associated with a reduced risk. Thi s is because HD L is
CORONARY THROMBOSIS
The rough inner surface of atheroscle rotic arteries tends to used to remove cho lesterol from tissues.
cause blood clots to form. The for mation of clots is called The levels of LDL, H DL and saturated fats in the bl ood are not
thrombo sis. so lely due to diet - genetic factor s are also imp ort ant. This
may explain w hy some pop ulatio ns co nsume large quantiti es
The w all of the heart is supplied w ith blood by the coronary
arteries. If a bloo d clot blo cks one of these arteries, part of the of cho lestero l and saturated fats and yet have extremely low
CHD rates - the M aasai of Kenya for example.
wa ll of the heart is deprived of its supply of oxygen. The cells
in this part of the w all are unable to respire and so stop Finall y, there have been claims that some facto rs reduce the
contract ing. Thi s is either called myocardi al infarcti on or a risk of CHD . An example is cis-unsaturated fatty acid int ake.
heart attack. Someti mes small, uncoo rdin ated co ntractio ns These fatty aci ds are fo und in o live o il and may explain low
co ntinue. These are called fib rill atio ns, but they do not pump CH D rates in M editerranean countries. How ever, more
blood effectively. evidence is needed before a causal link is established.

168 Further human physiology

 Oxygen transport

Oxyge n is transpo rted from the lungs to respiri ng tissues by THE BOHR SHIFT
hemoglob in in red blood cells. Hemoglobin is a prote in that The release of oxyge n by hemoglob in in respi ring ti ssues is
is highly adapted to its fu nctio n. promoted by an effect called the Bohr shift. Hemoglobin' s
affinity for oxyge n is reduced as the partial pressure of carbo n
dioxide inc reases (below). Respiring tissues have high parti al
OXYGEN DISSOCIATION CURVES pressures of carbo n di oxide, so oxyge n tends to di ssoci ate.
If air w ith the normal oxyge n co ntent is bubb led throug h a The lungs have low er partial pressures of carbo n di oxide, so
sample of blood, oxygen binds to the hemoglobin unti l oxyge n tends to bind to hemoglobin.
almost all of the hemoglo bin mo lecules have four oxygen
mo lecu les bo und. The hemoglobin is nearly 100% saturated. Effect of CO 2 on t he oxygen di ssociation curve of
If air w ith a low oxygen co ntent is then bubbled through, hemoglobin
some of the oxyge n dissociates from the hemoglobin , 100
reducing its percentage sat uration. The oxygen co ntent of the _ c:
air is measured as a partial pressure. Partial p ressures are the o~
pressures exerted by each of the gases in a m ix ture of gases. oc: ><>-
".;::i 0
75

The percentage saturation of hemoglobin w ith oxyge n at each ~..r:

~ ::::
partial pressure of oxygen is show n on an oxyge n dissociatio n ~ 3: 50 p(C0 2 ) =6 kPa
'" c:
curve . The fig ure (below) shows the oxygen di ssociation Q) . ­
0.0.0
curves of hemoglobin and myoglob in. ~ ..Q

M yoglobin is a protein consist ing of one globi n and one ~ ~ 25

2 E
Q) Q)
heme group that is used to store oxygen in muscles. The CL ..r:
oxygen curve for myoglobi n is to the left of t he curve for adult o I L..-=""
hemoglobin because myoglobi n has a higher affinity for 5 10 15
oxygen. At mod erate partial pressures of oxyge n, adult Partial pressure of oxygen/ kPa
hemoglob in releases oxyge n and myoglobin bind s it.
M yoglobin only releases its oxyge n wh en the parti al pressure FETAL HEMOGLOBIN
of oxyge n in the muscle is very low . The release of oxyge n The hemoglobin in the red blood cells of a fetus is slightly
from myoglob in delays the onset of anaerobic respiration in di fferent in amino acid sequence fro m adult hemoglobin . The
muscles durin g vigorous exercise. f igure (below) shows that it has greater aff inity for oxygen and
The dissoci ati on c urves for myoglobin and hemoglob in have so, in the placenta, the oxygen that di ssociates fro m adult
different shapes. The curve for hemoglobin is S-shaped and hemoglobin binds to fetal hemoglobin, w hich only releases
that for myog lo bi n is not. M yoglob in co nsists of one heme it once it enters the tissues of the fetus.
group attached to a glo bin, w hereas hemoglobin has four
heme groups, each attached to d ifferent globins that interact O xygen di ssociati on curves of adult and fetal hemo globin
w ith each ot her. As oxygen mo lecu les di ssoci ate from 100
hemoglobi n, confo rmational changes occ ur, w hich make it _ c:
o Q)
easier for other oxyge n mo lecul es to dissociate. Bloo d c: ~ 80
co ntaining adult hemoglobi n therefore releases large o ><
·z 0
amo unts of oxygen over a narrow range of oxygen parti al ~ ..r:
:J:::: 60
pressures, corresponding to th e conditio ns norm all y found rn~

in respir ing ti ssues. ~ . !::

?Jl-8 40
cQ) Oi0:>
O xygen di ssociation curves of hemoglobin and myoglobin 2 E
Q) Q)
CL ..r:
100

s 90
1myog l~> •••••·
5 10
Partial pressure of oxygen/kPa
15
0.0 ,
>-
X ,
,
o
..r:
80 ,
.­
.~ .: I ' hemoglobin GAS EXCHANGE AT HIGH ALTITUDE
c: 70
:0 The partial pressure of oxyge n at high altitude is lower than

··
0
~ 60 at sea level. Hemoglobin may not beco me fully saturated as
E
· it passes through the lungs, so tissues of the body may not

a 50 ··
Q)
.s: be adeq uate ly supp lied w ith oxy gen. A condit io n call ed
normal

I
mou ntain sickness can develop, w it h muscular weakness,
s 40 ···
c: range of
rapid pul se, nausea and headaches. This can be avoi ded by
··
oxygen
~ ascending gradually to allow the body to accl imatize to high
partial
30 ·
:J
~
'"
Q) ··· pressures
in tissues
altitude. Dur ing accli matizatio n the venti latio n rate increases .
Extra red blood cells are produ ced, increasing the
lS
c:20 ·
0.0
·
· hemog lobin co ntent of the blood. Mu scles produ ce more
2
Q)

10 ·
· myoglobin and develop a denser capi l lary netw ork. These

··
Q)
CL changes help to supply the bod y w ith eno ugh oxyge n.
Some peop le w ho are native to high altitu de show other
0 adaptat ions, includi ng a high lung capacity with a large
5 10 15 surface area fo r gas exc hange, larger tid al volum es and
Partial pressure of oxygen/kPa hemoglobin w it h an increased affinity for oxyge n.

Further human physiology 169

 Carbon dioxide transport
Carbon di oxid e is prod uced by aerobic respiration in ce lls
and then eit her di ffu ses di rectl y into capi llaries or into t issue
fl uid that is draw n into cap illaries. Carbon dioxide is carr ied
by the blood to the lun gs in three d iffe rent ways . A small
amo unt (7%) is carried d issolved in t he pl asma. The
remain der is eit her conve rted to hydrogen carbo nate ions or
binds to hemoglobin.
CONVERSION TO HYDROGEN
CARBONATE IONS
Carbon dioxide can be co nverted into hydrogen carbonate
ions within a fractio n of a second of entering the blood . Abo ut
70% of carbo n diox ide is carried in this way . Afte r diffusing
into red blood cells, carbo n diox ide co mb ines w ith wa ter to
for m carbon ic acid. This reaction is catalysed by carbo nic
anhydrase. Carbo nic acid rapid ly d issociates into hydrogen
carbonate and hydrogen ion s. The hydrogen carbonate io ns
move out of the red blood cells by faci litated diffusion. A
carrier protein is used t hat simultaneously moves a chlor ide
ion into the red blood cell. This is called the chloride shift and
prevents the balance of charges across the memb rane from
being altered . The fig ure (below) shows the reactions that
prod uce hydrogen carbonate ions and the chlo ride shift.
The hydr ogen io ns that dissociate from carbo nic acid bind to
hemoglobi n in the red blood cells, preventi ng an excessive
change in pH. This is called pH buffering. Plasma protein s
also act as pH buffers in blood .
plasma
red blood cell
~
E
o
BINDING OF CARBON DIOXIDE
TO HEMOGLOBIN
In respirin g tissues, carbo n dioxide binds reversibl y to
hemoglobin , to fo rm carbam ino hemog lob in.
In the lun gs, carb aminohemo globin d issociates and the
carbon d iox ide is released. Between 15% and 25% of carbo n
dioxide is carrie d in this way. The binding of carbon dioxide
and hydrogen ions to hemoglobin lowers its affinity for
oxyge n. This causes the Boh r shift (page 169).
170 Further human physiology
THE EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON VENTILATION
Du ring vigoro us exerc ise, the energy dema nds of the body
can increase by over ten times. The rate of aerob ic respi ratio n
in muscles ri ses so there is an increase in the amount of CO 2
entering the bloo d and the co ncentrat io n rises. Thi s redu ces
the pH of the bl ood and is rapid ly detected by cells in the
wal ls of arter ies, w hic h mo nitor bloo d pH and co ncentratio ns
of oxyge n and carbon dioxide in the blood. These cells are
called chemosensor s. The chemosensors send nerve im pu lses
to the parts of the medull a of the brain that control the
venti lation rate, called the br eathing centres. The breathi ng
centres also mo nitor blood pH and carbo n dioxide
conce ntratio n. If the concentration of carbo n di oxid e in the
blood ri ses and the blood pH falls below its normal level of
pH 7.4 , the breath ing centres increase t he rate of inspiration
and expiration. This is done by send ing nerve impu lses to the
diaphragm and intercostal muscl es, causing them to inc rease
the rate at w hic h they co ntract and rel ax. The increase in the
venti latio n rate hel ps to remove from the body the CO 2
pro duced in aerob ic cell respiration. It also help s to increase
the rate of oxyge n uptake, w hic h allows aerob ic cell
respiration to cont inue in the muscles and it hel ps to repay
the oxygen debt after anaerobic ce ll respiration.
After exercise, the level of CO 2 in the blood falls, the pH of
the blood ri ses and the breathing centres cause the venti lation
rate to decrease.
The figure (below) shows the relatio nship between blood pH,
partia l pressure of carbon dioxide in blood and venti latio n rate.
Effect of vary ing blood pH and CO 2 level on the vent ilat ion
rate
11
10
9
'"
<: 8
:J
C 7
.~
~ 6
"§ 5
z
c
.9
J§ 4 I ' .......
,,
c ,,
~ 3
,
2 PH,,'"
o+---~-+---~-,..----r-----,---r-----,
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Partial pressure of CO 2 ! mm Hg
i I
7.6 7.5 7.4 7.3 7.2 7.1 7.0 6.9
pH
ASTHMA
Duri ng asthma attacks the muscl es in the wa ll of the bronc hi
co ntract excessively, narrowi ng the bronchi. Ve nti lation is a
struggle and gas exc hange is reduced .
Asthma is an allergic reaction, often to house dust mites, but
sometimes also to poll en, pets and some fu ngi. Acco rdi ng to
a recent t heory, li ving in very clea n hom es increases the risk.
W it hout eno ugh pathogens to fig ht, the immune system
starts to react against harml ess substances, causing allergies
to develop.
EXAM QUESTIONS ON OPTION H - FURTHER HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

H1 The bacterium Helicobacter pylori infects the lining of the stomach. A survey was done using patients who had complained
of pain or discomfort in their digestive system. The lining of their oesophagus, stomach and duodenum (upper part of the
small intestine) was examined using an endoscope and the patients' blood was tested for the presence of antibodies against
H. pylori.
The table below show the results of the survey.

