Engineering Behavior and Characteristics of Wood Ash and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

Article
Engineering Behavior and Characteristics of Wood

Ash and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash
Francisco Grau 1 , Hyunwook Choo 2 , Jong Wan Hu 3,4 and Jongwon Jung 1, *
Received: 7 August 2015 ; Accepted: 28 September 2015 ; Published: 12 October 2015
Academic Editor: Sofoklis Makridis
1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803,
USA; fgrau@alumni.lsu.edu
2 School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea University, Seoul 136701, Korea;
choohw@gmail.com
3 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea;
jongp24@incheon.ac.kr
4 Incheon Disaster Prevention Research Center, Incheon National University, Incheon 406110, Korea
* Correspondence: jjung@lsu.edu; Tel.: +1-225-578-9471
Abstract: Biomasses are organic materials that are derived from any living or recently-living
structure. Plenty of biomasses are produced nationwide. Biomasses are mostly combusted and
usually discarded or disposed of without treatment as biomass ashes, which include wood and
sugarcane bagasse ashes. Thus, recycling or treatment of biomass ashes leads to utilizing the
natural materials as an economical and environmental alternative. This study is intended to provide
an environmental solution for uncontrolled disposal of biomass ashes by way of recycling the
biomass ash and replacing the soils in geotechnical engineering projects. Therefore, in this study,
characteristic tests of wood and sugarcane bagasse ashes that are considered the most common
biomass ashes are conducted. The test of chemical compositions of biomass ashes is conducted
using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and
heavy metal analysis is also conducted. Engineering behaviors including hydraulic conductivity,
constrained modulus and shear modulus are examined. Also, coal fly ash Class C is used in this
study for comparison with biomass ashes, and Ottawa 20/30 sands containing biomass ashes are
examined to identify the soil replacement effect of biomass ashes. The results show that the particle
sizes of biomass ashes are halfway between coal fly ash Class C and Ottawa 20/30 sand, and biomass
ashes consist of a heterogeneous mixture of different particle sizes and shapes. Also, all heavy metal
concentrations were found to be below the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maximum
limit. Hydraulic conductivity values of Ottawa 20/30 sand decrease significantly when replacing
them with only 1%–2% of biomass ashes. While both the constrained modulus and shear modulus
of biomass ashes are lower than Ottawa 20/30 sand, those of mixtures containing up to 10% biomass
ashes are little affected by replacing the soils with biomass ashes.
Keywords: biomass; wood ash; sugarcane bagasse ash; characterization
1. Introduction
Nowadays, environmental concerns and an interest in reducing construction costs have led to
using some recycled materials instead of conventional materials for engineering projects, resulting
in favorable outcomes in terms of both economical and technical aspects. For example, the
engineering properties of coal fly ash Class C have been studied to examine the possibility of
recycling for engineering projects including highway constructions [1], concrete mixtures [2] and soil
stabilization [3,4]. Considering the fact that geotechnical projects generally require a large quantity
Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977; doi:10.3390/ma8105353 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
of materials, reuse of biomass ashes as a new recycled material in geotechnical projects will surely
be attractive.
Marerials 2015, 8, page–page
Biomasses, including plants, are organic materials that are derived from any living or
of materials, reuse of biomass ashes as a new recycled material in geotechnical projects will surely
recently-living structure. Biomass has been used as an agriculture, forest, and energy resource, such
as forbe attractive.
biofuels, as a source of industrial heat for the forestry and paper industries, and for ethanol
Biomasses, including plants, are organic materials that are derived from any living or
and biodiesel [5]. Biomasses are mostly combusted and then typically discarded or disposed of
recently‐living structure. Biomass has been used as an agriculture, forest, and energy resource, such
without treatment. Thus, recycling or treatment of biomass ashes leads to the utilization of natural
as for biofuels, as a source of industrial heat for the forestry and paper industries, and for ethanol
materials as an economical
and biodiesel and are
[5]. Biomasses environmental alternative.
mostly combusted Intypically
and then 2012, about 474 million
discarded dry tons
or disposed of of
biomass materials were estimated to be created in the United States from forest
