Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
Strategic staff development (SD) has no settled meaning and is unlikely to acquire
one. ‘Development’ suggests change, and a recent survey of staff developers’
approaches to change identified 12 separate orientations (Land 2001). Individuals
operating from some of these orientations, for example the interpretative-
hermeneutic orientation, might even question the desirability and legitimacy of
‘strategy’ in SD. However, most would agree that if SD is to be effective it must
engage with its sponsoring institution’s key concerns. Some staff developers have
long bemoaned their lack of influence over policy and the extent to which they are
not trusted with new initiatives (Weimer 1998). On the other hand institutional
leaderships, increasingly under pressure to move towards more ‘tightly coupled’ –
even corporate – organizations (Weick 1976; McNay 1995) can be forgiven
for wondering about the contribution that their SD functions make to achieving
institutional goals and priorities. There is a perception of a tendency
to repeat exactly the same mistakes that have made SD marginal to the
management of universities. Imbued with an evangelical desire to convert
others, they seem to have no concept of acting strategically (i.e. to maximize
their own university’s effectiveness) at all.
(Ramsden, personal communication 2002; see also Ramsden 2003, chs. 10 and
11)
This book explores the possibilities of achieving strategic SD. The contribution
of this chapter is to take a pragmatic approach, focusing on major trends in
discussion of organizational learning and taking into account the interests of
the primary readership of the book (senior staff, heads of department and SD
professionals). The chapter seeks to review four major approaches to strategy in
organizational learning, indicating their assumptions, strengths and weaknesses
in a higher education (HE) setting. This review begins with more organizationally
focused and managerial approaches, before turning to social learning theories
and the debate about professionalism in SD. It identifies the need for greater
4 Towards strategic staff development in higher education
organizational focus than has hitherto been the case in many SD functions, a
message reinforced by a number of the chapters in the book. Towards the end, it
addresses itself to those SD practitioners and others who may feel uncomfortable
with this argument, considering possible positive roles and ethical stances.
It is easy to criticize models such as the SHRD model, not least for its assumption
of an end-point rather than seeing development as emergent (Lee 2001;
McGoldrick et al. 2001). Certainly the list of characteristics needs to be interpreted;
the notion of line managers is problematic in academic areas despite ‘new manage-
rialism’ (Deem and Johnson 2000), although perhaps the notion of strategic part-
nerships with heads of department less so. Many in HE would want to add an
additional point: staff, including the extent to which staff are involved in strategic
partnerships with the SD function (for example, through their organizations or in
the planning, execution and evaluation of activities intended for peers). Indeed,
there is a vein of literature in the UK which sees the essential role of SD as being
to balance ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ impulses. This involves taking initiatives to
satisfy both levels and handling sometimes conflicting demands, signalled through
perceived roles such as that of ‘diplomat’ (Smith 1992; Elton 1995). SHRD is,
however, a useful heuristic device and highlights the role of top management and
6 Towards strategic staff development in higher education
Communities of practice
Some scholars have taken the notion of learning from practice even further, and
argued that the most effective form of learning is that which arises from ‘legitimate
peripheral participation’ in daily practice (Lave and Wenger 1991). Here the
emphasis is upon groups with common values, engaged in common working
practices: teams or work groups, normally departments in HEIs. In this conception,
learning is conceived largely as ‘what we do around here’; is tacit in nature; and is
distributed across the community (for further discussion, see Chapters 10, 12 and
14). This approach, emphasizing situated learning and sensitivity to contingencies
and context, sits well with the primary source of academic identity, the discipline
(Henkel 2000), the diversity of discipline cultures (Becher 1989), and the preference
which professionals themselves have expressed for informal learning (Becher 1999).
Opportunities for learning in everyday practice can arise from seeing; reading;
doing; and disturbing assumptions (Knight 2002b). Appropriate SD includes subject
and professional body participation, team awaydays and meetings (Knight and
Trowler 2001). Malcolm and Zukas (2000) have launched a spirited critique of
conventional SD for teaching from this perspective too, criticizing what they per-
ceive as the dominant uncritical and decontextualized approach to student
learning.
