mse ~ CAREER SERVICE EXAMINATION REVIEW LECTURE NOTES IN LOGICA: REASONING LOGIC + study of the methods and principles to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning, I. BASIC CONCEPTS. Propositions + either true or false. * can be either asserted or denied, ‘Truth and falsehood + applies only to propositions, 4+ NEVER applies to arguments, Premisses + Provides support or reasons for accepting the conclusion Conclusion * affimed on the basis of the other propositions of the argument, ©.9. Our country is an exporter of copra Therefore, it is favorable for aur economy if the global demand for copra increases, Order of Premisses and Conclusion 4 not significant. “+ premiss may come first before the conclusion. 4 conclusion may come first before the premises, + premiss and conclusion may both be found in a one-sentence argument, Premiss-indicators + since, because, for, as, in view of ihe fact that, for the reason that, , follows from. Conclusion-indicators ~ therefore, hence, thus, so, accordingly, consequently, as a result, proves that. Quantifiers limit the scope of a statement. + all, except, likely, most, many, some, always, never, probably, only.P | i | f | | ' i I Suppressed Premisses ‘+ Not mentioned in the argument. + Assumption that reader is aware. % Requires reader to fill in the premises, &9- Conclusion: 1 knew he was involved in the bank robbery. Premise: Only a guilty person would run away from the crime scene and hide, Counter-Premisses Potential arguments against one’s position, Miles to address possible weakness of one's position, + Makes argument more convincing ‘+ but, despite, nevertheless, although, however we Ot should accept his counter-proposal. It doesn't give you Syerthing you want but at least it gives you most of the things which are essential, HL. INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS Inductive Argument from specific to general, cannot be valid or invalid, Likely or probable but not certain, better of worse depending on the degree of support given to the conclusion, the more specific facts, the more likely the generalization, ee ee * €9. Lily is unlucky because she has a bir thmark on her butt. Karina is unlucky because she has a birthmark on her butt, Peter is unlucky because he has a birthmark on her butt. Therefore, probably all people with birthmarks on thelr butts are unlucky. Deductive Argument + from general to specific. “+ valid when its premisses, if true, provide conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusion. + premisses and conclusion are so related that it is absolutely impossible for the premises to be true unless the conclusion is true alsa, + either valid or invalid, + Sound - argument is valid + all of the premisses are true + conclusion is true : CIE Review / Lecture Notes in Logical Reasoutiy / Page 2 of 8Kyle is a man, : €.9. All men are philanderers Therefore, kyle is a philanderer. ji + applies to deductive arguments only. 4 not applicable to inductive arguments (like! + not applicable to propositions (truth or falsity), ‘ihood or probability). | Validity and Invat | NOTE: The truth or falsehood of premises is the task of science, I | Categorical Propositions 4 pertains to classes ‘+ affirms or denies whether a class is 4 4 standard forms: © AllSis P. |" every member of the first ci | Second class. included in another class lass is also a member of the : [* ex. All law students are smart. Fe o NdSisP, | [7 Ro member of the first class is also a rember of the second class, |" ex. No jaw students are smart, © Some Sis P. * some means “at least one.” | at least'one member of the fi the second class. * ex. Some law students are smart. © Some Sis not P, * at least one member of the first class second ass, “* ex, Some law students are not smart, rst class is also a member of is excluded from the Standard-Form Categorical Syllogism 4 deductive argument. + affirms or denies whether a class is included in another class, * Premisses and conclusion are all standard-form categorical propositions, ++ arranged in a particular order: © Major Bremiss © Minor Premiss o Conclusion + validity or invalidity depends on its form matter. + example of a valid form: All Mis P. All Sis M. Therefore, All S is P. Not on its content or subject SE Review / Lecture Notes in to‘ all arguments which follow the above form, regardless are valid. f | of subject matter, | * Ifa syllogism is valid, all other syliogisms which follow the same form will { \ also be valid. + conversely, if a syllogism is invalid, any ether syllogis same form will also be invalid. » which follow the IIL, TYPES OF REASONING Reasoning by Analogy + indicates one or more respects in which two or more entitles are similar, [ FoRM: dal have the attributes of Pand @ 2, b, call have the attribute R. ____Therefore, d probably has the attribute &. @.9. My clothes, shoes, bag and belt are branded and expensive. | My clothes, bag and belt are durabi } un efore, my shoes are probably durable too. | Causal Reasoning 4 claims that one thing causes another. + weak or strong depending on the supporting evidence. €.g. Marcus was chosen to play the jead role because he wore his favorite shirt during his audition. (The reasoning is weak because it is difficult to prove, It