TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. REACTANCE VOLTAGE ...................................................................................................... 2

1.1 DEFINITION ........................................................................................................................ 2
1.2 HOW DOES IT OCCUR?..................................................................................................... 3
1.3 WHAT CAUSE? ................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 WHERE DOES IT HAPPEN? .............................................................................................. 5
1.5 HOW TO SOLVE REACTANCE VOLTAGE? .................................................................. 6
1.5.1 BY BRUSH SHIFTING ................................................................................................. 6
1.5.2 BY INTERPOLES OR COMPOLES ............................................................................. 7
2. ARMATURE REACTION ...................................................................................................... 9
2.1 INTERPOLE WITH AUXILIARY OR BIAS WINDING ................................................. 11

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1. REACTANCE VOLTAGE

1.1 DEFINITION

Reactance voltage = Coefficient of self-inductance ´ Rate of change of current

When a coil undergoes commutation, two commutator segments remain shortcircuited by the
brush. Therefore, the time of short circuit (or commutation period Tc) is equal to the time required
by the commutator to move a distance equal to the circumferential thickness of the brush minus
the thickness of one insultating strip of mica. The commutation period is very small, say of the
order of 1/500 second.

The coils embedded in the armature slots, which has high permeability, poses appreciable amount
of self-inductance, L. During commutation of a coil its current is changed from +I to –I. So due to
self-inductance and variation in the current from +I to –I, a voltage (L di/dt) is induced in the coil.

Voltage (L di/dt) is the voltage that occurs in commutator segments being shorted out by the
brushes, sometimes called inductive kick. This voltage is known as reactance voltage and is equal
to L (2I/Tc), where Tc is the commutation period.

Figure 1

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If the process of commutation is completed within the commutation period Tc, it is called Ideal
Commutation. The presence reactance voltage does not allow the current to change completely
in Tc s, resulting in arcing between commutator segment and brush.

The reactance voltage is directly proportional to armature current and inversely proportional to
commutation period. Current in a coil undergoing commutation is not able to get reversed
completely by the end of commutation period. It is due to reactance voltage induced in the coil.

1.2 HOW DOES IT OCCUR?

The voltage generated in the armature, placed in a rotating magnetic field, of a DC generator is
alternating in nature. The commutation in DC generator is the process in which generated
alternating current in the armature winding of a dc machine is converted into direct current after
going through the commutator and the stationary brushes. Again in DC generator, the input DC is
to be converted in alternating form in armature and that is also done through commutation.

This transformation of current from the rotating armature of a DC generator to the stationary
brushes needs to maintain continuously moving contact between the commutator segments and the
brushes. When the armature starts to rotate, then the coils situated under one pole (let it be N pole)
rotates between a positive brush and its consecutive negative brush and the current flows through
this coil is in a direction inward to the commutator segments. Then the coil is short circuited with
the help of a brush for a very short fraction of time (1⁄500 sec). It is called commutation period.

After this short-circuit time the armature coils rotate under S pole and rotates between a negative
brush and its succeeding positive brush. Then the direction is reversed which is in the away from
the commutator segments. This phenomena of the reversal of current is termed as commutation
process. We get direct current from the brush terminal.

The commutation is called ideal if the commutation process or the reversal of current is completed
by the end of the short circuit time or the commutation period. If the reversal of current is
completed during the short circuit time then there is sparking occurs at the brush contacts and the
commutator surface is damaged due to overheating and the machine is called poorly commutated.

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1.3 WHAT CAUSE?

Occur when the current collapses at the plane or point of commutation (the brush shorting the coil)
which produces a changing field and cuts the coil to induce back e.m.f. (reactance voltage). The
coil has inductance, when shorted, a back emf is produced that tries to maintain current flow. When
the coil comes off the brush, the current has not reduced to zero, resulting in an excess of current
that jumps as spark from the commutator to the brush. The reactive sparking occurs at each point
of commutation for every coil. The sparking produced is called reactive sparking. Reactive
sparking will cause:

• Brush wear
• Commutator wear
• Interference to radio system.

Figure 2

Not all sparking at the commutator is reactive sparking, sparks may also be caused by worn or
sticking brushes, incorrect spring tension, commutator flats and proud mica. In a dc generator, the
sparking between brushes and commutator surface may be due:

• to under commutation,
• over commutation
• too rapid reversal of current.

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1.4 WHERE DOES IT HAPPEN?

To obtain satisfactory collection of current from a rotating commutator by means of brushes, it is

essential that the brushes should make good contact with the commutator. Even with good contact,
sparking may take place. When a coil passes from one side of the brush to the other it is transferred
from, say, the right to the left of the brush. For a brief period the commutator segments joined to
the coil are short-circuited by the brush, and it is during this very short period that the current in
the coil has to be reversed.