Endoscopy finding Antibodies against Antibodies against

H. pylori present H. pylori absent
(number of patients) (number of patients)
Normal 51 82
Oesophagus inflamed 11 25
Stomach ulcer 15 2
Stornach cancer 5 0
Duodenum inflamed 15 2
Duodenal ulcer 24

a) Explain why the researchers tested for antibodies against H. pylori in the blood of the patients. [2]

b) Discuss the evidence from the survey results for H. pylori as a cause of stomach ulcers and stomach cancer. [3]

c) (i) Compare the results for inflammation of the oesophagus and the duodenum. [2]

(ii) Suggest a reason for the difference in the results. [2]

H2 a) Outline how the atria of the heart are stimulated to contract. [2]

b) Explain the origin of the heart sounds. [2]

H3 V E is the total volume of air expired from the lungs per minute. The graph below shows the relationship between V E and the
carbon dioxide content of the inspired air.

I
c
·E
60
E
u
<,

>UJ 50

40

30

20

10

0
0 2 345 6 7

CO 2 content of inspired air / 0/0

a) Outline the relationship between the carbon dioxide content of inspired air and VE• [2]

b) Explain how the carbon dioxide content of inspired air can affect VE• [3]

c) Predict the effect on V E of increasing the carbon dioxide concentration of inspired air above 7 0/0. [2]

Further human physiology - 18 Questions 171

D urin g the IB Bio logy co urse, yo ur teacher wi ll help you to imp rove yo ur skills in plannin g and perform ing investigati ons. W hen
yo ur teacher thi nks that yo u are ready, your ski lls wi ll be assessed. This w ill be done dur ing lesso ns at your schoo l, so it is called
internal assessment (IA). Exams that are sent off to an examiner are called external assessment. In IB Bio logy, 24% of the marks
are for IA.
A ltho ugh yo ur teacher w ill help yo u as much as possible, yo u cannot be given hi gher marks than you deserve, because samples
of wo rk from yo ur schoo l are checked to see w hether they have been marked to the right standard. This is called external
mod eratio n. You must therefore demon strate high levels of skill to gain high marks in IA.
Five skills are assessed in IA - these are calle d the IA criteria. They are Design; Data co llectio n and processing; Concl usio n and
evaluatio n; M anipu lative skills; Person al skil ls. Each of these cr iteria is divided into three aspects. Fo r each aspect, yo ur teacher
w ill decid e wh ether you deserve a mark of 2 (for meeti ng thi s aspect of the criterio n ful ly), 1 (for meeti ng it partially) or 0 (fo r not
meeting it at all) . The maxim um mark fo r a criterio n is therefore 6. The first three cr iteria are assessed on at least tw o occasio ns
and yo ur highest tw o scores are selected. There w ill be o ne ove rall assessment of yo ur manip ulat ive skills, to ref lect the skil l
level that you have reached during the course. There w ill be one overall assessment of person al skills. This wi ll be done duri ng
t he Group 4 proj ect - the co-operative science proj ect that yo u participate in, at some stage during the course. The maximum
possib le mark for IA is therefore 48 (2 x 6 for the f irst three cri teria and 1 x 6 for the last two criteria).

The co mments below explain how to improve yo ur level of skill in each of the five cr iteria.

IA criterion Guidance

Design 1. The first aspect of design is choosing a probl em or research quest io n to investi gate. You are
expected to pick one factor to vary in an expe riment. This is the independent variab le and it
is expected to affect the level of another variable, called the dependent variable. You are also
expected to identify other variables that co uld affect the independent variable and therefore
must be kept co nstant. These are calle d controlled variables. For example, if you delib erately
vary temperature, the activ ity of an enzyme w ill vary, but pH, enzy me co ncentratio n and
substrate concentratio n must be kept constant.
2. The second aspect of design is planning how to manipu late the level of the ind ependent
variable, and how to keep the levels of all the co ntrolled variables co nstant.
3. The third aspect of design is the detailed planning of the method. This inclu des deci di ng on
the range of the ind ependent variable and also the method for preci se and accurate
measurement of the dependent variable. You must also deci de how many measurements you
need to make. O ne measurement may sometimes be eno ugh, but yo u can only calculate the
standard deviation if you repeat measurements to give a sample of at least fi ve for each level
of the ind ependent variable.

Dat a coll ection 1. The first aspect is recordin g results of an experiment - the results are calle d raw data. Usually
and proce ssing the raw data is quantit ative - measurements w it h S.1. units. Record these measurements as
accurately as possib le using a results table that yo u have produced yo urself, either
handw ritten, o r w ord-proce ssed. Show every result that yo u obtained, not j ust the mean
results. A ll the results should be given to the same number of decim al places. The co lumn
headings o n results tables should show both the quantity being measured and the S.1. units.
W hen yo u are being assessed for this aspect, yo u should show the size of the uncertainty
w ith each result. For example, the time given by a stopwatc h might be plus or minus 10
mi lli second s, or w ith a ruler it might o nly be possib le to measure lengths to plus or
minu s 0.5 mm .
2. To satisfy the second aspect you must process the raw data in some way. This mi ght invo lve
calculat ing the mean, o r a percentage. Processing of raw data makes it suitable for plottin g
on a graph. A n example of this is calcu lati ng the percentage mass change of samples of
potato, placed in different salt so lutio ns.
3. The third aspect of thi s cr iterio n invol ves presenti ng the processed data as a graph or other
appropriate chart, chosen by you. Remember these rules for graphs:
• put the independent variable on th e x-axis and the dependent variable on the y-axis
• choose an appropriate scale for the x-axis and the y-axi s so that the graph is a suit able size
• label bot h the axes and remember to incl ude units (fo r example, mass/ grams)
• plot the data points accurately and jo in the m w it h a best-fit curve o r straight line
• if you have calculated mean results, plot these rather than individu al results
• error bars are could be added to show the range of uncertainty above and below each
po int - there are several ways of doin g this, but the most usual is to show the standard
error. (Standard error = standard deviati on di vid ed by the square root of the sample size).

172
Conclusion and evaluation 1. The first aspect of this criterion is drawing valid conclusions frorn the data that you obtained.
These questions can be used as prompts.
What trends or patterns are shown by the data?
What relationship is there between the independent and dependent variables? Your graph
should give you the evidence for the relationship.
If you calculated mean results, is there a significant difference between the means? What is
the explanation for the observed relationships or differences between means?
2. The next task is commenting on the design of the investigation and the experimental methods
used. You should list all of the weaknesses, including measurements not being precise
enough, results being inaccurate because of errors, or allocation of time to the various parts
of the investigation not being appropriate. For each weakness in the investigation, you must
assess how significantly it affected the results. The process of identifying weaknesses and
assessing their impact is called evaluation.
3. The third aspect of this criterion is explaining what could be done to improve the
investigation, if it was done again. You must be specific - for instance, it is not enough to say
that more precise measurements should be made; you must explain how more precise
measurements could be made.

Manipulative skills 1. By the time that your teacher assesses your manipulative skills, you must have shown that
you can follow instructions safely and accurately, even with cornplicated laboratory practical
work. Be sensible about asking for help from your teacher. Try to work out what to do
yourself. But, if you have not been given full enough instructions or are worried about the
safety of the proced ure, ask for hel p.
2. During the course, your teacher should give the opportunity to learn how to use a wide
range of techniques and equipment. By the time your skills are assessed you should be
competent in all these techniques. Work in a careful and systematic way - arrange your
apparatus tidily and do not waste time, but work without rushing.
3. You should always know about any potential risks in the procedure that you are following.
You should never put yourself or others in the laboratory at risk of accident or injury.

Personal skills 1. You will be assessed on your approach to the co-operative science project (Group 4 project).
You are expected to show self-motivation and follow through the project until it is
completed. Obviously, you will not satisfy this aspect if your teachers have to encourage you
to persevere with the project!
2. Scientists often work in teams, so the ability to co-operate with others is important. During
the Group 4 project, you must show that you can collaborate with others, by cornrnunicating
effectively and working co-operatively. You should ask yourself these questions: Are you
only interested in your own views or do you ask for the views of others? To satisfy this aspect
you must exchange ideas with others and help to combine them so that the tearn completes a
task more effectively than anyone individual could.
3. You rnay be asked to complete a self-evaluation forrn, to allow this aspect of personal skill
to be assessed. You are expected to show a realistic awareness of your own strengths
and weaknesses. You are also expected to explain what you have learned from the
Group 4 project.

173
 GUIDANCE FOR STUDENTS WORKING ON EXTENDED ESSAYS IN BIOLOGY

M any IB students choose a biol ogical research qu esti on fo r their extended essay. There are unlimited oppo rtunities fo r novel and
interesting work because of the di versity of li fe. M any excellent Biol ogy extended essays are wr itten each year. Every essay is an
indi vidu al effo rt and there is no fo rmula for w riting the perfect essay. The steps shown below are intended to help you to avo id
some co mmo n faults, w ithout preventin g you from w riting the essay that yo u wa nt to w rite.
Whil e you are wo rking on the essay, yo ur most im port ant resour ce wi ll be the teacher w ho is supervising yo u. If you need hel p
at any stage, f ix a tim e to talk thin gs ove r. You should make sure that yo ur supervisor always know s w hat yo u are doi ng - discuss
how thin gs are go ing as frequent ly as possibl e. If yo u don't, yo u co uld waste a lot of tim e on an unprodu ctiv e approac h to the
wo rk. Remem ber two important maxim s: 'things take time' and ' if somethi ng can go wro ng it wi ll' . Assume from the start that
you' ll have to do a second run of any experiments or observations and allow time fo r thi s. Start wo rk as soon as possible and
then yo u w il l have ti me to produ ce the finest essay that you can. You can also earn extra points towa rds yo ur diploma.

