LIc4semLabManual PDF

LINEAR ICS AND COMMUNICATION LAB MANUAL
LINEAR ICS AND COMMUNICATION

LAB MANUAL
Subject Code: 15ECL48
RNS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 1

LINEAR ICS AND COMMUNICATION LAB
As per Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme]
LINEAR ICS AND COMMUNICATION
SEMESTER – IV (EC/TC) LAB MANUAL
Laboratory Code 15ECL48 IA Marks 20

Number of Lecture 01Hr Tutorial (Instructions) Exam Marks 80
Hours/Week + 02 Hours Laboratory
Exam Hours 03
CREDITS – 02
Course objectives: This laboratory course enables students to:
 Design, Demonstrate and Analyze instrumentation amplifier, filters, DAC, adder,
differentiator and integrator circuits, using op-amp.
 Design, Demonstrate and Analyze multivibrators and oscillator circuits using Op-
amp
 Design, Demonstrate and Analyze analog systems for AM, FM and Mixer operations.
 Design, Demonstrate and Analyze balance modulation and frequency synthesis.
Demonstrate and Analyze pulse sampling and flat top sampling.
Revised Bloom’s
Cycle -I Experiments Taxonomy Level
1. Design Adder, Integrator and Differentiator using Op-Amp. L2, L3, L4, L5
L2, L3, L4, L5

2. Design of RC Phase shift and Wein‟ s bridge oscillators using
Opamp.
3. Design active second order Butterworth low pass and high pass L2, L3, L4, L5
filters.
4. Design 4 bit R – 2R Op-Amp Digital to Analog Converter (i) using 4 L2, L3, L4, L5
bit binary input from toggle switches and (ii) by generating digital
inputs using mod-16 counter.
Cycle -II Experiments

5. Design an instrumentation amplifier of a differential mode gain of L2, L3, L4, L5
‘A’ using three amplifiers.
6. Design of Monostable and AstableMultivibrator using 555 Timer. L2, L3, L4, L5
7. Amplitude modulation using transistor/FET (Generation and L2, L3, L4

detection).
8. Frequency modulation using IC 8038/2206 and demodulation. L2, L3, L4

Cycle -III Experiments

9. Demonstrate Pulse sampling, flat top sampling and reconstruction L2, L3, L4
10. DSBSC generation using Balance Modulator IC 1496/1596. L2, L3, L4
11. Frequency synthesis using PLL. L2, L3, L4, L5
12. Design BJT/FET Mixer. L2, L3, L4
Course outcomes:
This laboratory course enables students to:
 Gain hands-on experience in building analog systems for a given specification using
the basic building blocks.
 Gain hands-on experience in AM and FM techniques, frequency synthesis
 Gain hands-on experience in pulse and flat top sampling techniques
 Make the right choice of an IC and design the circuit for a given application. Design
and analyze the performance of instrumentation amplifier, LPF, HPF, DAC and
oscillators using linear IC.
 Understand the applications of Linear IC for addition, integration and 555 timer
operation to generate signals/pulses.
Graduate Attributes (as per NBA)
Engineering Knowledge.
 Problem Analysis.
 Design/Development of solutions.
Conduct of Practical Examination:
 All laboratory experiments are to be included for practical examination.

 Students are allowed to pick one experiment from the lot.
 Change of experiment is allowed only once, in which case Procedure part Marks to
be made zero.

LABORATORY GUIDELINES/INSTRUCTIONS.
• Students are expected to be punctual and regular to the laboratory classes.

• Students have to bring the observation notebook, laboratory instructions and record book duly completed. The
students should themselves write the record; the record shall never be written by any other person.
• Students shall not be permitted to conduct the experiment if he/she does not bring the observation book,
instruction booklet and the completed laboratory record.
• If a student is absent for a lab, he/she has to take prior permission from H.O.D. to attend the next practical class.
• Students are expected to draw the consumables from the stores after filling up the consumable –slip and duly
signed by the teacher in-charge.
• Attendance for the lab internal test is compulsory. Evaluation is based continuous assessment and one lab
internals. Each laboratory session is given weightage in terms of attendance, conduction and viva.
• Students must keep the laboratory clean and tidy. Stringent punishment will be awarded to students who
spoil/destroy college property.
• Students are not allowed to alter the configuration of any computer system.
• Boys and Girls shall behave in a friendly and respectable manner.
• The students shall return all the consumables drawn by them to the store and collect the issue slip and handover
the same to the teacher before leaving the laboratory.
• If any equipment/ instrument is not functioning properly it has to be brought to attention of the teacher
concerned.

Experiment No. 1:-

Design Adder, Integrator and Differentiator using Op-Amp.
Aim: To design Adder, Integrator and Differentiator using Op-Amp.
Components Required:
Sl.No Component Value

1. Dual power ± 12 V
Supply
2. OPAMP IC 741
3. Resistor 10K Ω (4), 3.3K Ω (1),
33K Ω(1)
4. Capacitors 0.1µF
THEORY:
Adder
Summing amplifier or an adder is used to sum two signal voltages. Voltage adder circuit is a simple circuit
that enables you to add several signals together. It has wide variety of applications in electronic circuits. For
example, on a precision amplifier, you may need to add a small voltage to cancel the offset error of the op
amp itself. An audio mixer is another good example of adding waveforms (sounds) together from different
channels (vocals, instruments) before sending the combined signal to a recorder.
Differentiator
A differentiator is a circuit that is designed such that the output of the circuit is approximately directly
proportional to the rate of change of the input. An active differentiator includes some form of amplifier such
as op-amps. A passive differentiator circuit is made of only resistors and capacitors. A differentiator circuit
consists of an operational amplifier, resistors are used at feedback side and capacitors are used at the input
side.
The voltage current relationship is given by
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
The current through the capacitor is given by
𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼=𝐶 𝑑𝑡
If Vout is the voltage across the resistor and Vin is the voltage across the capacitor, then Vout is given by
𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
From the above equation following conclusions can be made:
 Output is proportional to the time derivative of the input – Hence, the op amp acts as a differentiator;

 Above equation is true for any frequency signal.
Thus, it can be shown that in an ideal situation the voltage across the resistor will be proportional to the
derivative of the voltage across the capacitor with a gain of RC.
Capacitive reactance is the important factor in the analysis of the operation of a differentiator. Capacitive
reactance is Xc =1/2πfc. Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the rate of change of input voltage
applied to the capacitor. At low frequency, the reactance of a capacitor is high and at high frequency
reactance is low. Therefore, at low frequencies and for slow changes in input voltage, the gain, Rf/Xc is low,
while at higher frequencies and for fast changes the gain is high, producing larger output voltages. If a
constant DC voltage is applied as input to capacitor, then the output voltage is zero. If the input voltage
changes from zero to negative, the voltage output voltage is positive. If the applied input voltage changes
from zero to positive, the output voltage is negative. If a square wave input is applied to a differentiator, then
a spike waveform is obtained at the output.
Integrator
The operational amplifier integrator is an electronic integration circuit. Based on the operational amplifier
(op-amp), it performs the mathematical operation of integration with respect to time; that is, its output
voltage is proportional to the input voltage integrated over time.
Assuming that the input impedance of the op-amp is infinite (ideal op-amp), no current flows into the op-
amp terminal. Therefore, the nodal equation at the inverting input terminal is given as:
From which we derive an ideal voltage output for the Op-amp Integrator as:
The integrator circuit is mostly used in analog computers, analog-to-digital converters and wave-shaping circuits