In Fig. 3 coil A is about to leave the circuit comprising the coils under the N pole; in Fig. 4 coil A
is short-circuited by the brush, and in Fig. 5 the coil has been completely transferred to the circuit
of the coils under the S pole. The current has been completely reversed, compared to the one in
Fig. 3. Fig. 4 illustrates the position of coil A in the middle of the commutation period.

If, at this instant, the current is reduced to exactly zero, the commutator segments 2 and 3 will
share the current uniformly, as indicated. The current in the coils must be reversed at exactly the
correct rate. The armature coils possess considerable inductance, and thus the change in the current
will be retarded automatically. It is therefore essential to support the reversal of the current by
arranging that the coils actually cut through a magnetic field and that they are such that a reversing
emf is established, opposing the emf of self-induction.

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1.5 HOW TO SOLVE REACTANCE VOLTAGE?

One method to overcome this problem is to use Interpoles. In some generator, interference with
radio reception due to brush sparking is prevented by installing suppressor, consists of capacitors
connected between generator casing and the main terminals.

E.m.f. commutation

In this method, an arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by producing a reversing
voltage in the coil undergoing commutation. The reversing voltage acts in opposition to the
reactance voltage and neutralizes it to some extent. If the reversing voltage is equal to the reactance
voltage, the effect of the latter is completely wiped out and we get sparkless commutation. The
reversing voltage may be produced in the following two ways:

1. By brush shifting
2. By using interpoles or compoles

1.5.1 BY BRUSH SHIFTING

In this method, the brushes are given sufficient forward lead (for a generator) to bring the short-
circuited coil (i.e., coil undergoing commutation) under the influence of the next pole of opposite
polarity. Since the short-circuited coil is now in the reversing field, the reversing voltage produced
cancels the reactance voltage. This method suffers from the following drawbacks:

a) The reactance voltage depends upon armature current. Therefore, the brush shift will
depend on the magnitude of armature current which keeps on changing. This necessitates
frequent shifting of brushes.
b) The greater the armature current, the greater must be the forward lead for a generator. This
increases the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction and further weakens the main field.

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1.5.2 BY INTERPOLES OR COMPOLES

The best way to produce reversing voltage to neutralize the reactance voltage is by using interpoles
or compoles. These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced mid-way between the main poles
(See Fig. 6). They are wound with comparatively few turns and connected in series with the
armature so that they carry armature current. Their polarity is the same as the next main pole ahead
in the direction of rotation for a generator (See Fig. 6). Connections for a d.c. generator with
interpoles is shown in Fig. (7).

1.5.2.1 FUNCTIONS OF INTERPOLES

The machines fitted with interpoles have their brushes set on geometrical neutral axis (no lead).
The interpoles perform the following two functions:

a) As their polarity is the same as the main pole ahead (for a generator), they induce an e.m.f.
in the coil (undergoing commutation) which opposes reactance voltage. This leads to
sparkless commutation. The e.m.f. induced by compoles is known as commutating or
reversing e.m.f. Since the interpoles carry the armature current and the reactance voltage
is also proportional to armature current, the neutralization of reactance voltage is
automatic.

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 b) The m.m.f. of the compoles neutralizes the cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction
in small region in the space between the main poles. It is because the two m.m.f.s oppose
each other in this region.

Fig. (8) shows the circuit diagram of a shunt generator with commutating winding and
compensating winding. Both these windings are connected in series with the armature and so they
carry the armature current. However, the functions they perform must be understood clearly. The
main function of commutating winding is to produce reversing (or commutating) e.m.f. in order to
cancel the reactance voltage. In addition to this, the m.m.f. of the commutating winding neutralizes
the crossmagnetizing ampere-turns in the space between the main poles. The compensating
winding neutralizes the cross-magnetizing effect of armature reaction under the pole faces.

Figure 8

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2. ARMATURE REACTION

The distortion of the main field caused by the interaction between the main field and the armature
field produced when current flow in the armature windings. Armature reaction will cause the
shifting of the brush position from Geometric Neutral Axis (GNA) to Magnetic Neutral Axis
(MNA). The shifting depends on the load, the higher the load the more will be the angle of lead. 
To prevent arcing, the brush position would have to be continually adjusted.

In a d.c. generator, the purpose of field winding is to produce magnetic field (called main flux)
whereas the purpose of armature winding is to carry armature current. Although the armature
winding is not provided for the purpose of producing a magnetic field, nevertheless the current in
the armature winding will also produce magnetic flux (called armature flux).