Planning and data collection

Choose a suitable topic
Pick the field of biol ogy that interests you most and gradually narrow down to one small
section of it. You must choose a truly biol ogical topi c - o ne that invol ves li ving organisms
and interacti on s betw een them . It must be a topic in w hic h yo u can have a personal inpu t
- this isn't easy w ith some topics, for example diagnosis and treatment of di seases, so these
are best avoide d.

Choose an approac h There are tw o main types of approac h.

1. Doi ng expe riments/ mak ing careful observatio ns.
2. Searchi ng in books, journ als o r on the internet fo r relevant data.
M ost of the best essays co mbine both app roaches. If yo u cannot design and do
experiments in your chosen topic, reconsider yo ur choice of to pic!

Do some preli minary wo rk
Try out some expe riments - thi s should allow you to find out w hether your approac h is
lik ely to be successful. Avo id experiments that cause unnecessary risks, suffering to
anim als or env ironmental damage. Do some backgroun d readin g and take careful notes
of im port ant relevant info rmat io n. Prel imi nary wo rk should get yo u thin kin g and asking
questions abo ut your topi c.

Formul ate a research questi on
Thi s should be a question wo rth asking - not one with an obvio us answer. It should be
narrow enough to be fully answered in a 4000-w ord essay, based on 40 hour s' wo rk. It is
best stated as a questio n, w hic h can be used to develop a hypoth esis - a prediction that
yo u are going to test. It is abso lutely vi tal at this stage to talk to yo ur main help er-
your teacher.

Plan your methods If yo u are fol low ing adv ice give n earl ier, yo u w ill be designin g experi ments or pl annin g
how to make careful observatio ns. A lthough yo u may use some standard protoco ls, there
should ideall y be a person al input to the exper imental design, even if you are wo rki ng in a
research laborator y. You must show that you understa nd the theor y behind any methods
that you use, and the li mitations and uncertainties involved - if you do not then the
methods are too complex!

Co llect the data that yo u need
Rememb er the thin gs that you have been taught w hen planning exper iments fo r Internal
Assess ment - variab les must be co ntro lle d and repeats are needed to allow yo u to assess
the reli ability of yo ur data. If yo u aren't doin g your own experiments, you must obta in the
publi shed results of experiments, not j ust the co ncl usio ns that we re drawn fro m these
experimenta l results.

174
Writing up your essay

Write an introduction This can be quite brief. There is no need to include large arnounts of background material,
especially if it is straightforward biology. Instead, say why the topic is worth writing about and
give the background inforrnation that is needed to understand the essay. The introduction
should make it clear how and why you have chosen your research question. You should, of
course, state your research question precisely, either in italics or bold type.

Describe your methods This section shouldn't be very long - if it is then your methods were probably too complex.
Explain clearly and fully what you did and why. You should include enough detail to allow
your experiments to be repeated. Make clear how the experiments tested your hypothesis
or gave the evidence needed to answer the research question. Explain the limitations and
uncertainties that were caused by the methods that you used.

Display your results Use clear tables or other formats to display the data that you have obtained - the results of
your experiments. You only need to put raw data into an appendix if you have huge
amounts of it. Use graphs or other charts to display the most significant features of the data,
for example mean results. If you are using data frorn other scientists, you should display
and manipulate it in an original way.

Analyse your data This should be a long and detailed section of the essay. You should discuss whether the
data is reliable - were the repeats close? do the results show a consistent trend? What
confidence level do statistical tests show? Were there errors or uncertainties that had an
impact on your results? Then use your understanding of the topic to discuss possible
explanations for any trends, with reasons for rejecting or accepting thern.

Draw your conclusions Only a short section is needed here. It should not include new information or views
different from those expressed in earlier sections of the essay. Instead, you should surn up
what answer you have found to your research question or whether your hypothesis is .
supported or undermined. Your conclusions should be based only on the data that you
have obtained and analysed. You should make it clear what the unresolved issues are,
and suggest how they could be investigated.

Write an abstract You must summarize your whole essay in 300 words. You must include your research
question clearly, how you investigated it and what conclusion you reached. The usual
purpose of an abstract is to give the reader a quick irnpression of the contents of a long
article so that he or she can decide whether it is worth reading or not! Obviously your
essay will be well worth reading!

Add the finishing touches You now need to write a contents page and a bibliography. The contents page lists the
sections of the essay with the number of the page on which each section begins. The
bibliography is a numbered list of the published sources that you used. You should put a
reference in the text of your essay, in the form of a superscript number, wherever you have
used information from these sources. Proof-read your essay to check for spelling or
grammatical mistakes.

1 7 ~
1\0.1
 GUIDANCE FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR FINAL EXAMS

If yo u want to do we l l in your fin al exams, yo u mu st prepare for them very carefull y in the weeks beforehand.
The most imp ort ant task is to memorize all the facts that you have been taught. For a high grade, you w ill need a comprehensive
knowl edge of them. Y ou will need to spend many hours on revision and find tacti cs that w ork fo r you.
You should also practi se answe ring exam questio ns. You can use the qu estion s at the end of topics in thi s book, after you have
revi sed each topi c. You r teacher should also give yo u some past exam papers to try.

There are thr ee sty les of qu estion in IB Biol ogy exams.

• Multiple choice questions - These are question s w here you choose one of four possible answe rs. Read all of them before
choosi ng o ne. If yo u cannot decid e on one answer, try to eliminate answe rs that are obvio usly wron g to narrow down the
possibil iti es. Leave diffi cul t questions until you have answered the straightfo rwa rd ones. Give an answe r to eve ry question­
marks are not deducted for wron g answe rs.
• Structured questions - These question s are broken up into small sect io ns, each of whi ch you answe r in the space or on the
lin es provided. If you run out of space, conti nue your answer elsewhere on the paper - it w il l be marked as lon g as yo u
indi cate cl early w hat you have don e. The num ber of marks for each sectio n is indi cated and thi s helps show you how detail ed
your answer needs to be. Some structured questio ns invo lve data analysis. Look throu gh the data question s in thi s book to see
some of the w ays in w hich data can be presented. You should always study the data very carefull y before answe ring the
questions, fo r example the scales and labelling on the axes of graphs. If there are calculatio ns, remember to show yo ur w orking
and give units with your answe r, for example grams o r mill imetres.
• Free response questions - These questions requir e long and detailed answers on lin ed paper. You can decide w hat sty le of answer
to give. Usually continuous prose is best, but sometimes ideas can be show n o n a table or on a carefully annotated di agram.
There may be a choice of free response question. Read the w hole of each question before making your choice.
There w ill be marks for the quality of constructio n of your answe r. If the question is divid ed up into secti ons (a), (b) and so on,
yo u must answer it in these sections. Try to express your ideas clearly so that the examiner understands wh at you mean. Plan out
your answer on scrap paper, so that you arrange your ideas in a logical sequence and do not inclu de irrelevant material.
As with all questions, you must wr ite legibly or the examiner may not be able to mark your w ork. This may mean that you have
to wri te more slowl y than normal.

If you do revi se carefull y and build up a co mprehensive knowledge of the facts on the syllabus you sho uld fi nd many of the

questions straightforwar d. This is because, in IB Biol ogy exams, 50% of the marks are for simple factual recall . These qu estions

w ill start w ith w ords lik e list, state, outline o r describe. The other 50% of the marks invol ve mo re than simpl e factu al recall­

they invol ve express ing ideas that are more complex o r invol ve using yo ur know ledge to devel op an answe r th at yo u probably

haven't been taught.

The wor d at the start of each question tells you wh at to do . These w ord s are therefore called command term s.

Explain- Sometim es thi s invol ves giving the mechanism behind somethi ng - ofte n a logical chain of eve nts, each o ne causing

the next. Thi s is a 'how' sort of exp lanation. A key wo rd is oft en 'therefo re'. Sometimes it invol ves giving th e reason s or causes

for something. Thi s is a 'why' sort of explanatio n. A key word is ofte n ' because'.

Discuss - There w on't be a simple straightforward answe r to these questions. Sometime s your answe r should include arguments

fo r and against something. Try to give a balanced account. Sometim es yo ur answe r should co nsist of a series of alternative

hypotheses - you could indicate how likely each one is but yo u don 't need to make a final choice .

Suggest - Don 't expect to have been taught the answer to these questio ns. Use yo ur ove rall biol ogical understandin g to find

answers - as long as they are possible, they w ill get a mark.

Compare - Thi s type of question inv olves assessing how similar or different two or more thin gs are. You cannot do thi s by

describin g the thin gs separately. Every point that you make should be a similarity or a difference. There may be mo re simi larities

or more di fferences - all of them are relevant.

Distinguish - Thi s is simil ar to a co mpare question, except that o nly di fferences need to be includ ed in yo ur answer. The key

word in thi s type of question is ofte n 'w hereas' .

In both co mpare and di stinguish question s a table is ofte n the best way to arrange your answer . Use the columns of the table for

the thin gs th at yo u are comparing and the row s for the ind iv idual similarities o r differences.

Evaluate - Thi s usuall y i nvo lves assess ing the value, imp ortance o r effects of something. You mi ght have to assess how useful

a techniqu e is, or how useful a model is in helping to explain something. You mi ght have to assess the expected impacts of

something o n the environment. Wh atev er it is that yo u are evaluati ng, you wi ll probably have to use yo ur jud gement in

comp osing yo ur answer.

There are other co mmand terms that are used in qu estion s, but they are more straightfo rwa rd and you are unli kely to have

d iffic ulty in und erstandin g w hat sort of answer to give.