1. Adder
Circuit diagram
Design
VO = IK×RF
Choose RF/R = 1, hence choose RF=R=10KΩ
Expected waveforms

Procedure
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Apply V1=1Vp-p sinusoidal signal with f=1Khz and V2 = 1V dc .
3. Observe the output waveform.
2. Differentiator
Circuit diagram
DESIGN:
∆𝑡
Let f=500Hz 𝐶 = 𝐼1 ∗
∆𝑣
𝐶 = 100µ𝐴 ∗ 100µ𝑣
C = 0.01µF
For proper differentiation
RFC≤Tin
Choose RFC = Tin
Then RF= 200KΩ
And choose RF=10 R1
Hence, choose R1=20KΩ

Expected waveform
Procedure
2. Apply V1=1Vp-p sinusoidal signal with f≤ 500 Hz
3 Integrator
Circuit Diagram
Design
∆𝑡
Let f=500Hz 𝐶 = 𝐼1 ∗ ∆𝑣
𝐶 = 100µ𝐴 ∗ 100µ𝑣
C = 0.01µF

Choose C1=0.1 µF else results in very large R1

For proper Integration
R1C ≥Tin
Choose R1C = Tin
Then R1= 20KΩ
And choose RF=10 R1
Hence, choose RF=200KΩ
Expected Waveform
Procedure
2. Apply Vin=0.1Vp-p sinusoidal signal with f≤ 500 Hz
Results

Observation Viva Initials and sign of staff

marks marks in charge with date
Experiment No 2:-
RC Phase shift and Wien’s bridge oscillators

Aim : To Design of RC Phase shift and Wien’s bridge oscillators using Opamps.
Components Required:
Sl.No Component Value

1. Dual power Supply ± 12 V
2. OPAMP IC 741
3. Resistor 1.5K Ω (3), 10K Ω (1),
47K Ω pot
4. Capacitors 0.01µF(2),0.047µF(3)
THEORY:
RC Phase shift oscillator:

An oscillator is an Electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic signal, often a sine wave or a
square wave. RC-phase shift oscillator is used generally at low frequencies (Audio frequency). It consists of
a CE amplifier or OPAMP as basic amplifier circuit and three identical RC networks for feedback, each
section of RC network introduces a phase shift of 60 and the total phase shift by feedback network is 180.
The CE amplifier introduces 180 phase shift hence the overall phase shift is 360. The feedback factor for
an RC phase shift oscillator is 1/29, hence the gain of amplifier (A) should be  29 to satisfy Barkhausen
criteria.
The Barkhausen criteria states that in a positive feedback amplifier to obtain sustained oscillations, the
overall loop gain must be unity (1) and the overall phase shift must be 0 or 360. The amount of phase
shift in the circuit depends upon the values of the resistor and the capacitorand the chosen frequency of
oscillations with the phase angle being given as
 XC 
  tan 1  
 R 
Wein bridge oscillator

It is commonly used in audio frequency oscillator. The feedback signal is connected in the input terminal so
that the output amplifier is working as a non-inverting amplifier. The Wien bridge circuit is connected between
amplifier input terminal and output terminal. The bridge has a series R network, in one arm and a parallel RC
network in the adjoining arm. In the remaining two arms of the bridge, resistor R1 and Rf are connected. The
phase angle criterion for oscillation is that the total phase shift around the circuit must be zero. This condition
occurs when bridge is balanced. At resonance frequency of oscillation is exactly the resonance frequency of
balanced Wien bridge and is given by f0 = 1/ (2πfC).assuming that the resistors are input impedance value and
capacitance are equal to the value in the reactive stage of Wien bridge. At this frequency, the gain required for
sustained.
Circuit diagram

1. RC phase shift oscillator
Design
For RC sections to produce a phase shift of 180◦ ,
Xc=√6 R
1/2∏fc = √6 R
For f=1 KHz and choosing C=0.047µF
R=1.38KΩ and Choose R=1.5K Ω
Choose Av≥ 29
And Av=1+RF/R1 =29
2. Wein Bridge Oscillator

DESIGN:
Given, fo = 500Hz;
Assume C = 0.1µF fo = 1/(2π√6 RC),
R = 1.3KΩ
R1 = 10R = 13KΩ
Av= − Rf / R1, │Av│> 29, ie, Rf/ R1> 29
Rf= 390KΩ
Rcomp = (R1Rf / R1 + Rf) = 15KΩ
Expected Waveform for Oscillators
Procedure
2. Observe the output.
3. Frequency is calculated by the formula f =1/T

Results
Oscillator Amplitude (V) Expected frequency(Hz) Obtained frequency(Hz)

RC PHASE SHIFT
OSCILLATOR
WIEN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR
RESULT
Thus the operation of RC phase shift and Wien bridge oscillators was designed and output was tested using IC µA
741.


Experiment No 3:-
Low pass and high pass filters
Aim: To Design active second order Butterworth low pass and high pass filters and to determine the cut off
frequency and Roll-off rate.
Components required:
SI. No. Components Range
1. Resistors 1.59KΩ(2),10K Ω(1),5.6K Ω(1), 270 Ω(1)

2. Capacitors 0.01µF(2)
THEORY:
Second order low pass filter

A filter is a frequency-selective device that is used to limit the spectrum of a signal to some Specified band
of frequencies. A low pass filter is one that filters higher frequencies that are beyond a specified frequency
called as cut off frequency. A pass band and a stop band characterize frequency response.
A low pass filters is the filter that passes low frequency signals but attenuates Signals with higher
frequencies than the cut-off frequency. It is a Second order low pass filter which means that noise above a
certain preset cut-off frequency is weakened by 40db/decade. Op-amp stage is unity gain amplifier. They
are often rated for general audio/video, automotive, avionics, commercial, computers and many industrial,
medical and military applications.
Circuit for the LPF uses two stage passive RC filters connect to the input of Noninverting op-amp. The
frequency response of op-amp will be same as that of passive RC filter, except that the amplitude of output
signal is increased by pass band voltage gain (AF) of the amplifier and non-inverting amplifier as this is
given as 1+Rf/R1.For noninverting amplifier circuit the voltage gain of the filter is generally expressed in
decibels and is a function of feedback (Rf) divided by corresponding input resistor (R1) value and is given by
Voltage gain=20log (Vout/Vin) =