One problem with this social learning approach is the rather rosy, uncritical view
of ‘communities of practice’ that it sometimes implies. To an outsider, it may not
always be obvious that a healthy community of practice exists and that informal
learning is doing more than reinforcing taken-for-granted assumptions (single
loop). Such learning may reinforce ‘dysfunctional’ local traditions (Boud 1999) and
perpetuate historical inequalities and prejudices (Billett 1999). For individuals in
workgroups the ‘lived experience’ of group membership may be very different from
Rethinking strategic staff development 9
the way it is portrayed to the outside world (in formal documents, plans, etc.). There
is sufficient international concern about workloads and stress (Kinman 1998;
Rhoades 1997; Maslen 2002; McInnis 2000b) not to be too sanguine about this.
A second concern is the implied exclusivity of the ‘community’. Much of the
literature focuses explicitly or implicitly on the interests of full-time tenured
academic staff only. Yet around these core staff are large numbers of fixed-term
contract staff (see Chapter 13) and part-time teachers engaged in activities critical
to core functions. Their membership of ‘communities of practice’ is in reality
highly problematic and may require more formal SD (see Knight 2002b: 95).
Furthermore, there are large numbers of staff, in most large institutions a majority,
who are not academic members of staff but fulfil functions which support primary
academic purposes – cleaners, gardeners, porters and security staff, and, nearer the
core, secretaries, technicians and professional administrators. Some of these are in
separate organizational structures (if not contracted out) but many are not and they
tend to enjoy much more traditional hierarchical line-management relationships.
Many do not have sufficient autonomy in their jobs to engage in development
without the explicit agreement of their managers. Second, in times of rising
demand and financial constraint, teamworking across staff boundaries has some
potential for increasing productivity and creating more interesting, enhanced jobs
for support staff. The changing nature of the academic role, discussed in the next
two chapters, implies an erosion of the traditional boundaries between some jobs
and academic work and more collaborative working. Developing communities of
practice around such collaborative teamworking may provide important gains to
the individuals concerned and their organizations.
The community-of-practice literature implies a decentralized focus on academic
units, their needs and development. In healthy communities of practice, the role for
the SD function would appear to be largely in terms of providing, directly and
indirectly, consultancy and support for internal learning activities. Possibilities
include reciprocal peer working such as the teaching development projects and the
writing for publication group established at the University of Technology, Sydney
(Boud 1999), although the extent to which academic staff are prepared to view
developers as peers may be problematic (Gosling 2002). Other roles may include
providing the necessary challenge and intervention to enable ‘double-loop learning’
and to avoid continuation of any historical prejudices. When new teams or
departments are being formed SD personnel may help prepare the ground and
context for the emergence of (newly defined) communities of practice and an
inclusive learning culture. A focus on supporting those with a key role in developing
and sustaining learning in teams and local communities of practice, notably heads
of department, seems particularly important (see Chapters 9 and 10).
At the HEI level the emerging orthodoxy around communities of practice as the
site of situated learning disturbs traditional reliance on initial training programmes
for new faculty (important as that is) and formal short courses for volunteers. It
suggests that supporting informal learning processes, the bringing together of
socially distributed learning into explicit discussion at departmental level and below
(with research teams, for example) assumes much greater importance. There is,
however, a potentially wider role. Knight and Trowler (2001) note that only liberal
10 Towards strategic staff development in higher education
heads and individual members of staff (Blackwell and McLean 1996a: 167–9). The
least promising arrangement, from a strategic point of view, would appear to be
the lone staff developer, often seconded part-time from amongst the staff and
operating in isolation – that is the ‘shop floor’ model that predominated in the pre-
1992 universities in the UK until the 1980s (Matheson 1981; Smith 1992).
Turning to reporting lines, the worries about being too closely associated with
‘management’ through association with HRM within the SD community, noted
earlier, are out of proportion to the data and suggest a selective myopia. The
tendency of educational development units to report to pro-vice-chancellors in the
UK is treated as largely unproblematic despite evidence of pro-vice-chancellors’
integration into and key role in ‘new managerialism’ (Deem and Johnson
2000). Pro-vice-chancellors also typically have much greater power than the
average head of HRM so, arguably, units reporting to them are potentially more
deeply implicated in ‘management’. One attempt to square this apparent circle is
the search for professionalism.
in South Africa (Collett and Davidson 1997). As we noted earlier, Gosling’s survey
suggested a tendency for academic SD to become more distributed within HEIs,
and this also works against the notion of a cohesive ‘profession’. Staff developers
concerned mainly with support staff do not fit readily into the situation. They tend
to be more mobile between employment sectors and may be more attracted to
membership of economy-wide bodies (like the Chartered Institute of Personnel
and Development in the UK) rather than HE-only organizations.