176
TOPICS 1 AND 2 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND CELLS
1 (a) X = rough endop lasmic reticulum Y = mit ochondri a (b) nuclear membrane is the curved structure o n the left-hand side
(c) proteins because there is rough endo plasmic reticu lum wi th ribosomes whi ch make prot ein; ATP because there are many
mit ochondria which make ATP.
2 (a)(i) phospho lipid (ii) head is hydro phili c and tails are hyd rophobic (b)(i) II is integral (ii) any tw o of : III is a pump protein;
transfers specific substances; uses energy from ATP to move substance against the concentratio n gradient.
3 (a)(i) 12.4 ; %; (ii) 5.22 (b)(i) positiv e; co rrelatio n; (ii) does not prove obesity causes high blood pressure; co rrelat ion does not
establish a causal relat ionship; high blood pressure may be caused by something else that also caused obesity;

TOPIC 3 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

1 (a)(i) DN A (ii) DNA (iii) RNA (b) experimental error (c)(i) DNA is doub le stranded; A pairs with T and C pairs with G; one
base in each pair is therefore A o r G, so A + G = 50%; (ii) any tw o of A = T; C = G; C + G = 50% ; A + G / C + G = 1.00
(d)(i) influenza virus (ii) RNA co ntains uracil instead of thymi ne; single stranded so amo unts of G and C not equal.
2 (a)(i) CO 2 concentratio n fall s in the light and rises in the dark; (ii) CO 2 concentratio n fall s wh en it is w armer and rises w hen it is
coo ler; (b) CO 2 co ncentratio n is mo re closely related to light intensity; wh en there is a temporary dark period during the thir d
day but it stays wa rm pH drop s so CO 2 co ncentrat io n rises; (c)(i) respiration produ ci ng CO 2 ; (ii) photosynthesis causing CO 2
uptake;
3 (a) radical/variable porti on of the ami no acid (b) C - N bo nd; 0 = linked to C and H- linked to N (c) 70S ribo somes in
prokaryotes vs. 80S ribosomes in eukaryotes; free rib osomes in prokaryotes vs. rib osomes sometimes linked to rou gh
endo plasmic reticulum in eukaryotes.

TOPIC 4 GENETICS
1 (a) a group ind iv idual must be genotype ii because it is due to a recessive alle le; B group indiv idual in generatio n 2 must be IBi
because t he parent that w as blood gro up A cou ld not have passed o n IB; B group indivi dual in generatio n 3 must have been IBi
because the a group parent must have passed o n i;
(b) parents could have been group 0 ; parents could have been group A w ith genotype IAi; parents could have been group B
with genotype IBi (c) blood transfusio n.
2 (a) C' C' CW CW and C' CW (b) The allele fo r red fl owers is do m inant in peas but co dominant in Mirabilis (c) gametes C'
and CW; genotypes C' C' C' CW CW C' and CW CW; phenoty pes red pink pink and w hit e, respectiv ely.
3 (a) a group of organisms w ith identical genotypes (b) nucleus removed from a cell in an adult organism; nucl eus removed from
an egg cell and replaced with the nucleus fro m the adult animal (cHi) fragments had moved dow n; larger fragments are nearer
the top and move more slow ly; (ii) culture cells have the same profile as udder cells as they have the same pattern of bands;
Do ll y's blood cells have the same profi le as the udd er/c ulture cells as they have the same pattern of bands; Doll y was cl oned
fro m the udder cel ls; sheep 1-1 2 are genetica lly different;

TOPIC 5 ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION

1 (a) sigmoi d/S-shaped (b)(i) li ne reach ing a plateau by year 8 (ii ) any tw o of : food supp ly; predatio n; breed ing sites; d isease (c)(i)
populatio n wo uld have reached carry ing capacity mor e quickly (ii) carry ing capacit y wo uld have been the same.
2 (a) I = secondary co nsumers II = prim ary consumers III = produ cers (b) chemic al energy (c) arrow from the sun to box III
(d) any two of : arrows represent energy losses; heat produced because energy transform ation s are never 100% effic ient;

energy not passed along the food chain to another organism.

3 (a) methane causes an increase in the Earth's temperature by the greenhouse effect; temperature only increases as a result of
an increase in atmospheric met hane; methane emissio ns to the atmosphere must be greater than losses (b) methane emission is
a natural process, e.g. swamps and marshes; hum ans cause methane emissio n, e.g. coa l burni ng/cattle and sheep/ rice paddies;
most emissio ns are caused by humans/hum ans have increased emissio ns co nsiderably (c) any three of : drain swamps and
marshes; reduce cattle and sheep farm ing; stop grow ing rice in paddies; control releases of natural gas; reduce burning of coal;
prevent forest fi res/burning of bi omass.

TOPIC 6 HUMAN HEALTH AND PHYSIOLOGY

1 (a) Tb is higher than Ta ; Tb is co nstant w hereas Ta is decreasing (b) heat absorbed from the enviro nment; heat generated by cell
respir ation (c) acti ve during darkness because it maintains co nstant high body temperature as a result of cell respir ation.
2 (a)(i) ingesti on of pathogens (ii) in blood; in bod y tissues (b) to allow the produc tio n of many di fferent types of antibody ; to fight
many d ifferent diseases.
3 (a) I = trachea II = bronchi o les (b) maintains co ncent ratio n grad ients of oxyge n and CO 2 betwee n air in alveo li and blood;
ensures rapid diffu sion/gaseou s exchange (c) alveo lus w all consisti ng of very thi n cells; blood cap illa ries adjace nt to alveo lus;
bron chio le connected to alveo lus; diameter of alveo lus indica ted;

TOPIC 7 NUCLEIC ACIDS AND PROTEINS

1 (a)(i) higher than 40 °C; init ial rate was faster; then reaction stopped due to denaturation (ii) lower temperature than 40 °C
because the rate is slowe r; 30 "C because the rate is half that at 40 °C (b)(i) curve drawn above the curve W (similar to curve Y)
(ii) curve drawn above the curve W; gradient of curve decreasing markedly w ith time show ing increasing inhibition as the

substrate concentratio n falls.

2 (a) 3' term inal is deoxyribose/ri bose to w hich a nucleot ide can be lin ked; 5' termin al is phosphate group to w hic h a nucl eotide
can be linked (b) A ny 3 of : pur ines and pyrim id ines are both bases; both are part of nucleot ides; A and G are puri nes and C
and T are pyri midines; purin es can only pair w ith pyrim idin es in DNA; pu rines have tw o rings and purines only one ring
(c) An y 5 of : DNA is transcribed; mRNA is translated; RNA is produced by t ranscripti on; po lypepti des are produ ced by

translat io n; transcription is do ne by RNA pol ymerase; translatio n is do ne by ribosomes;

177
3 (a) globular (b) number and sequence of amino acids (c)(i) X is a beta pleated sheet and Y is alpha helix (ii) hydrogen
bonding (d) any two of: tertiary structure determines the enzyme's shape; determines the active site's shape; makes the enzyme
substrate specific; shape ensures that when the substrate binds it is distorted/induced fit.

TOPIC 8 CELL RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1 (a) Any two of: double membrane; cristae/infoldings of inner membrane; ovoid shape; (b) double outer membrane
shown; inner membrane shown folded in to form a crista (c)(i) label indicating the matrix (ii) label indicating the inner
membrane/cristae (iii) label indicating the cytoplasm outside the mitochondria.
2 (a) peaks in the red and blue sections of the spectrum; minimum in the green section at about half of maximal rate (b) action
and absorption spectra are closely correlated; because pigments absorb the Iight energy used in photosynthesis; the more
light absorbed at a wavelength the more photosynthesis.
3 (a) oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation (b) barrier to proton movement; allows a proton gradient to develop;
location of ATP synthase; (c) plasma membrane;

TOPIC 9 PLANT SCIENCE

1 (a)(i) more Pfr (ii) more Pfr (b)Pir slowly reverts to PI' in darkness; timing is based on the amount of conversion; (c) Pir promotes
flowering in long-day plants; and inhibits it in short-day plants;
2 (a) Any three of: parallel versus net-I ike veins; vascu lar bundles distributed through stem versus in a ring; one versus two
cotyledons; floral organs in 3s versus in 4s or 5s; unbranched versus branched roots; (b) apical meristem increases length of the
stem; lateral meristem increases width of stem; (c) monocots cannot thicken their stems; cannot grow into large trees; less
opportunity of branching;
3 (a)(i) 6 pm to 6 am/sunset to sunrise (ii) 6 am to 4.30 pm (b) CAM plant is the xerophyte because it opens its stomata at night;
less water loss during cooler conditions in the night (c)(i) partial closure between 11 am and 12 am; followed by reopening
(ii) plant needs to limit transpiration during the hottest part of the day.

TOPIC 10 GENETICS
1 (a) polygenic (b) AaBb; blue-flowered (c) all gametes shown with one allele of each gene only; four homozygous genotypes
shown AABB AAbb aaBB and aabb; four double heterozygous genotypes shown AaBb; eight other genotypes shown AABb
AAbB aaBb aabB AaBB aABB Aabb and aAbb; all sixteen phenotypes indicated (d) 9 blue 3 red and 4 white (e) gene A
converts white to red and gene B converts red to blue.
2 reassortment of genes into different combinations from those of the parents (b) black body long wing; grey body vestigial wing
(c) genes are linked/found on the same chromosome; parental combinations are kept together; unless there is a cross-over
between the genes (d) any two of: find which chromosome a gene is located on; identify all of the genes in a linkage group;
estimate how far apart the loci of genes on a chromosome are.
3 (a) first; prophase; (b)(i) four chromatids (ii) five chiasmata; (c) breakage of chromatids; rejoining of non-sister chromatids;
exchange of material between chromatids;

TOPIC 11 HUMAN HEALTH AND PHYSIOLOGY

1 (a) excretion is removal from the body of waste products; waste products of metabolism (b) Any two of: protein in blood
plasma but not urine; glucose in blood but not in urine; higher concentration of urea/waste products of metabolism in urine
than blood plasma; composition of urine is more variable than blood plasma (c) loop of Henle makes medulla hypotonic by
raising sodium/mineral ion concentration; allows production of hypertonic urine (d) basement membrane of
glomeru lus/fi Itration slits;
2 (a)(i) actin (ii) regions II and III (b)(i) II would increase in length (ii) I and III would increase in length.
3 (a) Any four of: both contain a haploid nucleus; both have a plasma membrane; the sperm has a tail but the egg does not; the egg
has much more cytoplasm; mitochondria in sperm are helical but in eggs are ovoid; the egg has cortical granules but the sperm
does not; (b) stimulates gametogenesis in both men and women; promotes development of follicles in women and primary
sperrnatocvtes in men; stimulates estrogen secretion in women but not testosterone in men; (c) both stimulate the development of
the corpus luteum; both stimulate the secretion of progesterone; before fertilization by LH and after fertilization by HCG;