Where Af= pass band gain of a filter,(1+Rf/R1) f=frequency of input signal in hertz fc=cut-off
frequency in hertz
The circuit operation is as explained below: When the frequency of the input signal is low, the capacitive
reactance is low and output is equal to the input. When the frequency of the input is high the capacitive
reactance is high. Thus the output voltage is zero (ideally). Here an op-amp is used to amplify the signal and
to acquire impedance matching.
Second order high pass filter

A filter is frequency-selective device that is used to limit the spectrum of a signal to some specified band of
frequencies. A high pass filter is the one which filters lower frequencies, which are below a specified
frequency called as, cut off frequency. A pass band and a stop band characterize frequency response. The
circuit operation is as explained below:
When the frequency of the input signal is low, the capacitive reactance is high and output is equal to the
zero (ideally). When the frequency of the input is high the reactance is low. Thus the output voltage is
equal to the input. Here an op-amp is used to amplify the signal and to acquire impedance matching.
Circuit Diagram
1. Second order low pass filter
DESIGN:
fc = 1/(2π*R* C)
Let fc = 10 KHz, C =0.01µF
Then R =1/ (2π *f* C) =1.59kΩ
A=1+ R2/R1 =1.586
R2 = 0.586 R1
R1=10kΩ
R2= 5.86kΩ
Expected Waveform

PROCEDURE:
1) Rig up the circuit as shown.
2) Sinusoidal input signal of 1Vp-p is applied using signal generator.
3) Vary the frequency of the signal from 100Hz to 100 KHz keeping the amplitude constant.
4) At each step, note down the output.
5) Calculate the gain.
6) Plot the graph of gain versus frequency.
OBSERVATION:
Frequency(Hz) Vout (volts) Gain in dB
2. Second order high pass filter

Circuit Diagram
DESIGN:
fc = 1/(2π*R* C)
Let fc = 5 KHz, C =0.01µF
Then R =1/ (2π*f* C) =3.18kΩ
A=1+ R2/R1 =1.586
R2 = 0.586 R1
R1=10kΩ
R2= 5.86kΩ
PROCEDURE:

7) Rig up the circuit as shown.

8) Sinusoidal input signal of 1Vp-p is applied using signal generator.
9) Vary the frequency of the signal from 100Hz to 100 KHz keeping the amplitude constant.
10) At each step, note down the output.
11) Calculate the gain.
12) Plot the graph of gain versus frequency.
OBSERVATION:
Frequency(Hz) Vout (volts) Gain in dB

RESULT:
The active high pass filter has been successfully designed for a cutoff frequencyof 5 KHz.
Theoretical Practical
Second order Low pass filter Cut off Frequency
Roll off Rate
Pass band Gain
Second order High pass filter Cut off Frequency
Roll off Rate
Pass band Gain


Experiment No. 4
R-2R ladder network

Aim:-To design 4 bit DAC using R-2R ladder network.
Components required
1. Resistors 1KΩ(3),2.2K Ω(5),

2. IC 7493
Theory
A ladder is a series/parallel resistor network, a R-2R ladder requires only two resistor value R and 2R. Nowadays
digital systems are used in many applications because of their increasingly efficient, reliable and economical
operation. Since digital systems such as microcomputers use a binary system of ones and zeros, the data to be put
into the microcomputer have to be converted from analog form to digital form. The circuit that performs this
conversion and reverse conversion are called A/D and D/A converters respectively. D/A converter in its simplest form
use an op-amp and resistors either in the binary weighted form or R-2R form. The fig. below shows D/A converter
with resistors connected in R-2R form. It is so called as the resistors used here are R and 2R.
The binary inputs are simulated by switches b0 to b3 and the output is proportional to the binary inputs. Binary
inputs are either in high (+5V) or low (0V) state. The analysis can be carried out with the help of Thevenin’s theorem.
The output voltage corresponding to all possible combinations of binary inputs can be calculated as below.
V0 = - RF [ (b3/2R) + (b2/4R) + (b1/8R) + (b0/16R) ]
Where each inputs b3, b2, b1 and b0 may be high (+5V) or low (0V). The great advantage of D/A converter of R-2R
type is that it requires only two sets of precision resistance values. In weighted resistor type more resistors are
required and the circuit is complex. As the number of binary inputs is increased beyond 4 even D/A converter circuits
get complex and their accuracy degenerates. Therefore in critical applications IC D/A converter is used. Some of the
parameters must be known with reference to converters. They’re resolution, linearity error, settling time etc.
Resolution = 0.5V / 28 = 5 / 256 = 0.0195.
Circuit Diagram
1. Using 4 bit binary input from toggle switches

Procedure
2. Verify all the components and patch chords whether they are in good condition.
3. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram.
4. Give the supply to trainer kit.
5. For different digital inputs measure the output voltage using multi-meter.
6. Verify whether the theoretical value is matching with practical values and observes the outputs.
Observation
D3 D2 D1 D0 Theoretical value Practical value

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1

1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
Expected Waveform
2. By generating digital inputs using mod-16 counter.

Circuit diagram

Procedure
[1].Connect DAC circuit using R-2R ladder network and Op-amp voltage follower.
[2].Construct a modulo-16 counter using a suitable digital IC like 7493.
[3].Apply the clock and observe the staircase O/P waveform on the CRO,sketch the waveform.
Observation
D3 D2 D1 D0 Theoretical value Practical value

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0

1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1
Verification
For N-bit DAC,
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑁 (𝐷0 + 2𝐷1 + 22 𝐷2 + 23 𝐷3 + ⋯ … … … … 2𝑁−1 𝐷𝑁−1 )
2
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (𝐷0 + 2𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 + 8𝐷3)
16
Expected Waveform
Result :The analog signals are converted to digital and the analog data is recovered.



Experiment No 5:-
INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER
Aim:To Design an instrumentation amplifier of a differential mode gain of ”A‟ using three
amplifiers.
Components required:
SI. No. Components Range Quantity
1. OPAMP 741 03
2. Potentiometer 10k 1
3. Resistors As per design -
4. Multimeter, CRO - 01
5. CRO Probes - 02 Set
6. Spring board and connecting wires - -
Theory:
Instrumentation amplifiers are widely used in data acquisition systems, remote sensing
applications and instrumentation systems to measure temperature ,humidity, light intensity
and weight etc. Most of the instrumentation systems use a transducer in a bridge circuit.
Instrumentation amplifier facilities the amplification of potential difference taking place due to
the imbalance of a bridge circuit proportional to a change in physical quantity. The main
features of instrumentation amplifiers are high gain, high input resistance, high CMRR etc.
Circuit Diagram
Design:
Let Ad=Av1.Av2=300
Let Av1is gain of differential amplifier
2𝑅1
Av1=1+ 𝑅2 =30
Here R1=R3
Let R1=15 KΩ R2≈ 1𝐾Ω;
𝑅5 𝑅7
𝐴𝑣2 = = = 10;
𝑅4 𝑅6
Let R7=100KΩ
R6=10KΩ
R5=R6=10kΩ
R4=R7=100KΩ