is more likely that Marcus was chosen for the part because of his talent or connections.) Confusing Correlation with Causation ‘% questionable to claim that A caused B merely because A occurred immediately before B. ‘+ may be coincidental or due to some other factor. €.g.' Whenever I wear my lucky yellow shirt, I get a high score in my exams. Confusing Necessary Conditions with Sufficient Conditions ++ Ais necessary for B means "B cannot occur without A." + A's sufficient for B means "A causes B to occur, but B can still occur without A." SE Review / Lecture Notes in Lavical Reasoning / Page 4 of 8Reasoning from Signs or Symbois * Srength of the reasoning depends on the number of signs or symbols supporting the inference. : £9, Madeleine vomits in the morning. She looks tired ali the time. She has dark circles under her eyes. She steadily gains weight. She TASS loose clothes. All these signs suggest that she js pregnant, {The reasoning is strong because there are several signs supporting the inference that Madeleine fs pregnant, ) Reasoning from Statistics # strength of the reasoning depends on the authority and the validity of the facts, : ©9. Brand X is the best facial soap in the market because 8 out of 10 doctors use jt. (The reasoning is weak because only a smail Population is Surveyed and it does not Specify the kind of doctors Who use the facial soap.) IV. CONDITIONALS: IF-THEN STATEMENTS If-Then Statement PQ + if the premiss is true then the conclusion must be true. + I" part — hypothesis. + “Then” part ~ conclusion, eg. If it rains, then the grass is wet. Hypothesis: It is raining. Conclusion: The grass is wet. Embedded If-Then Statement + IF Then statements which are embedded in other structures. “+ easier to understand if illustrated using the If-Then form, &g. Dan and Nina cannot both attend their aunt’s wedding, If Dan attends their aunt’s wedding, then Nina cannot 4 The above example means that if Dan attends the reunion, then Nina cannot, . 7 (CSE Revtetv/ Lecture Notes in Sooical Reasoning / Page 5 of 6Common Valid Argument Forms L. Disjunctive Syllogism PvQ | Po =Q | ex. It either rains or it shines, It does not shine, Therefore, it rains. I 2. Modus Ponens P>Q Pp =Q ex. If the roads are flooded, then classes are suspenci The toads are flooded, Therefore, classes are st ispended, 3. Modus Tollens ex. If the roads are flooded, then classes are suspended, Classes are not suspended. Therefore, the roads are not flooded. 4. Hypothetical Syilogism P>Q QoR “POR ex. If it rains hard, then the roads are flooded, If the roads are flooded, then classes are suspended. Ifit rains hard, then classes are suspended. Contrapositive Property P>Q QR oR oN tore Notes in Logical Reasoning / Page 6 of 8ex. If it rains hard, then the roads are flooded, If the roads are flooded, then classes are suspended. Ciasses are not suspended. Therefore, it does not rain hard. Common Invalid Argument Forms 1. Fallacy of Affirming the Consequent PQ Q oP ex. If the roads are flooded, then classes are suspended, Classes are suspended, Therefore, the roads are flooded. 2. Fallacy of Denying the Antecedent P>Q | wp | 29Q | ex, If the roads are flooded, then classes are suspended, The roads are not flooded. Therefore, classes are not suspended. COMMON FALLACIES 1. Contradiction : | + Two opposing statements are simultaneously asserted, | “ @g. We cannot know anything, because we intuitively realize that our | thoughts are unreliable. | 2, Equivocation t + Use of a word in more than one sense during an argument, ©-g. Individual rights must be championed by the government. It is right for one to believe in God. So government should promote the belief in God. 3. Circular Reasoning “+ Assuming as a premiss that which you are trying to prove, f + Easy to spot but sometimes the conclusion may appear to state something i additional, or the argument may be so long that the reader forgets that i the conclusion was given as a premiss. SERevew/: re Notes In Logical Reasoning / Page ? of 8e.g, The death penalty is appropriate for traitors because it is right to execute those who betray their own country and thereby risk the ives of millions. 4. Shifting The Burden Of Proof : 4 Implying that a position is true merely because no one has disproved it, e.g. Since no one has been able to prove God's existence, there must not be a God. Unwarranted Assumptions Conclusion of an argument is based on a pret is false or unwarranted. + An assumption is unwarranted when it is false or when it is true but does not apply in the given context. (implicit or explicit) that 6. Appeal To Authority + Citing an expert's opinion as support for one's own opinion, 4. Not necessarily fallacious. 4 Reasonableness of the argument depends on the “expeltise” of the person being cited and whether she is an expert in a field relevant to the argument, 7, Personal Attack (Ad Hominem) 4 attacking a person's character instead of his/her opinions, e.g. Politician: How can we trust my opponent to be true to the voters? He isn't true to his wife! SOURCES: Copl and Cohen, Introduction to Logic, 1995. Barron's Pass Key to the LSAT, 7” ed,, 2009. |tep://wwrw majon.cony/testpren/strat-ssata, htm CBE Review / Lecture Notes in Logical Reasoning / Page # oF 8