OPTION A - HUMAN NUTRITION AND HEALTH

1 (a)(i) 24.3 (ii) 22.6 (b)(i) 24.2 and 22.5 (ii) values are very close (c) below 18.5 is underweight; 25-30 is overweight; above 30
is obese;
2 (a)(i) monounsaturated fatty acids have one double bond and polyunsaturated have more than one; (ii) trans fatty acids have
hydrogen bonded to different sides of double bonded carbon atoms versus cis fatty acids have hydrogen bonded to the same
side; (b) saturated fatty acids are linked with increased blood cholesterol; cholesterol/saturated fatty acids are linked with
atheroma; correlation between saturated fat intake and CH D;
3 (a) one mark for any two of: protein; fats; carbohydrate; minerals; vitamins; water; (b) Any three of: human milk contains the
ideal combination of nutrients for human babies; breast-feeding helps with bonding; breast milk contains antibodies; human
milk does not cause allergies (c) milk production from cattle involves separating calves from their mothers when they are very
young; also involves slaughter of calves/young cattle;

178
OPTION B - PHYSIOLOGY OF EXERCISE
1 (a) hurnans store less oxygen per kg of body tissue (b) Any three of: both store most in blood; seal stores a higher proportion
in blood than human; smallest proportion stored in lung of seal but muscle of human; human stores higher proportion in lung
than seal; seal stores higher proportion in muscle than human (c) any three of: size of muscle; ratio of fast and slow fibres;
concentration of myoglobin in muscle; arnount of blood in muscle.
2 (a) thin actin and thick myosin filaments shown; actin filaments attached to Z discs; actin filaments interdigitating with myosin;
(b) ATP provides energy; for myosin heads; to detach from actin and recock (c) cardiac output is higher when muscles are

contracti ng;

3 (a) two; (b) discs bulge; soft pulpy core of disc is protruding; (c) (white matter of) spinal cord; (d) abnormal neck movements;
heavy loads;

OPTION C - CELLS AND ENERGY

1 (a) CO 2 concentration (b)(i) temperature; rate of photosynthesis rises as temperature rises; (ii) temperature controls the rate of
photosynthesis between 35 and 40°C; but is not the factor nearest to its minirnum level/is supra-optimal
(c) light is the limiting factor at low light intensity; temperature therefore does not affect the rate of photosynthesis.
2 (a) (i) malonate inhibits succinate dehydogenase/other example (ii) copper/mercury/silver ions/other example; (b) similarity:
both types of inhibitor reduce the rate of catalysis; difference between competitive and non-competitive: inhibitor structure
similar to substrate vs. not similar/inhibitor binds to active site vs. binds elsewhere.
3 (a) pyruvate; acetyl group; (b) both are CO 2 ; (c) NADH + H+ (d) Krebs cycle;

OPTION D - EVOLUTION
1 (a)(i) positive correlation (ii) any two of: prirnate brains are larger in relation to body mass; but there is much variation; largest
primates have relatively small brains (iii) any two of: scattergram shows that human brain has the largest size; primates with
a larger body mass have a smaller brain; human brain mass is furthest above the line of best fit (b) easier to climb trees/speed of
movement/less food needed.
2 (a)(i) 2 (ii) 6 (iii) 9 (iv) 6 (v) 10 (vi) 7 (b) c1adogram with four species; first split between rabbit and other three species; second split
between lemur and other two species; final split between humans and orang utans;
3 (a) p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 and q2 is the frequency of homozygous recessives; frequency = 0.23/23% (b) 35% (c) carriers have
increased resistance to malaria; selective advantage over homozygous dominants so the sickle cell allele survives.

OPTION E - NEUROBIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR

1 (a) receptor protein; each receptor protein's shape is complementary to a specific odorant; (b) Any three of: G protein
activates the enzyme adenylyl cyclase; enzyme converts ATP to CAJVIP; CAMP causes calcium channel to open; calcium
causes chloride channel to open (c) membrane of chemoreceptor cell depolarizes/action potential created/chemoreceptor
cell passes an impulse to a sensory neuron.
2 (a) photoreceptors (b) in sensory neurons from the retina to the brain; in motor neurons frorn the brain to the circular muscle

fibres in the iris (c) no response when a light is shone into eye of unconscious patient indicates damage to the brainstem.

3 (a) supporting the hair cells/reticular larnina; (b)(i) three rows; srnall medium and longer stereocilia; arranged in a W shape;

(ii) 1.2 urn: (iii) longer perceive lower frequency sounds; (c)(i) amplifies sounds; for the inner hair cells to perceive more easily;
(ii) in the plasma membrane; mitochondria close to the edge of the cell;

OPTION F - MICROBES AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

1 (a) bacteria numbers increase; bacteria use oxygen in aerobic cell respiration; (b) bacteria decompose raw sewage;
ammonia and phosphate are released during decornposition; (c) ammonia is converted to nitrate; by nitrifying bacteria;
(d) eutrophication; nutrients stimulate growth of photosynthetic bacteria/algae; (e) bacteria consumed by other organisms;

raw sewage has all been decomposed;

2 (a) synthesis of DNNcDNA; from RNA (b)(i) retroviruses (ii) HIV (c) any three of: mRNA can be obtained quite easily; genes
can be hard to find; gene consisting of DNA can be made from RNA; no introns in the gene using reverse transcriptase; gene
can be inserted into other organisms; cDNNprobes can be used to locate other genes;
3 (a)(i) protein coat/capsid (ii) nucleic acid/genes; (b) insert gene into viral DNA; virus acts as a vector for the gene; (c)
intracellular; all viruses rely on a host cell for most of their processes;

OPTION G- ECOLOGY AND CONSERVATION

1 (a)(i) S. marcescens feeds on the nutrients so more grow at high nutrient levels (ii)C. striatum reduce the numbers by predation
(iii) O. nasutum increases the numbers because it feeds on C. striatum; which reduces the predation of S. marcescens (b) low
popu lation of S. marcescens at low nutrient levels; therefore very tow levels of C. striatum on which O. nastum feeds
(c) longer food chain with higher nutrient levels.
2 (a) indicator species need particular environmental conditions; can be used to give a measure of polJution levels/levels of an
environmental variable (b) any two of: captive breeding and release of endangered species; growth of endangered plants in
botanic gardens; storage of frozen seeds of endangered species in seed banks.
3 (a) mercury inputs reduced; (b) increases/decreases when river flow rates rise/fall; high rainfall leaches more mercury out;
(c) death of organisms in higher trophic levels; toxic effects for humans consuming fish from higher trophic levels: _

179
OPTION H - FURTI-IER HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
1 (a) H. pylori is implicated as a cause of stomach ulcers/cancer; antibodies show that the patient has been infected with
H. pylori; (b) Any two of: incidence of stomach ulcers and cancer is higher in patients who had been infected with H. pylori;
all patients with stomach cancer had been infected with H. pylori; some patients with stomach ulcers had not been infected
so there must be alternative causes; correlation does not prove causation; (c)(i) higher incidence of duodenal inflammation
in patients who had been infected; higher incidence of oesophagus inflammation in patients who had not been infected;
(ii) H. pylori infects the stomach; toxins produced by H. pylori will pass on to the duodenum, not back to the oesophagus;
2 (a) SAN/pacemaker sends out a signal; signal spreads out through the walls of the atria (b) any two of: lub dup sounds made
when valves close; closing valve causes vibration of blood in ventricle; rushing sounds due to flow of blood.
3 (a) V E increases as carbon dioxide concentration increases; greater increases in V E with successive increases in carbon dioxide
concentration; (b) increases in carbon dioxide concentration in inspired air increase the blood concentration; detected by
chemosensors in aorta/carotid artery; impulses sent to ventilation centre of brain/medulla; (c) further increases in V E; until
maximal V E is reached;

t80­
 A.S. Page A.S. Page A.S. Page A.S. Page A.S. Page A.S. Page A.S. Page A.S. Page
1.1.1 1 3.8.5 21 6.1.3 47 8.2.3 78 1104 .14 108 C4.3 78 E.6.2 140
GA .2 160

1.1.2 1 3.8 .6 21 6.104 47 8.204 78 1104.15 10 7 CAA 78 E.6.3 140

GA.3 158

1.1.3 1 3.8.7 21 6.1.5 47 8.2.5 79 C4.5 79 E.6A 139

GA A 158

A1 .1 110
1.104 1 3.8.8 21 6.1.6 47 8.2.6 80 CA.6 76 E.6.5 140
GA .5 158

A1 .2 110
1.1.5 2 6.1.7 47 8.2.7 77 CA.7 80 E.6.6 139
GA .6 158

2 4.1. 1 23 A l.3 111

1.1.6 6.2.1 48 8.2.8 81 CA .8 77 E.6.7 139
G.5 .1 159

4.1.2 23 A lA 111
6.2.2 48 C 4 .9 81 F.l.l 142
G .5.2 159

2.1.1 3 404.3 23 6.2.3 48 9.1.1 83, 84 A 1.5 111

G.5.3 159

2.1.2 3 4 .104 23 9.1.2 86 A l .6 111 0 .1.1 122 F.l .2 142

6.204 48 G .5A 160

2.1.3 3 4.2.1 24 9.1.3 83 A l.7 111 0 .1.2 122 F.1.3 142

6.2.5 48 G.5.5 160

2.104 5 4.2.2 24 9 .104 86 A.l.8 110 0 .1.3 122 F.1A 142

6.2.6 49 G.5.6 160

2.1.5 5 4.2.3 24 9.1.5 87 A1.9 110 0 .1.4 122 F. 1.5 142

6.2.7 49 110 0 .1.5 122 F.1.6 143

H.l .l 162

2.1.6 5 4 .204 25 6.3 .1 49 9.1.6 87 A l .l0

2.1.7 3 4.2.5 25 9.1.7 87 Al.l 1 110 0. 1.6 123 F.l .7 142
H.1.2 162

6.3 .2 49
2.1.8 4 4.2.6 25 9.2 .1 84 A1.12 110 0 .1.7 123 F.1.8 143
H.1.3 162

6.3.3 49 110 0 .1.8 123 F.1.9 143

H.1A 162

2.1.9 4 4.2.7 25 6.304 49 9.2.2 84 A 1.13

2.1.10 4 4.3.1 26-29 9.2.3 84 A1. 14 110 0 .2.1 123 F.2.1 144
H.l.5 162

6.3.5 49
2.2.1 6 4.3.2 26 9 .204 84 A2 .1 112 0 .2.2 123 F.2.2 144
H.2.1 163

6.3 .6 50 123 F.2.3 144

2.2.2 6 4.3.3 27 9.2.5 83 A2 .2 112 0 .2.3 H.2.2 163

6.3.7 50 124 F.2.4 144

164

2.2.3 6 4 .304 27 9.2.6 84 A2 .3 112 0 .204 H.2.3

6.3.8 50
2.204 6 4.3.5 28 9.2.7 83 A2A 112 0 .2.5 124 F.2.5 144,1 45
H.2A 163

604.1 51
2.3 .1 7 4.3.6 28 9.2.8 83 A2 .5 112 0 .2.6 124 F.2.6 145
H.2.5 163

604.2 51
2.3 .2 7 4.3.7 28 9.2.9 83 A2 .6 112 0 .2.7 125 F.2.7 145
H.2.6 163

604.3 51 145

2.3 .3 7 4 .3.8 28 9.2.10 83 A2 .7 112 0 .2.8 125 F.2.8 H.2.7 164

60404 51
2.304 7 4.3.9 28 9.2.11 84 A2.8 113 0 .2.9 125 F.3.1 146
H.2.8 164

604.5 51 146

2.3.5 7 4.3.10 28 9.3 .1 85 A 3.1 113 0 .2.10 125 F.3.2 H.2.9 164

6.5.1 52
2.3 .6 10 4.3.11 26-28 9.3.2 85 A 3.2 113 0 .2.11 125 F.3.3 146
H.3.1 165

6.5.2 52
204.1 8 4.3.12 27,29 9.3.3 85 A.3.3 113 0 .3.1 127 F.3A 146
H.3.2 165

6.5.3 52 146

127 F.3.5
i
l 204.2
204.3
204 04
8
8
9
404.1
404.2
404.3
30
30
30
6.504
6.5.5
6.5.6
53
53
52
9.3 04
9.3 .5
10.1.1
85 A.3A
87 A 3.5
A 3.6
94 A3.7
113 0 .3.2
114 0.3.3
114 0.304
114 0 .3.5
127 FA.l
126 FA.2
126 FA.3
142