Procedure:
1. Set up Vd=Vin=20mVp-pfor measuring Ad =Vod/vd
2. Set vc=5Vp-p for measuring common mode gain,Ac=Voc/Vc
3. Calculate CMRR from the relation CMRR = 20log (Ad /Ac)
Result:
Common mode gain
AC = ……… Differential mode gain
Ad = ……...
CMRR = …………


Experiment No. 6:-

Multivibrators
Aim: to Design of Monostableand AstableMultivibrator using 555 Timer.
Theory:
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:
The astablemultivibrator is also called the free running multivibrator. It has two quasi
states i.e. no stable states as such the circuit conditions oscillate between the components
values used to decide the time for which circuit remains in each stable state. the principle
of square wave output is to force the IC to operate in saturation region. Whenever input at
the negative input terminal just exceeds Vref switching takes place resulting in a square
wave output. In astablemultivibrator both stable states and one quasi state are present.
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:
These multivibrators are comprised of group of regenerative circuits that are commonly
used in timing applications. The circuit produces a single pulse of applied duration in
response to each external trigger pulse. For each circuit only one state exists. When an
external trigger is applied the output changes its state. The new state is called quasi-stable
state.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
1. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS:
DESIGN:
Astablemultivibrators:
CASE1: Given f = 1 KHz and D = 0.5
f = 1.45 / (RA + RB) C; D = RB / (RA + RB) =
0.5 RA = RB; Let C = 0.1µF; RA = RB = R f =
1.45 /2RC; R = 7.2KΩ
CASE2: f = 1.45 / (RA + 2RB) C;D = RB / (RA + 2RB) = 0.25

RA = 2RB ; Let C = 0.1µF; RA = 2RB = 4RB f = 1.45 / 4RBC;
RB = 3.625KΩ; RA =7.25KΩ
Expected graph:

Procedure
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Observe the output at pin number 3 and capacitor voltage at pin number 6.
3. Measure TH and TL and D.
4. Compare with theoretical value.
1. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Design
Time Period of monostablemultivibrator = 1.1RC
T = 1m/s; Assume C= 0.1µF R = T / 1.1C
R = 10KΩ

Expected graph
Procedure
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Switch on the power supply and connect i/p signal as a square wave of
approximately 10Vp-p amplitude with f<500Hz.
3. Observe the o/p waveform at pin number 3 and capacitor voltage at pin
number 6.
4. Measure T.

TABULATION:
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:
Amplitude (V) Time Period (ms)
Input
Output
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:
Amplitude (V) Time Period (ms)
Input
Output
RESULT
Thus the operation of Astable and Monostablemultivibrators was designed and output was tested using
NE555 Timer.


Experiment No. 7:
Amplitude modulation using transistor/FET (Generation and detection).
Aim: To generate AM signal using Collector modulation for Carier Frequency = 455KHz and message
frequency = 2KHz. Also plot the variations of modulating signal amplitude versus modulation index.
Components required
1. Transistor SL100/BF194
3. Resistors 20KΩ (1), 10 KΩ(4)
4. Capacitors
0.01µF(1),0.001
µF(1)
Theory: Amplitude Modulation is a technique in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the message. Collector modulation is a high level
modulation technique in which the power level of the carrier is high. In this technique the modulation
takes place in the collector terminal of the transistor, hence the name collector modulation. The IFT
used here is a tuned LC circuit which is tuned to 455 kHz. An AM wave is said to be under modulated
when modulation index μ < 1. It is said to be overmodulated when μ > 1. In such case the demodulation
results in distortion.
The demodulation circuit is a simple envelope detector. The output of this detector is the
envelope of its input. As the envelope of the AM is the modulating signal m(t), the demodulation can
be carried out by using this circuit.
Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristics of a carrier signal is varied in
accordance with a modulating signal. The base band signal is referred to as the modulating signal and
the output of the modulation process is called as the modulation signal.
Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which is the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied
about a means values linearly with the base band signal. The envelope of the modulating wave has the
same shape as the base band signal provided the following two requirements are satisfied

The carrier frequency fc must be much greater then the highest frequency components fm of the
message signal m (t) i.e. fc>>fm
The modulation index must be less than unity. if the modulation index is greater than unity, the carrier
wave becomes over modulated.
Amplitude Modulation
Circuit diagram
1. Modulator
Design
Given fc=455kHz
RBCB>10Tc
RB>10Tc/ CB
Assume CB =0.01µF
RB = 470KΩ

2. Demodulator
Design
1/fc << RC<< 1/fm

1/455K << RC << 1/2K
2.19µS << RC<<0.5µs
Assume RC = 250µs
Let C=0.1µF
Then R =2.5kΩ
Expected waveforms

AM
Magnitude (V)
V max
V min
0
t
μ
V out
V max
V min
V in
Am
0

Demodulated o/p
0 t
Procedure
1. First tune the IFT i.e connect the IFT between signal generator and CRO. With input voltage
= 2V PP, vary the frequency of the signal generator so that a maximum output is obtained
at one particular frequency (455KHz).
2. Make the connections as shown in the figure.

3. Biasing circuit is designed so that it functions as a Class C amplifier.
4. Once again check the tuning of IFT in the circuit by switching OFF the modulating signal
given to AFT.
5. Switch ON the m(t) and adjust the amplitude to about 5V PP and frequency 1 – 2 KHz.
6. An undistorted AM wave is obtained.

7. To obtain trapezoidal pattern on CRO, feed AM to Y plates and m(t) to X plates of
CRO.
8. Keep the carrier amplitude constant. Vary the modulating signal in steps and measure Vmax
and Vmin and calculate the modulation index using both the methods.
9. Plot the graph of modulating signal amplitude versus modulation index.

10 .Connect the demodulation circuit.
11 .Measure the amplitude of the demodulated waveform.

Tabular Column:
Magnitude of m(t) Am Vmax Vmin η = (Vmax–Vmin) / (Vmax + Vmin) %η
(V)
Magnitude of m(t) Am fMax fmin B=deltaf/fm BT
and frequency fm
(V)


Experiment No. 8:
Frequency modulation using IC 8038 and demodulation
Aim: To design and conduct a suitable experiment to generate an FM wave using IC 8038.
Components required
SI. No. Components Quantity
1. IC8038 1
2. Resistors 10KΩ (3),22
KΩ(1),47 KΩ(1),82
KΩ(1)
3. Capacitors 0.001µF(1),1µF(1),
Theory: - Frequency modulation: FM is that form of angle modulation in which the

instantaneous frequency is varied linearly with the message signal. The IC 8038 waveform
generator is a monolithic integrated circuit capable of producing high accuracy sine square ,
triangular, saw tooth and pulse waveforms with a minimum number of external components.
Basic principle of IC 8038 The operation of IC 8038 is based on charging and discharging of a
grounded capacitor C, whose charging and discharging rates are controlled by programmable
current generators Ia and Ib. When switch is at position A, the capacitor charges at a rate
determined by current source Ia . Once the capacitor voltage reaches Vut, the upper
comparator (CMP 1) triggers and reset the flip-flop output. This causes a switch position to
change from position A to B. Now, capacitor charge discharging at the rate determined by the
current sink Ib . Once the capacitor reaches lower threshold voltage, the lower comparator
(CMP 2) triggers and set the flip-flop output. This causes the switch position to change from
position B to A. And this cycle repeats. As a result, we get square wave at the output of Flip flop
and triangular wave across capacitor. The triangular wave is then passed through the on chip
wave shaper to generate sign wave. To allow automatic frequency controls, currents Ia and Ib
are made programmable through an external control voltage Bi. For equal magnitudes of Ia and
Ib, output waveforms are symmetrical conversely, when two currents are unequal, output
waveforms are asymmetrical. By making, one of the currents much larger than other we can get
saw tooth waveform across capacitor and rectangular waveform at the output of flip-flop.