The armature flux distorts and weakens the main flux posing problems for the proper operation of
the d.c. generator. The action of armature flux on the main flux is called armature reaction. The
criterion for good commutation is that it should be sparkless. In order to have sparkless
commutation, the brushes should lie along magnetic neutral axis.

So far we have assumed that the only flux acting in a d.c. generator is that due to the main poles
called main flux. However, current flowing through armature conductors also creates a magnetic
flux (called armature flux) that distorts and weakens the flux coming from the poles. This distortion
and field weakening take place in both generators and motors. The action of armature flux on the
main flux is known as armature reaction.

The phenomenon of armature reaction in a d.c. generator is shown in figure below(Figure

9,10&11). Only one pole is shown for clarity. When the generator is on no-load, a smal1 current
flowing in the armature does not appreciably affect the main flux f1 coming from the pole (See
Fig 9). When the generator is loaded, the current flowing through armature conductors sets up flux
f1.

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Fig. 10 shows flux due to armature current alone. By superimposing f1 and f2, we obtain the
resulting flux f3 as shown in Fig. 11. Referring to Fig 11, it is clear that flux density at; the trailing
pole tip (point B) is increased while at the leading pole tip (point A) it is decreased. This unequal
field distribution produces the following two effects:

a) The main flux is distorted.

b) Due to higher flux density at pole tip B, saturation sets in. Consequently, the increase in
flux at pole tip B is less than the decrease in flux under pole tip A. Flux f3 at full load is,
therefore, less than flux f1 at no load. As we shall see, the weakening of flux due to
armature reaction depends upon the position of brushes.

With no current in armature conductors, the M.N.A. coincides with G.N.A. However, when current
flows in armature conductors, the combined action of main flux and armature flux shifts the
M.N.A. from G.N.A. In case of a generator, the M.N.A. is shifted in the direction of rotation of
the machine. In order to achieve sparkless commutation, the brushes have to be moved along the
new M.N.A. Under such a condition, the armature reaction produces the following two effects:

a) It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux.

b) It cross-magnetizes or distorts the main flux.

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Geometrical and Magnetic Neutral Axes

i. The geometrical neutral axis (G.N.A.) is the axis that bisects the angle between the centre
line of adjacent poles. Clearly, it is the axis of symmetry between two adjacent poles.
ii. The magnetic neutral axis (M. N. A.) is the axis drawn perpendicular to the mean direction
of the flux passing through the centre of the armature. Clearly, no e.m.f. is produced in the
armature conductors along this axis because then they cut no flux. With no current in the
armature conductors, the M.N.A. coincides with G, N. A.
iii. In order to achieve sparkless commutation, the brushes must lie along M.N.A.

2.1 INTERPOLE WITH AUXILIARY OR BIAS WINDING

An interpole with auxiliary winding is used to obtain a correct interpole strength over all load and
speed ranges. An auxiliary winding is wound on the interpole and connected in series with the
main field. At high speed and heavy load, the bias winding gave little opposition to the strong
interpole magnetic field, which is needed to suppress reactance e.m.f. At low speed and heavy
load, the bias windings will oppose the interpole windings in reducing its strength and increase the
efficiency of the generator.

The interpole with auxiliary or bias winding relates to direct current motors and generators, and
more particularly, to variable speed shunt motors of a size in which variation of the commutating
pole excitation is required for good commutation under different shunt field conditions.

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In large, variable speed, direct current motors, in which considerable speed variation is obtained
by adjustment of the shunt field excitation, it has been known for some time that when the shunt
field excitation is increased at some predetermined load, such as full load, increases must be made
in the interpole flux which is produced by the series commutating pole winding. Otherwise, poor
commutation results.

This problem is overcome by providing an auxiliary commutating pole winding which is energized
so as to be responsive to adjustments in the excitation of the shunt type field winding but not
directly responsive to the magnitude of the load current. In some instances, when this auxiliary
commutating coil is employed, the interpole excitation may be excessive at no load, and
particularly at ‘top speed or weak field’.

In this case, some means is necessary to reduce the auxiliary winding excitation somewhat, and to
reduce the effective excitation due to the auxiliary cumulative winding to zero. In the method
described in the abovementioned patent, it is not possible to reduce the excitation of the auxiliary
cumulative winding to zero but a compromise auxiliary winding excitation is provided so as to
obtain not quite the best commutation at full load but still giving preference to the commutation
conditions at full load as distinguished from the commutation conditions at no load. The principal
object of the auxiliary winding is to provide an improved field structure which reduces or
eliminates commutator sparking under weak field, no load conditions.

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