14 7

14 7

H.3.3
H.3A
HA.l
HA.2
165

165

166

166

204.5 9 4 04 04 30 6.5.7 54
204.6 10 4 04 .5 30 10.1.2 93 0 .3.6 126 FAA 14 7
HA.3 166

204.7 10 4 04 .6 32
6.5.8 54 10.1.3 94 B.l. l 99
0.3.7 127 F.5.1 148
HA A 166

204 .8 10 4 04 .7 31
6.5 .9 54 10 .104 89 B.l.2 99
0 .3.8 127 F.5.2 148
HA .5 166

2.5 .1 11 4 04 .8 31
6.5.10 55 10.1.5 92 B.l .3 99
0 .3.9 127 F.5.3 148
HA .6 166

6.5.11 55 10.2 .1 89,90 B.1A 99 148

2.5.2 11 404.9 31 0 .3.10 127 F.5A HA.7 166

6.5.12 55 10.2.2 90 B.l .5 100

2.5.3 1 404.10 31 0 04 .1 128 F.5.5 148
H.5.1 167

2.504 11 4 04 .11 32
6.6.1 56 10.2.3 93 B.l .6 100
004.2 128 F.6.1 150
H.5.2 167

2.5.5 11 4 04 .12 32
6.6.2 56, 57 10 .204 93 B.l .7 100
004.3 128 F.6.2 149
H.5.3 167

6.6.3 57 10.2.5 93 B.l .8 100

2.5.6 11 404.13 32 0 .5.1 129 F.6.3 149
H.5A 168

6.604 56 B.2. 1 118

10 .2.6 93 0 .5.2 129 F.6A 149
H.5.5 168

3.1.1 14 5.1.1 40 6.6.5 58 10.3.1 91 B.2.2 118

0.5 .3 129 F.6.5 149
H.6.1 169

• 3.1.2 14 5.1.2 41 6.6.6 58 10.3 .2 91 B.2.3 118

0 .504 129 F.6.6 149
H.6.2 170

I
B.3.1 119
3.1.3 14 5.1.3 41 7.1.1 60 11.1 .1 98 B.3.2 0 .5.5 130 F.6.7 149
H.6.3 169

119
3.104 13 5.104 40 7.1.2 61 11 .1.2 97 B.3.3 0 .5.6 129 F.6.8 150
H.6A 170

119
3.1.5 13 5.1.5 42 7.1.3 61 11 .1.3 97 B.3A 0 .5.7 130 F.6.9 150
H.6.5 170

119
3.1.6 13 5.1.6 40 7.104 61 11.104 98 B.3.5 0 .5.8 130 F.6.1O 150
H.6.6 170

3.2.1 14 5. 1.7 40 119

7.1.5 61 11.1 .5 98 BA.l 0 .5.9 130 G.l .l 152
H.6.7 169

3.2.2 14 5.1.8 42 11 7
7.2.1 60 11.1 .6 97 BA.2 0 .5.10 130 G.1.2 152

3.2.3 15 5.1.9 41 117

7.2.2 60
3.204 15 5.1.10 41 11.1 .7 97 BA.3 117 E.l .l 132 G.1.3 152

7.2.3 61
3.2.5 15 5.1.1 1 41 11.2 .1 99 BAA 117 E.l .2 132 G .1A 152

7.3.1 62
3.2.6 15 5.1.12 42 11.2 .2 99 BA.5 117 E.l .3 132 G.1.5 153

7.3.2 62
3.2.7 15 5.1.13 43 11.2 .3 99 BA.6 117 E.1A 132 G.l.6 153

7.3.3 62 11.204 99 BA.7 133 G.l .7 153

3.3 .1 16 5.1.14 43 117 E.2.1

7.304 61 11 .2.5 100 B.5.1 134 G.l .8 153

3.3 .2 16 5.2.1 43 116 E.2.2

704.1 63 11.2.6 100 B.5.2 134 G.l .9 154

3.3 .3 16 5.2.2 44 116 U .3

704.2 63 11.2.7 100 B.5.3 134 G.1.10 154

3.304 16 5.2.3 44 116 E.2A

704.3 65 11.2 .8 100 B.5A 134 G.2. 1 154

3.3 .5 16 5.204 45 116 U .S

70404 64 11.3 .1 101 B.5.5 133 G.2 .2 154

304 .1 17 5.2.5 45 116 E.2.6

704 .5 63 11 .3.2 101 B.6.1 133 G.2.3 154

304 .2 17 5.2.6 45 118 E.2.7

704.6 64,65 11 .3.3 101 B.6.2 135 G .2A 154

304.3 17 5.3.1 36 119 U .l

704.7 63 11.304 101 U .2 135 G.2.5 154

3.5.1 17 5.3.2 36 7.5.1 66, 67 11.3.5 101 C l.l 66,67 U. 3 135 G.2.6 155

,
3.5.2
3.5.3
17
17
5.3.3
' 5.304
36
36
7.5.2
7.5.3
68
68
11.3.6
11.3.7
102 C l
102 C 1.3
.2 68 E.3A
68 U .S
135 G.2.7
135 G.2.8
155