IC 8038
It is a Precision waveform Generator/voltage contrived oscillator. It is a monolithic IC capable

of producing high frequency sine, square, triangular, saw tooth &pulse wave (frequency range
0.001hz to 300khz).
Frequency Modulation & Sweeping:-
The frequency of the wave form generator is a direct function of the DC voltage at terminal ‘8’
(measured from v+) by altering this voltage, fm is performed. The frequency deviations can be
archived by varying the voltage at pin No 8.
Applications:-
1. sine wave output Buffer Amplifier.
2. Burst generator.
3. Variable Audio oscillator (20hz to 20khz)
4. linear voltage controlled oscillator

1. Modulator
Circuit diagram
Design:-
Let RA=RB=RL=R = 10KΩ
Let f=33 kHz
f= 1/2Π RC
C=1/2π fR
C=1000pF = .001µF
2. Demodulator
Circuit Diagram

Design
Alternative Demodulator circuit using PLL

Design
Expected waveform

Demodulated o/p
0 t
Procedure
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Observe square, triangular, sine waveforms on CRO at pin number 9, 3,2
respectively.
3. Measure the amplitude of carrier signal at pin number 2
4. Apply m(t) with sufficient amplitude and frequency to avoid the clipped output.
5. Observe FM wave at pin 2
6. Calculate modulation index and transmission bandwidth.
7. Rig up the demodulator circuit as shown in the figure.
8. Apply FM as input and observe demodulated signal.
Results
Magnitude and frequency fMax fmin ∆f=fmax -fmin B=∆f/fm: BT(Transmission

of m(t) Band Width)


Experiment No. 9:
SAMPLING
Pulse Amplitude Modulation:
AIM: To construct a pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation circuit to observe the waveforms.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Transistor BC107/2N2222
2. Resistors 10KΩ(2),22K Ω(1),
3. Capacitors 1.7 µf
 Study of Sampling Theorem

 Need for PAM
 Analog to Digital Conversion
Theory: Pulse Amplitude Modulation is defined as the variation of amplitude of the pulses (carrier) in
accordance with the message signal. The o/p is a series of pulses, the amplitudes of which vary in
proportion with the message signal. Sampling theorem states that “If the sampling rate exceeds twice
the maximum signal frequency, then the original signal can be reconstructed in the receiver with
minimal distortion”. The transistor conducts during the positive half cycle of c(t) and the transistor
does not conduct during the –ve half cycle of c(t).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Pulse Amplitude Demodulation Design:For

Demodulation:
1/fc << RC << 1 / fm

Let C = 0.1 μF
Then R = ……. kΩ

PROCEURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Modulating signal is given to collector and carrier signal (pulse signal) of high frequency is given
to base of the transistor.
3. Output is taken at emitter and observe CRO.
4. Repeat the procedure for different conditions of sampling i.e. fs= 2fm, fs> 2fm, fs<
2fm.
5. Connect the demodulator circuit and obtain output for different conditions.
6. Plot the waveforms.

WAVEFORMS:
Result:


Experiment No. 10



Experiment No. 11
TITLE:GENERATION OF DSB-SC


AIM: Generation of DSB-SC with the help of Balanced Modulator IC1496/1596 & its detection.
PREREQUISITE: -Knowledge of DSB-S, Balance Modulator, product detector, RF Oscillator, etc.

APPARATUS:DSB-SC Generation kit, Spectrum Analyser, CRO.

Experiment No. 12:

FREQUENCY SYNTHESIS USING PLL
AIM: To study the operation of frequency synthesizer using PLL

Components required
1 IC7490,IC565,SL100
2 Resistors 10KΩ (2), 1KΩ (2),
4.7KΩ (1), 100K
POT
3
4. Capacitors 10 µF(1), 1 µF(1),
0.01 µF(1), 0.001
µF(1)
THEORY: A phase locked loop is basically a closed loop system designed to lock the output
frequency and phase to the frequency and phase of an input signal. It is commonly abbreviated
as PLL.It consists of :
Phase detector
Low pass filter
Error amplifier
Voltage controlled Oscillator (VCO)
The phase detector compares the input frequency fi with the feedback frequency f0 and
generates an output signal which is a function of the difference between the phase of the two
input signals. The output signal of the phase detector is a dc voltage. The output of phase
detector is applied to low-pass filter to remove high frequency noise is often from the dc
voltage. The output of low pass filter without high frequency noise is often referred to as error
voltage or control voltage for VCO. When control voltage is zero, VCO is in free running mode
and its output frequency is called as cenre frequency f0.
The error or control voltage applied as an input to the VCO, forces the VCO to change its output
frequency in the direction that reduces the difference between the input frequency and output
frequency of VCO.
Once the two frequencies are same, the circuit is said to be locked. Thus, a PLL goes through
three state : free running, capture and phase lock.

Lock Range : When PLL is in lock, it can track frequency changes in the incoming signal. The
range of frequencies over which the PLL can maintain lock with the incoming signal is called the
lock range or tracking range of the PLL. It is usually expressed as a percentage of f0, theVCO
frequency.
CAPTURE RANGE : The range of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire lock with an input
signal called the capture range. It is also expressed as a percentage of f0.
PULL-IN TIME: The capture of an input signal does not take place as soon as the signal is
applied, but it takes finite time. The total time taken by the PLL to establish lock is called pull-
in-time. This depends on the initial phase and frequency difference between the two signals as
well as the overall loop again and the bandwidth of the low pass filter.
Where R1 and C1 are an external resistor and a capacitor connected to pins 8 and 9,
respectively. The values of R1 and C1 are adjusted such that the free running frequency will be
at the centre of the input frequency range. The value of R1 is restricted from 2 kΩ to 20 kΩ
but a capacitor can have any value. A capacitor C2 connected between pin 7 and the positive
supply (pin 10) forms a first order low pass filter with an internal resistance 3.6 kΩ The value of
filter capacitor C2 should be large enough to eliminate possible oscillations in the VCO voltage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Define amplitude Modulation.

Amplitude Modulation is the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively high frequency
carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
2. Define Modulation index and percent modulation for an AM wave.