Although staff developers’ claims to professional status may interest few out-
side their community, there are some significant issues about standards,
preparation and training which underlie the issues of capacity and capability
mentioned earlier. Developments in the quality agenda may yet bring these issues
to the fore. The harmonization of quality assurance across the EU, signalled by
the Bologna declaration, suggests the possibility of SD partially reinventing itself
around a quality assurance and enhancement role in Europe. In the UK, the
quality system is in flux at the time of writing, with the possibility that a new
quality enhancement organization, bringing the Learning and Teaching Support
Network (Chapter 6), the Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education
(Chapter 7) and the Higher Education Staff Development Agency more closely
together, may be created from 2004. If these developments precipitate increased
interest in, for example, accrediting academic teachers (see Chapters 2 and 7),
which they might, it is likely that the credentials of those who undertake the devel-
opment will come under increased public scrutiny, casting the UK debate about
professionalism in a new light.
Ethics
There has been some interest in codes of ethics, including as protection against
the more malign influences of managerialism (Cranton 1998; Hicks 1998; Knight
and Wilcox 1998; Weimer 1998). The SEDA accreditation scheme has an
underpinning set of values (Baume and Baume 1996), if undertheorized, and
others have been proposed (D’Andrea and Gosling 2001). Second, Land’s (2001)
study of the orientations to change of SD specialists reveals a startling range of
perspectives, many of which appear strongly value-based, for example the cluster
around ‘person-centred’ working with individuals. This raises interesting ques-
tions about whether such ethical stances may thrive in organizationally aligned
functions and, from the point of view of the organization, whether they can
make contributions to its effectiveness. Two strategies are of particular interest,
‘the deviant innovator’, which addresses the concerns of those worried about
managerialism, and ‘tempered radicalism’, which addresses the needs of person-
centred practitioners.
The ‘deviant innovator’ contrasts with the conventional ‘conformist innovator’,
who seeks to earn success through accepting organizational ends and policy. The
deviant innovator seeks to put their work on a more independent professional
footing, change some organizational ends and the criteria for evaluation of their
activities (Legge 1978). It is thus predominantly an organizationally focused
Rethinking strategic staff development 13
the ethical position . . . should be a complex and shifting position taking into
account a broad array of influences [including faculty members, university
administration, government, students, parents, employers and members of the
community]. . . . it is a balancing act that I perform not formula driven, but
also not totally inconsistent and not indefensible . . . A simple and enduring
solution will not be found to the complex ethical dilemmas . . . and I believe
this is the way it should be.
14 Towards strategic staff development in higher education
Conclusion
It is an exciting time for staff development. There is a growing recognition of
both the importance of SD to particular agendas, such as the quality agenda, and
to broader organizational needs for a flexible, learning culture. The SD function
will continue to have multiple foci and constituencies, whose relative interest
and influence in SD will inevitably wax and wane over time. The review of
organizational learning theories and the debate on professionalizing SD suggest
that the balance of input needs to continue to shift from emphasis on individual
academic members of staff towards greater organizational alignment at both
the institutional and departmental level. However, in a complex and ambiguous
world even this conclusion is less clear than it might seem. Elsewhere in this volume,
authors argue for the importance of the subject dimension and bringing it
into dialogue, at least, with institutional SD (see Chapters 5 and 6). Moreover,
in Chapter 15 a scheme focused on the non-vocational ‘wants’ of individuals
is shown to have had considerable organizational benefit too. Indeed, that
study warns against a narrow, dirigiste focus on job-related training, especially for
support staff. The analytical distinction between individually focused and
organisationally focused development is in practice blurred and the relative ‘gain’
from learning is often shared in somewhat unpredictable proportions. It is therefore
a matter of balance and interpretation, and that is likely to vary from one context to
another.
Heads of department
• The community-of-practice literature emphasizes situated, informal learning
embedded in daily life. This places prime responsibility for SD in the department
itself. Heads have a special responsibility for creating learning opportunities
and bringing together tacit and distributed learning (see Chapter 10).
• The SD function is primarily a consultant and supporter of developing
learning opportunities locally in this context. It may play a role in creating new,
inclusive communities and offer a range of useful tools and services to existing
communities.
• The SD function may also play a key role in working horizontally across com-
munities, enabling them to network learning, and ensuring learning does not
become stuck within the ‘single loop’.