155

3.504 17 504. 1 37 7.504 68 C 1A 68

3.5.5 18 504.2 37 11.3.8 101 U .6 135 G.2.9 155

3.6.1 18 504.3 38
7.6.1 71 11.3.9 101 C2 .1 71 EA.l 136 G.2.10 155

3.6.2 18 50404 38
7.6 .2 69 1104.1 103 C2 .2 69 EA.2 136 G.2.11 155

3.6.3 19 5 04 .5 38
7.6 .3 69 1104 .2 103 C2.3 69 EA.3 137 G.3.1 156

3.604 18 504.6 39
7 .604 70 1104.3 105 C2 A 70 EAA 137 G.3.2 156

3.6.5 19 504.7 38
7.6.5 70 110404 104 C2 .5 70 EA.5 137 G.3.3 156

3.7.1 20 504 .8 39 8.1.1 73 1104.5 104 C.3.1 73 EA.6 137 G.3A 157

3.7.2 20 5.5.1 34 8.1.2 73 1104.6 105 C3 .2 73 E.5.1 138 G.3.5 157

3.7.3 . 20 5.5.2 35 8.1.3 76 1104 .7 105 C3 .3 76 E.5.2 138 G.3.6 157

. 3.704 20 5.5.3 35 8.104 74 1104 .8 105 C 3A 74 E.5 .3 138 G.3.7 156

3.8.1 21 5.504 35 8.1.5 75 1104 .9 106 C 3.5 75 E.5A 139 G.3.8 156

3.8.2 21 5.5.5 34 8.1.6 76 1104 .10 108 C 3.6 76 E.5.5 138 G.3.9 157

1104.11 107 C 3.7 73-76 E.5.6 138 G.3.lO 15 7

3.8.3 21 8.2.1 80
3.804 21 6.1.1 4 7 8.2.2 77 1104. 12 108 CA .1 80 E. 5.7 139 G.3.11 157

6.1.2 47 1104 .13 107 C4.2 77 E.6.1 140 G A. l 158

181
Index

A
arteries 48
BSE 150

abiotic factors 152

arterio les 55
Bt maize 3 1

ABO blood groups 27

arthropoda 35
bulbs 86

abscisic acid 83
Asian flu 150
buoyancy 15

absorption of food 165

Asp ergillus 147

absorptio n spectrum 77
assim ilatio n 4 7

acety l coe nzy me A 74

asthma 170
C

acrosome react ion 106

atheroscle rosis 168
calc ium 14, 52

actin 100
atmosphere 123
Calvi n cycl e 79

actio n potenti al 53
ATP 20, 73, 78
CAM pl ants 83

act ion spectrum 77

ATP synthase 75
cambium 87

activatio n energy 69
ATP synthesis 74, 75
cancer 11

active immunity 97
ATPase 75
cannabis 137

active management 158

A ustralopithec us 126, 127
capi lla ries 48, 55

active sites 18, 69 , 70

autonom ic nervous system 137
capsid 14 3

active transport 9, 84
autosoma l lin kage 92
captive breedi ng 158

adaptation 38
autotrophs 4 1
capture-mark-release method 159

adaptive rad iatio n 125

auxin 87
carbam ino hemoglobin 170

addiction 13 7
AV (atrioventric ular) node 167
carbohydrates 15

adenine 60
carbohydrates in food 112

adenosine triphosphate 20
carbon cycle 43

ADH 10 2, 16 2
B
carbon di oxide transport 1 70

adrenalin 48
bacteria 6, 49, 14 2
carbon fixatio n 21, 43 , 79

aerobic cell respiration 20, 75, 11 7

bacterial infecti on 149
carbonic anhydrase 170

AIDS 50
base pairi ng 16, 60, 62
cardiac cyc le 167

albinism 29
base substi tutio n 23
card iac o utput 119

alco hol 137

B-cell s 96
card iov ascular systems 119

alco ho l abuse 166

beer prod uction 14 7
Caroli na parakeet 160

algal bloo ms 144, 145

bees 140
carriers 28

ali en species 15 7
behavioural iso latio n 124
carrying capacity 36

al lele frequencies 123, 128

benzod iazep ines 13 7
cartil age 99

alle les 23, 26

beta pleated sheets 66
eD NA 146

allopatric speciatio n 124

bi le 166
cell divisio n 11, 20, 73, 74

allostery 71
bi le salts 164
cell theory 3

alpha heli x 66
binom ial system 34
cell wa lls 6, 7, 142

altitude 169
biochemical oxyg en demand 144
ce ll s 3, 10, 15, 114

altruism 140
biodiversity 156
central nervou s system 52 , 136

alveo li 51
bi ofi lms 143
centrioles 11

ami no acids 14, 62 , 66, 67

bi ogas 14 5
centrom ere 23

amino ac ids in food 11

biogeographi cal features 158
cerebell um 138

amnioce ntesis 25 , 10 7
biolog ical co ntro l 15 7
cerebral hemispheres 138

Amoeba 143
biom agnif ication 156
. CFCs 15 7

amphetamines 137
biom ass 2 1, 154
channels 8

amy lase 14 7
bi omes 155
CHD 11 1, 114, 168

Anabaena 148
bioreactor s 14 5
chem iosmosis 75, 78

anabo li c steroids 11 6
bio remed iati on 148
chemoautotrophs 148

anaerobic cell respir ation 20 , 74, 117

biosphere 155
chemoheterotrop hs 148

analogous structures 129

biotic factors 152
chemosensors 170

angiospermop hytes 35
bioti c i ndex 158
c hiasmata 93

animal cells 7
bi pedalism 126
chi ldbirth 10 7

ani mal experiments 138

bi rdso ng 135
Chlamydia 149

annelida 35
birth 107
Chiarella 143

anorexia nervosa 113

bladder 56
c hlor ide shift 170

anterio r pituitary 162

blood 48
chlorophy ll 21, 77, 78

anthrax 98
bloo d clotting 98
chloroplasts 7, 79,80, 12 3

.antibiotic resistance 39
blood gro ups 2 7
cho lesterol 114, 166, 168

antib iotics 49, 149

BO D 144
chorion 108

antibod ies 49 , 50, 96, 9 7

body mass in dex 112
chorionic vill us samp li ng 25

anticodo n 17, 63
body temperature 55
chromatids 23

anti-diuretic hormone 102, 162

Bohr shift 169
chromosomes 23

antigens 49, 96
bo nes 99
c irrhosis 166

antisense strand 62
botani c gardens 158
CJD 150

antiseptics 149
bovin e spongifo rm encephalopathy 150
cl ade 130

apica l meristems 87
brain size 127
cl adistics 130

appetite control 112

bread makin g 14 7
c1adog rams 130

archaea 142, 145

breast-feeding 113
class 35

Ardipithecus 126, 12 7
bryophytes 35
classification 3, 129, 130, 14 2

182
c limograph 155
di gestion 163
estrogen 57, 108

cl inical obesity 112

di gestive enzy mes 163, 164
ethano l 20

clo nal selection 97

di gestive j uices 163
eubacteria 142, 143

cl one 32
dihybrid crosses 89, 90
Eug lena 143

clo ning 32
d iplo id 24
eukaryotes 7, 61, 142

clotti ng 98
disaccharides 15
eutro phicatio n 144, 145

cnidaria 35
disease 49, 50
evo lutio n 37, 38, 39, 125, 127

CNS 52, 136

disinfectants 149
evolutio nary c locks 129

coca ine 137

dislocation of joint s 119
ex situ co nservation 158

coc hlea 133

distribution of animals 152
exagerrated traits 140

codominance 27, 90
distributi on of plants 152
exci tatory drugs 137

co-dominant alleles 27, 28

disulfide bri dges 66
excitato ry synapses 136

codons 17, 62
div ersity index 156
excretion 101, 102

collagen 68
DNA 16, 60
exercise and ventilatio n 170

co lour blindness 28
DN A fingerpri nting 30
exergonic reacti ons 69

comb ustio n 43
DNA polym erase 60
exocrine glands 163

communities 40
DNA profi lin g 30
exocy tosis 10

competition 153
DNA repl ication 16
exons 61

competit ive excl usio n 153

Do lly the sheep 32
exotoxi ns 149

competitive inhib ition 70

domains 142
extracellular inf ections 149

condensatio n reacti ons 15

domin ant alleles 16
extracellular material 3, 10

co nditio ning 135

dopamine 137
eye 134

cone cells 134

Down syndrome 25

co niferophytes 35
drugs 137

co nifers 35
drugs in sport 116
F
co njugated proteins 67
F, hybrids 16

conservatio n 156, 158

faci litated diffusion 9

consumers 41, 42
E family 35

continuous variation 91
ear 133
fast and slow muscle 116

convergent evo lution 125

eco logical effi ciency 42
fatty acids 14, 111

copulation 107
eco logical niches 153
ferns 35

cornea 134
eco logica l succession 155
ferti li zation 58, 85, 106, 107

coronary heart disease 111, 114, 168

eco logy 43
fetal develop ment 107

coronary thrombosis 168

ecosystems 43
fetal hemoglobin 169

corpus luteum 57, 104

effector s 132
fibre 114

correlation 2
egestion 47
fibrinogen 98

co rtical reacti on 106

egg cell 104, 105
fibrous proteins 68

creatine phosphate 117

eggs in the di et 114
filicinophytes 35

creation of life 122

elbow 99
fish conservatio n 160

Creutzfeld-Jacob disease 150

electron transport chain 75
fish stocks 160

cristae 76
elements 14
fish yields 160

crossing over 92, 93

embryos 58
fitness 116

cultural evo lution 126

emergent properties 3
flagell a 6, 143

cyanobacteria 148
emulsification of fats 164
flatw orms 35

cyc lic photoph osphorylation 81

end product inhibition 71
fl owering 87

cystic fib rosis 128

endocri ne system 54
flowers 85,86

cytokinesis 11
endocy tosis 10, 165
flui d mosaic model 8

cytoplasm 3, 6, 7
endoplasmic reticulu m 7, 10
fM RI1 38

cytosine 60
endorphins 139
fol licl e 56,57, 104

endosymbiotic theory 123

foo d chains 40

endotoxins 149
food mi les 114

D
energy 20
food poi sonin g 147

Darw in 38
energy effic iency 42
food preservation 147

decarboxylation 74
energy flow 41
food we bs 42

decision making 136

energy in food 112
for aging behavi our 139

deficiency di seases 110

energy losses 41, 42
forensics 30

denaturation 18
energy pyramids 42, 154
fossil fuels 43

denitrifi cation 144, 145

energy requirements 112
fossilization 126, 127

deoxyr ibonucl eic acid 16

energy sto rage 15
fossils 37

depolarization 53
enviro nmental monito ring 158
fructose 15

desert 155
enzyme in hibition 70, 71
FSH 56, 57, 58

detoxifi cation 166

enzyme specificity 18
functional magnetic resonance im aging 138

detrivores 41
enzymes 18, 19, 69
fundamental niches 153

di abetes 55, 113

epidemics 150

diaphragm 51
epistasis 90

dicoty ledons 86
epithelium 165
G
die tary fib re 114
EPa 119
gametogenesis 103, 104, 105

di etary supplementatio n 110

ER 7
gas exchange 51, 169

diets 110
error bars 1
gastric ju ice 164

differentiation 3, 4
erythrocytes 49
gel electrophoresis 30

diffusion 9
erythropo ietin 119
gender 28

digestion 47, 163

estimating fi sh stocks 160
gene interact ion 90

183
gene linkage 92, 93
homologous 24
L
gene mutation 23
homologous structures 129
lactase 19

gene pools 123, 128

homozygous 16
lactate 20, 117

gene therapy 146

honey 114
lactic acid 20, 117

genes 18,23
honey bees 140
lactose 15, 19

genetic code 17, 62

hormones 8, 162
lateral meristems 87

genetic diseases 23, 29

human ancestors 126, 127
LDL 168

genetic evolution 127

human classification 127, 129
learned behaviour 135

genetic modification 31
human diets 110
leaves 83, 86

genetic variation 24
human evolution 126, 127
leptin 112

genome 23
human genome project 32
lesions 138

genotype 16
human impacts 45
leu kocytes 49

genus 34
human milk 113
LH 56,57
geographical isolation 124
human origins 126, 127
ligaments 99, 119

germ ination 85
human reproduction 103
ligase 60

gerrn-l ine therapy 146

hybridoma cells 98
light-dependent reactions 77, 78

giberellin 85
hydrogen bonds 13, 16, 60
light-independent reactions 77, 79

glands 163
hydrogen carbonate 170
limiting factors 81

global warming 44
hydrolysis reactions 15
link reaction 74

globular proteins 68
hypothalamus 55, 112, 138, 162
linkage 92

glomerulus 101
lipase 68

glucagon 55
lipid digestion 164

glucose 14, 15, 55

I
lipids 15

glycerides 15
IDD (iodine deficiency disorder) 110
lipids in food 112, 114

glycerol 14
identification 34
liver 55, 166

glycogen 7, 15, 117

ileum 165
liver cell 7

glycolysis 73
immunization 97
Iiver damage 166

glycoproteins 8, 10
immunity 97
loop of Henle 102

GM031
immunoglobins 68
lung capacity 118

goitre 110
in situ conservation 158
lungs 51

Golgi apparatus 7, 10
in vitro fertilization 58
lymphocyte 49,50
gradualism 125
independent assortment 89, 92
Iysosomes 7