Modulation index is a term used to describe the amount of amplitude change present in an AM
waveform .It is also called as coefficient of modulation. Mathematically modulation index is m = Em / Ec
where m = Modulation coefficient
Em = Peak change in the amplitude of the output waveform voltage.
Ec = Peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier voltage.
Percent modulation gives the percentage change in the amplitude of the output wave when the
carrier is acted on by a modulating signal.
3. Define Low level Modulation.

In low level modulation, modulation takes place prior to the output element of the final stage of
the transmitter. For low level AM modulator class A amplifier is used.
4. Define High level Modulation.

In high level modulators, the modulation takes place in the final element of the final stage where
the carrier signal is at its maximum amplitude. For high level modulator class C amplifier is used.
5. What are the disadvantages of conventional (or) double side band full carrier system?
In conventional AM ,carrier power constitutes two thirds or more of the total
transmottedpower.This is a major drawback because the carrier contains no information ;the sidebands
contain the information . Second ,conventional AM systems utilize twice as much bandwidth as needed
with single sideband systems.
6. Define Single sideband suppressed carrier AM.

AM Single sideband suppressed carrier is a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier is
totally suppressed and one of the sidebands removed.
7. Define AM Vestigial sideband.

AM vestigial sideband is a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier and one complete
sideband are transmitted,but only part of the second sideband is transmitted.
8. What are the advantages of single sideband transmission?

The advantages of SSBSC are

1.Power conservation: Normally ,with single side band transmission ,only one sideband is
transmitted and the carrier is suppressed. So less power is required to produce essentially the same
quality signal.
2.Bandwidth conservation: Single sideband transmission requires half as much bandwidth as
conventional AM double side band transmission.
3.Noise reduction: Because a single side band system utilizes half as much bandwidth as
conventional AM,the thermal noise power is reduced to half that of a double side band system.
9. What are the disadvantages of single side band transmission?
1. Complex receivers: Single side band systems require more complex and expensive
receivers than conventional AM transmission .
2. Tuning Difficulties: Single side band receivers require more complex and precise tuning
than conventional AM receivers.
10. Define direct frequency modulation.

In direct frequency modulation , frequency of a constant amplitude carrier signal is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the
modulating signal.
11. Define indirect frequency Modulation.

In indirect frequency modulation ,phase of a constant amplitude carrier directly proportional to
the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal.
12. Define instantaneous frequency deviation.

The instantaneous frequency deviation is the instantaneous change in the frequency of the carrier and is
defined as the first derivative of the instantaneous phase deviation.
13. Define frequency deviation.

Frequency deviation is the change in frequency that occurs in the carrier when it is acted on by a
modulating signal frequency.Frequency deviation is typically given as a peak frequency shift in
Hertz(Df).The peak to peak frequency deviation (2Df) is sometimes called carrier swing.The peak
frequency deviation is simply the product of the deviation sensitivity and the peak modulating signal
voltage and is expressed mathematically as Df=K1 Vm Hz.
14. State Carson rule.

Carson rule states that the bandwidth required to transmit an angle modulated wave as twice
the sum of the peak frequency deviation and the highest modulating signal frequency. Mathematically
carson’s rule is B=2(Df+ fm) Hz.
15. Define Deviation ratio.
Deviation ratio is the worst case modulation index and is equal to the maximum peak frequency
deviation divided by the maximum modulating signal frequency. Mathematically ,the deviation ratio is
DR= Df(max) / fm(max)

16. Explain in detail about AM modulator circuits.

The location in a transmitter where modulation occurs determines whether the circuit is a low
level or a high level transmitter. In low level modulation, modulation takes place prior to the output
element of the final stage of the transmitter. For low level AM modulator class A amplifier is used. In
high level modulators, the modulation takes place in the final element of the final stage where the
carrier signal is at its maximum amplitude. For high level modulator class C amplifier is used. An
advantage of low level modulation is that less modulating signal power is required to achieve a high
percentage of modulation.
17. Explain in detail about FM modulators.

FM modulators are classified into two types. They are
1.Direct FM modulators
2.Indirect FM modulators
Direct FM modulator: In direct frequency modulation, frequency of a constant amplitude carrier signal
is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the
modulating signal. There are three common methods for producing direct frequency modulation:
Varactor diode modulators, FM reactance modulators, and linear integrated circuit direct FM
modulators.
Indirect FM modulator: In indirect frequency modulation ,phase of a constant amplitude carrier
directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of the
modulating signal.
18. Explain in detail about FM demodulators.

FM demodulators are frequency dependent circuits designed to produce an output voltage that is
proportional to the instantaneous frequency.Several circuits are used for demodulating FM signals.The
most common are the slope detector, foster seeley discriminator, and ratio detector are forms of tuned
circuit frequency discriminators.
19. Explain in detail about AM peak detector.

The function of an AM detector is to demodulate the AM signal and recover or reproduce the original
source information.The recovered signal should contain the same frequencies as the original
information signal and have the same relative amplitude characteristics.
20. What is the need for modulation? Needs for modulation:

 Ease of transmission
 Multiplexing
 Reduced noise
 Narrow bandwidth
 Frequency assignment
 Reduce the equipments limitations.
21. Compare AM with DSB-SC and SSB-SC.

AM DSB-SC SSB-SC
Bandwidth = 2 fm Bandwidth = 2 fm Bandwidth = fm
Contains USB, Contains USB and Contains USB or LSB

LSB, Carrier LSB
Power required is
More power is Less power is required lesser than AM and
required for
when compared to AM DSB-SC
transmission
22. Define frequency modulation.

Frequency modulation is defined as the process by which the frequency of the carrier wave is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating or message signal.
23. Define modulation index of frequency modulation.

It is defined as the ratio of maximum frequency deviation to the modulating frequency.
24. What do you meant by multitone modulation?

Modulation done for the message signal with more than one frequency component is called
multitone modulation.
25. Define phase modulation.

Phase modulation is defined as the process of changing the phase of the carrier signal in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
26. What are the types of Frequency Modulation?

Based on the modulation index FM can be divided into types. They are Narrow band FM and
Wide band FM. If the modulation index is greater than one then it is wide band FM and if the
modulation index is less than one then it is Narrow band FM.
27. What is the basic difference between an AM signal and a narrowband FM signal?
In the case of sinusoidal modulation, the basic difference between an AM signal and a
narrowband FM signal is that the algebraic sign of the lower side frequency in the narrow band FM is
reversed.
28. Compare WBFM and NBFM.

WBFM NBFM
Modulation index is greater than 1 Modulation index less than 1
Frequency deviation 75 KHz Frequency deviation 5 KHz
Bandwidth 15 times NBFM Bandwidth 2fm

Noise is more suppressed Less suppressing of noise

29. Give the average power of an FM signal.
The amplitude of the frequency modulated signal is constant .The power of the FM signal is
same as that of the carrier power. P = 1/2 Ec2 .
30. Define phase deviation.

The maximum phase deviation of the total angle from the carrier angle is called phase deviation.
31. Define frequency Deviation.

The maximum departure of the instantaneous frequency from the carrier frequency is called
frequency deviation.
32. Define the deviation ratio D for non-sinusoidal modulation.

The deviation ratio D is defined as the ratio of the frequency deviation Df, which corresponds to
the maximum possible amplitude of the modulation signal m(t),to the highest modulation frequency .
D = Df/ fm
33. Define noise.

Noise is defined as any unwanted form of energy, which tends to interfere with proper reception
and reproduction of wanted signal.
34. Give the classification of noise.

Noise is broadly classified into two types. They are External noise and internal noise.
35. What are the types of External noise?

External noise can be classified into
1. Atmospheric noise
2. Extraterrestrial noises
3. Man –made noises or industrial noises
36. What are types of internal noise? Internal noise can be classified into
1. Thermal noise
2. Shot noise
3. Transit time noise
4. Miscellaneous internal noise
37. What are the types of extraterrestrial noise and write their origin?
The two type of extraterrestrial noise are solar noise and cosmic noise Solar noise is the
electrical noise emanating from the sun. Cosmic noise is the noise received from the center part of our
galaxy, other distant galaxies and other virtual point sources.

38. Define transit time of a transistor.

Transit time is defined as the time taken by the electron to travel from emitter to the collector.
39. Define flicker noise.

Flicker noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at low audio frequencies. Flicker noise
is proportional to the emitter current and junction temperature and inversely proportional to the
frequency.
40. State the reasons for higher noise in mixers.

1. Conversion transconductance of mixers is much lower than the transconductance of
amplifiers.
2. If image frequency rejection is inadequate, the noise associated with the image
frequency also gets accepted.
41. Define signal to noise ratio.

Signal to noise ratio is the ratio of signal power to the noise power at the same point in a system.
42. Define noise figure.

S/ N at the input
Nose figure F =
S/ N at the output
S/N = Signal power / Noise Power
43. Explain thermal noise.

Thermal noise is the name given to the electrical noise arising from the random motion of
electrons in a conductor.
44. Explain White Noise.

Many types of noise sources are Gaussian and have flat spectral density over a wide frequency
range. Such spectrum has all frequency components in equal portion, and is therefore called white
noise. The power spectral density of white noise is independent of the operating frequency.
45. What is narrowband noise?

The receiver of a communication system usually includes some provision for preprocessing the
received signal. The preprocessing may take the form of a narrowband filter whose bandwidth is large
enough to pass modulated component of the received signal essentially undistorted but not so large as
to admit excessive noise through the receiver. The noise process appearing at the output of such filter is
called narrow band noise.
46. Mention some of the linear applications of op – amps :

Adder, subtractor, voltage –to- current converter, current –to- voltage converters,
instrumentation amplifier, analog computation ,power amplifier, etc are some of the linear op-amp
circuits.
47. Mention some of the non – linear applications of op-amps:-

Rectifier, peak detector, clipper, clamper, sample and hold circuit, log amplifier, anti –log amplifier,
multiplier are some of the non – linear op-amp circuits.
48. What are the areas of application of non-linear op- amp circuits?
 industrial instrumentation
 Communication
 Signal processing
49. What do you mean by a precision diode?

The major limitation of ordinary diode is that it cannot rectify voltages below the cut – in voltage of the
diode. A circuit designed by placing a diode in the feedback loop of an op – amp is called the precision
diode and it is capable of rectifying input signals of the order of millivolt.
50. Write down the applications of precision diode.

 Half - wave rectifier
 Full - Wave rectifier
 Peak – value detector
 Clipper
 Clamper
51. What is a comparator?

A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an op-amp with a
known reference voltage at the other input. It is an open loop op - amp with output + Vsat .
52. What are the applications of comparator?

 Zero crossing detector
 Window detector
 Time marker generator
 Phase detector
53. What is a Schmitt trigger?

Schmitt trigger is a regenerative comparator. It converts sinusoidal input into a square wave output. The
output of Schmitt trigger swings between upper and lower threshold voltages, which are the reference
voltages of the input waveform.

54. What is a multivibrator?

Multivibrators are a group of regenerative circuits that are used extensively in timing applications. It is a
wave shaping circuit which gives symmetric or asymmetric square output. It has two states either stable
or quasi- stable depending on the type of multivibrator.
55. What do you mean by monostablemultivibrator?

Monostablemultivibrator is one which generates a single pulse of specified duration in response to each
external trigger signal. It has only one stable state. Application of a trigger causes a change to the quasi-
stable state.An external trigger signal generated due to charging and discharging of the capacitor
produces the transition to the original stable state.
56. What is an astablemultivibrator?

Astablemultivibrator is a free running oscillator having two quasi-stable states. Thus, there is oscillations
between these two states and no external signal are required to produce the change in state.
57. What is a bistablemultivibrator?

Bistablemultivibrator is one that maintains a given output voltage level unless an external trigger is
applied . Application of an external trigger signal causes a change of state, and this output level is
maintained indefinitely until an second trigger is applied . Thus, it requires two external triggers before it
returns to its initial state
58. What are the characteristics of a comparator?

 Speed of operation
 Accuracy
 Compatibility of the output
59. What is a filter?
Filter is a frequency selective circuit that passes signal of specified band of frequencies and attenuates
the signals of frequencies outside the band
60. What are the demerits of passive filters?

Passive filters works well for high frequencies. But at audio frequencies, the inductors become
problematic, as they become large, heavy and expensive. For low frequency applications, more number
of turns of wire must be used which in turn adds to the series resistance degrading inductor’s
performance ie, low Q, resulting in high power dissipation.
61. What are the advantages of active filters?

Active filters used op- amp as the active element and resistors and capacitors as passive elements.
 By enclosing a capacitor in the feed back loop , inductor less active fulters can be obtained
 Op-amp used in non – inverting configuration offers high input impedance and low output
impedance, thus improving the load drive capacity.

62. Mention some commonly used active filters :

 Low pass filter
 High pass filter
 Band pass filter
 Band reject filter.
63. Define resolution of a data converter.

The resolution of a converter is the smallest change in voltage which may be produced at the output or
input of the converter.
Resolution (in volts)= VFS/2n-1=1 LSB increment. The resolution of an ADC is defined as the smallest
change in analog input for a one bit change at the output.
64. Define accuracy of converter.

Absolute accuracy:
It is the maximum deviation between the actual converter output & the ideal converter output.
Relative accuracy: It is the maximum deviation after gain & offset errors have been removed.
The accuracy of a converter is also specified in form of LSB increments or % of full scale voltage.
65. What is settling time?

It represents the time it takes for the output to settle within a specified band ±½LSB of its final value
following a code change at the input (usually a full scale change). It depends upon the switching time of
the logic circuitry due to internal parasitic capacitance & inductances. Settling time ranges from 100ns.
10μs depending on word length & type circuit used.
66. Explain in brief stability of a converter :

The performance of converter changes with temperature age & power supply variation . So all the
relevant parameters such as offset, gain, linearity error & monotonicity must be specified over the full
temperature & power supply ranges to have better stability performances.
67. What is meant by linearity?