Gram stain 142

indicator species 158
lytic life cycles 149

grassland 155
induced fit hypothesis 69

greenhouse effect 44
infections 49, 149

gross production 154

infertility 58
M

guanine 60
influenza 149
macroevolution 126

guard cells 83
inhibitors 70, 71
macrophages 96

inhibitory drugs 137

magnification 5

inhibitory synapses 136

malaria 98, 150

H
initiation of translation 65
malnutrition 111

Haber process 144

injuries in sport 119
maltose 85

habitat 45
innate behaviour 135
management of wildlife reserves 158

haemoglobin 67, 68, 166, 169, 170

inoculation 97
mean 1

half-life 125
inorganic compounds 14
meat in the diet 114

haloph iles 142

insect pollination 85
medulla oblongata 138

haploid 24
instinct 135
meiosis 24, 92, 93, 94

Hardy-Weinberg equation 128

insulin 31, 55
melanisim 39

Hardy-Weinberg principle 128

international conservation 160
membrane proteins 8, 68

HCG 58, 108

interphase 11
membranes 8

hearing 133
interspecific competition 157
Mendel 16, 89

heart 48, 119, 167

intervertebral discs 119, 120
menstrual cycle 57

heart action 167

intestines 47
menstruation 57

heart attacks 168

intracellular infections 149
meristems 87

heart beat 167

intramolecular bonding 66
metabolic pathways 71

heart rate 119

introns 61
metabolism 71

helicase 60
iodine 110
methane generation 145

Helicobacter pylori 164

iris 134, 139
methanogens 142

helper T-cells 96
iron 14
microevolution 127

hemoglobin 67,68, 166, 169, 170

IVF 58
m icrometres 5

hemophilia 28
microvilli 47, 102, 108, 165

hepatic blood vessels 166

migration 132

hepatocytes 166

J milk113,114
joints 99

herbivory 153
Miller and Urey 122

heterotrophs 41
mineral absorption 84

heterozygous 16
K mineral elements 14

hip joint 99
karyotypes 24, 25
mineral ion uptake 84

histone 61
keys 34
minerals in food 110

HIV 50,146
kidney structure 101
mitochondria 7, 74, 75, 76, 123

homeostasis 54, 55
kinesis 135
mitosis 11

hominids 126, 127

Krebs cycle 74
mollusca 35

Homo 126,127
K-strategies 159
monitoring environments 158

1'84
mo noclo nal antibodies 98
oxyge n debt 11 7
pol ysaccharides 15

monocotyl edon s 86
oxygen dissoci ation 169
pol ysomes 64

mo nohy brid crosses 16

oxyge n transport 169
popul ati on dy namics 36

monosaccharid es 15
ozo ne 157
popul ati on growth curves 36

mosses 35
popul ation s 36

motor neuron s 52, 132

pori fera 35

p
mucous membranes 49
positive feedback 107

pacema ker 48

mul ti cellul ar 3
posterior pitui tary 162

pain 137

multi ple alle les 27

postsynaptic potentials 136

painkill ers 137

muscle 99, 100

pre-bi otic Earth 122

pancreas 55, 163

muscle co ntraction 100

predation 153, 157

pancreatic juice 164

muscle fatigue 117

pregnancy 107, 108

pandemics 150

muscul ar dystroph y 29
pr imary structure 67

Paramecium 143

mutation 23, 29
prim ary succession 155

parasiti sm 153

mutu ali sm 153

prim ates 127, 129

parasymp athetic system 137

myofibril s 99
prio ns 150

parti al pressure 169

myoglob in 116, 117, 169

producers 40

passive immunity 97

myometrium 108
progesterone 57, 108

passive transport 9

myosin 68, 100

pro karyotes 6, 61, 123

pasteuriz ation 149

prostheti c gro ups 67

pathogen transm ission 150

protease 164

N
pathogens 49

protein defi ci ency 111

NAD 73
Pavl ov 135

prot ein di gestion 164

NA DP 78
peR 30

protein fun cti on s 68

naked mol e rats 140

peacocks 140

protein structure 66, 67

natu ral selectio n 38,39, 132

pedigree charts 27, 29

protei n synthesis 64

nature reserves 158

penis 56

prote ins 8

negative feedback 54, 55

pepsinogen 164

proteins in food 112

nephron s 10 1, 102
peptid e bo nds 15, 63

prothrom bin 98

nerve impul se 53
pepti de hormones 162

protobi onts 123

nerves 52
peptide lin kage 15, 63

psychoacti ve dru gs 137

nervou s system 52, 54

perform ance enhancing substances 116

puberty 56

net produ cti on 154

pesticides 148

pubic hair 56

neuron 52, 132

pH 19

pumps 8, 10

neurotransmitters 52, 136

phagocyte 49

punctu ated equil ibrium 125

niches 153
phenotyp e 16

Punnett grid 26, 89

nicotine 137
phenyl ketonuria 111

pupil 134, 138

nitrates in wa ter 144,1 45

phl oem 83, 84

pupil reflex 138

nitri fi cation 144

phosphol ipid s 8

purin es 60

nit rifyin g bacteria 145, 148

phosphoru s 14

pyramid s of energy 42, 154

nitr ogen 14
photoa utotrophs 148

pyrim idines 60

nitrogen cycl e 144

photoheterotrophs 148

pyruvate 20,73,74

nitr ogen fixation 144

photo lysis 21, 78

nom encl ature 34

photoperiod ism 87

non- com petitiv e inh ibiti on 70

photophosphoryl ation 77, 78
Q
non-di sjunction 25
photoreceptors 134
quadrats 152

norm al distributi on 1
photosynthesis 21, 77, 83

nose 133
pho tosystems 78
R

nucl eoid 6
phototropi sm 87
rainfall 155

nucl eosomes 61
phyl ogeny 127, 129, 130
rain forests 156

nucl eotides 16, 60

phylum 35
random sampling 152

nucl eus 3
phytochrome 87
realized niches 153

nutri ent cycles 43

pigments 77
receptors 132, 133, 134

nutri tion 110

pil i 6, 138, 162
recessive alle les 16

pl acenta 107, 108

recom bin ation 92, 93

o plant cel ls 4, 7
recycl ing 43

obesity 112, 168

pla nt reprodu ct ion 85
red bloo d cells 49

oestrogen (estrogen) 57, 108

plants 35
reduction reacti ons 73

o il spi lls 148

plasma (blood) 49
reed beds 145

Okazaki fragments 60
plasma ce lls 96
reflex arc 132

omega-3 fatty acids 111

plasma membrane 3, 6
reflexes 132, 135

oocy te 104
plasma proteins 166
relay neurons 52, 132

ooge nesis 104, 105, 106

plasmids 31
repetiti ve sequences 6 1

order 35
platelets 49, 98
repli cation 16, 60, 61

organic compounds 14
pl atyhelm in ths 35
repol arization 53

origi n of cells 123

pol arity 13
reprodu ctive systems 56

ori gin of life 122

po lli natio n 85
respiration 20, 73, 74

osmoregulat ion 101, 102

pollu tion 145
restin g potenti al 53

osmosis 9, 84
po lygenic inheritance 91
restricti on enzy mes 31

ovary 56, 104

po lyme rase chain react ion 30
retin a 134

ov ulatio n 56, 57
po lymo rphism 125, 126
retrovi ruses 146

ox idatio n reacti on s 73
po lypeptides 15, 17, 64, 67
reverse transcriptase 146

oxidat ive phosphoryl ation 75

polyploi dy 124
Rhiz obium 144

04 k~
1,, ­
rhythmical behaviour 139
sound perception 133
transpiration 83, 84

ribonucleic acid 17, 122

soy sauce 147
trickle fi Iter beds 145

ribose 14
speciation 124
tRNA 63,64,65

ribosomes 6, 7, 63, 64
species 34, 124
trophic levels 40, 154

ribulose bisphosphate 79
species extinction 160
tropical rainforest 155

rickets 110
specificity of enzymes 18
trypsinogen 164

risk 110
speed 116
tubers 86

river pollution 145

sperm (spermatozoa) 103, 1 OS, 106
tumours 11

RNA 17,122 spermatogenesis 103, 105, 106

tundra 155

RNA polymerase 62
spinal cord 132

rod cells 134

spinal reflexes 132

roots 84, 86
sponges 35

ultra-violet radiation 157

rough endoplasmic reticulum 7, 10

spongiform encephalopathy 150

ultrafiltration 101

r-strategies 159
sprains 119

umbilical cord 4,108,

rubisco 79
stamina 116

unconscious coordination 139

RuBP 79
standard deviation 1

unicellular 3

starch 7

units 5

statistical tests 1

unsaturated fatty acids 111

S stem cells 4

uracil 17

SA (sinoatrial) node 167

stems 84,86

urinel0l, 102

Saccharomyces 143, 147

steroid hormones 162

saliva 164
stomach 47, 164

saprotrophs 41, 43
stomach cancer 164
V

sarcolemma 99
stomach uleers 164
vaccination 97

sarcomeres 99, 100

stop codons 62, 65
vacuoles 7

satellite DNA 30
striated muscle 99
vagina 56

saturated fatty acids 111, 114, 168

stroke volume 119
vagus nerve 167

scale bars 5
substrate concentration 19
variant CJD 150

SCID146
substrates 18
variation 24, 38

scrapie 150
sucrose 15
vasopressin (ADH) 102

scurvy 110
sulphur 14
vegan diets 114

secondary structure 66, 67

sunlight 41
vegetarian diets 114

secondary succession 155

surface areas 5
veins 48

seed banks 158

sweat 55
ventilation 51, 118

seed dispersal 85
sympathetic nerve 167
ventilation rate 118, 170

seedlings 85
sympathetic system 137
vesicles 10, 52

seeds 85
sympatric speciation 124
villi 47, 165

segmented worms 35
synapses 52, 136
virus vectors 146

segregation 16
viruses 5, 49, 143, 146, 149

selective re-absorption 102

visual stimu Ii 134

selenium 148
T
vital capacity 118

semen 105
t test 2
vitamin C 110

seminiferous tubules 103

taxis 135
vitamin D 110

sense strand 62
T-cells 96
vitamins 110

sensory neurons 52, 132

temperate deciduous forest 155
V0 2 117

sensory receptors 132, 133, 134

temperature 19

severe combined immunodeficiency

tendons 99

disease 146
tendrils 86
W
sewage 145
termination of translation 65
Wallace 38

sex chromosomes 28
tertiary structu re 67
warming up 118

sex determination 28
test crosses 29, 93
water 13

sex drive 56
testes 56, 103
water uptake 84

sex linkage 28, 90

testosterone 56, 103
wildlife reserves 158

sexual reproduction 39, 56

THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) 137
wine production 147

shrubland 155
therapeutic cloning 32
withdrawal reflex 132

sickle cell anemia 23

thermoph i les 142

sieve tubes 84
thrombin 98

sigmoid growth curves 36

thylakoids 78
x

significance (statistical) 1
thymine 60
X chromosomes 28

simple reflexes 132

tidal volume 118
xerophytes 83

Simpson diversity index 156

tongue 133
xylem 84

sinusoids 166
torn muscles 119

size 5
training 118, 119

skeletal muscle 100

trans fats 111, 168
y
skin cancer 110, 157
transcription 17, 62
Y chromosomes 28

skin colour 91
transects 152
yoghurt 147, 149

skulls 126
transfer RNA 63, 64, 65

slipped disc 119

transgenic organisms 31

smoking 168
translation 17, 63, 64
z
social behaviour 140
translocation 84
Z line 100

sodium 14
transmission of pathogens 150
zona pellucida 105

somatic-line therapy 146

transm itter 52

186