The linearity of an ADC/DAC is an important measure of its accuracy & tells us how close the converter
output is to its ideal transfer characteristics. The linearity error is usually expressed as a fraction of LSB
increment or percentage of full-scale voltage. A good converter exhibits a linearity error of less than ±
½LSB.
68. What is monotonic DAC?

A monotonic DAC is one whose analog output increases for an increase in digital input.
69 . What is multiplying DAC?

A digital to analog converter which uses a varying reference voltage VR is called a multiplying
DAC(MDAC). If the reference voltage of a DAC, VR is a sine wave give by V(t)=Vin Cos 2_ft Then,
Vo(t)=VomCos(2_ft + 180º)
70. What is a sample and hold circuit? Where it is used?

A sample and hold circuit is one which samples an input signal and holds on to its last sampled value
until the input is sampled again. This circuit is mainly used in digital interfacing, analog to digital
systems, and pulse code modulation systems.
71. Define sample period and hold period.

The time during which the voltage across the capacitor in sample and hold circuit is equal to the input
voltage is called sample period.The time period during which the voltage across the capacitor is held
constant is called hold period.
72. Mention some applications of 555 timer:
 Oscillator
 pulse generator
 ramp and square wave generator
 mono-shot multivibratorburglar alarm
 traffic light control.
73. List the applications of 555 timer in monostable mode of operation:

 missing pulse detector Linear ramp generator Frequency divider
 Pulse width modulation.
74. List the applications of 555 timer in Astable mode of operation:

 FSK generator
 Pulse-position modulator
75. What is the need for a tuned amplifier?

In radio or TV receivers , it is necessary to select a particular channel among all other available
channels.Hence some sort of frequency selective circuit is needed that will allow us to amplify the
frequency band required and reject all the other unwanted signals and this function is provided by a
tuned amplifier.
76 .Give the classification of tuned amplifier :

1 . Small signal tuned amplifier
 Single tuned
 Double tuned
 Stagger tuned
2. Large signal tuned amplifier.

1. What is the need for an instrumentation amplifier?

In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the measurement of physical quantities is
usually done with the help of transducers.
2. Mention some of the linear applications of op – amps.
Adder, subtractor, voltage to current converter, current to voltage converters, instrumentation
amplifier, analog computation, power amplifier, etc are some of the linear op-amp circuits.
3. Mention some of the non – linear applications of op-amps.
Rectifier, peak detector, clipper, clamper, sample and hold circuit, log amplifier, anti–log
amplifier, multiplier are some of the non – linear op-amp circuits.
4. What are the areas of application of non-linear op- amp circuits? Industrial
instrumentation, Communication and Signal processing
5. Classify the sinusoidal oscillators.
Sinusoidal oscillators are classified as RC and LC oscillators. The LC oscillators are used
for high frequency signal generation, while the RC oscillators are used for audio frequency
signal generation.
6. What are the practical applications of a phase shift oscillator?
RC phase shift oscillators are widely used as audio frequency oscillators.
7. How does one RC section generate a phase difference of 60⁰?
Phase shift introduced by one RC section is equal totan−1(𝜔𝑅𝐶). Suitable values of R and C will
provide 60⁰ phase shift between input and output of one RC network at a particular frequency.
8. What is the formula for feedback fraction?
Feedback fraction β=output of feedback circuit/input to feedback circuit.
9. What is other name of phase shift oscillator?

Fixed frequency oscillator.
15. What are the advantages of using RC phase shift oscillator?

1. Simple to design.
2. Can produce output over audio frequency range.
3. Produces sinusoidal output.
4. It is fixed frequency oscillator.
16. What are the disadvantages of using RC phase shift oscillator?

1. To vary the frequency, values of R and C of all three sections are to be varied
simultaneously which is practically difficult.
2. Frequency stability is poor. 3. Circuit will give low output.
17. What are the applications of RC oscillator?
1. Used in commercial audio frequency generator.
2. Used in low frequency applications
18. What is a multivibrator?
Multivibrators are a group of regenerative circuits that are used extensively in timing
applications. It is a wave shaping circuit which gives symmetric or asymmetric square output. It
has two states stable or quasi- stable depending on the type of multivibrator.
19. What do you mean by monostablemultivibrator?

Monostablemultivibrator is one which generates a single pulse of specified duration in response
to each external trigger signal. It has only one stable state. Application of a trigger causes a
change to the quasi-stable state. An external trigger signal generated due to charging and
discharging of the capacitor produces the transition to the original stable state.


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LINEAR ICS AND COMMUNICATION LAB MANUAL

LINEAR ICS AND COMMUNICATION

RNS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 1

Laboratory Code 15ECL48 IA Marks 20

L2, L3, L4, L5

Cycle -II Experiments

7. Amplitude modulation using transistor/FET (Generation and L2, L3, L4

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 2

Cycle -III Experiments

10. DSBSC generation using Balance Modulator IC 1496/1596. L2, L3, L4

11. Frequency synthesis using PLL. L2, L3, L4, L5

12. Design BJT/FET Mixer. L2, L3, L4

This laboratory course enables students to:

the basic building blocks.

 Gain hands-on experience in AM and FM techniques, frequency synthesis

 Gain hands-on experience in pulse and flat top sampling techniques

oscillators using linear IC.

operation to generate signals/pulses.

Graduate Attributes (as per NBA)

Conduct of Practical Examination:

 All laboratory experiments are to be included for practical examination.

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 3

• Students are expected to be punctual and regular to the laboratory classes.

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 4

Experiment No. 1:-

Sl.No Component Value

From the above equation following conclusions can be made:

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 5

 Above equation is true for any frequency signal.

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 6

Choose RF/R = 1, hence choose RF=R=10KΩ

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 7

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 8

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 9

Choose C1=0.1 µF else results in very large R1

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 10

Observation Viva Initials and sign of staff

RC Phase shift and Wien’s bridge oscillators

Sl.No Component Value

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 11

Wein bridge oscillator

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 12

1. RC phase shift oscillator

For f=1 KHz and choosing C=0.047µF

R=1.38KΩ and Choose R=1.5K Ω

And Av=1+RF/R1 =29

2. Wein Bridge Oscillator

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 13

Assume C = 0.1µF fo = 1/(2π√6 RC),

Av= − Rf / R1, │Av│> 29, ie, Rf/ R1> 29

Expected Waveform for Oscillators

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 14

Oscillator Amplitude (V) Expected frequency(Hz) Obtained frequency(Hz)

Observation Viva Initials and sign of staff

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 15

1. Resistors 1.59KΩ(2),10K Ω(1),5.6K Ω(1), 270 Ω(1)

Second order low pass filter

Voltage gain=20log (Vout/Vin) =

Second order high pass filter

Department of ECE, RNS Institute of Technology. Page | 16

1. Second order low pass filter

Let fc = 10 KHz, C =0.01µF

Then R =1/ (2π f C) =1.59kΩ

Then R =1/ (2πf C) =3.18kΩ