without treatment. Thus, recycling or treatment of biomass ashes leads to the utilization of natural and agricultural
residues [6]. Forests
materials residues constitute
as an economical approximately
and environmental 231 million
alternative. In 2012, dry tons
about ofmillion
474 this total, withof
dry tons wood
as thebiomass
most abundant biomass
materials were material
estimated in created
to be the United States.
in the United AStates
remaining 243 million
from forest dry tons are
and agricultural
residues [6]. Forests residues constitute approximately 231 million dry tons of this total, with wood
divided into multiple agricultural crops including sugarcane bagasse [6]. Combustion of biomass
as the most abundant biomass material in the United States. A remaining 243 million dry tons are
produces biomass ashes. The total amount of biomass ashes obtained from combustion is variable
depending oninto
divided themultiple
type of agricultural
material and crops including process.
combustion sugarcane Total
bagasse [6]. Combustion
annual biomass ashes of biomass
may range
produces biomass ashes. The total amount of biomass ashes obtained from combustion is variable
from 4.6–27 million dry tons [7]. Both wood ash and sugarcane bagasse ash account for the greater
depending on the type of material and combustion process. Total annual biomass ashes may range
portion of the biomass ashes [6].
from 4.6–27 million dry tons [7]. Both wood ash and sugarcane bagasse ash account for the greater
The use of wood ash and sugarcane bagasse ash as a pozzolanic material in concrete
portion of the biomass ashes [6].
mixtures The use of wood ash and sugarcane bagasse ash as a pozzolanic material in concrete mixtures [8,9]
[8,9] and the use of wood ash as highway pavement and subgrade reinforcement
material [10,11] have been studied in an attempt to increase the strength and stiffness of the
and the use of wood ash as highway pavement and subgrade reinforcement material [10,11] have
materials [12]. However, the study of geotechnical properties of biomass ashes lags far behind. Thus,
been studied in an attempt to increase the strength and stiffness of the materials [12]. However, the
study
this study aimsof geotechnical properties
at understanding the of biomass ashes
geotechnical lags far and
properties behind. Thus, this
engineering study aims
behaviors at
of biomass
understanding the geotechnical properties and engineering behaviors of
ashes, thereby providing economical materials by replacing the soils with biomass ashes as well as biomass ashes, thereby
providing economical materials by replacing the soils with biomass ashes as well as reducing waste.
reducing waste. Also, coal fly ash Class C is used to compare the properties with biomass ashes.
Also, coal fly ash Class C is used to compare the properties with biomass ashes.
2. Literature Review
2. Literature Review
2.1. Biomass Classification
2.1. Biomass Classification
Biomass is divided into three main groups (Figure 1): (1) forest biomass and wood waste
Biomass is divided into three main groups (Figure 1): (1) forest biomass and wood waste
resources include the residues of harvested wood, branches, and leaves on the ground that account for
resources include the residues of harvested wood, branches, and leaves on the ground that account
aboutfor
one-third of the trees,
about one‐third corresponding
of the to 40% of to
trees, corresponding the40%
totalof
biomass available,
the total biomass and (2) agricultural
available, and
biomass and waste resources consist of plants and animal-based residual materials which all
(2) agricultural biomass and waste resources consist of plants and animal‐based residual materials
constitute recycling materials after harvest crops including roots, leaves, fruits, stems and other parts
which all constitute recycling materials after harvest crops including roots, leaves, fruits, stems and
other parts of the plants. Incinerating these residues produces the ashes that constitute 42% of the
of the plants. Incinerating these residues produces the ashes that constitute 42% of the total biomass
in thetotal
Unitedbiomass in The
States. the United
ashes areStates. The ashes
illegally dumpedare illegally
or useddumped or used as
as soil fertilizers andsoil (3)
fertilizers
biomassand
energy
(3) biomass energy crops are dedicated to the plants grown at low economic cost and used merely
crops are dedicated to the plants grown at low economic cost and used merely for energy which
for energy which accounts for 17% of the biomass. Table 1 shows the annual biomass available and
accounts for 17% of the biomass. Table 1 shows the annual biomass available and the ashes obtained
the ashes obtained after burning the biomass that depends on the type of biomass and
after burning the biomass that depends on the type of biomass and combustion process.
combustion process.
Wastes, 1%
Energy Crop,
17%
Agricultural
Residues, 42%
Wood and
Forest Residues,
40%

Figure 1. Biomass classification [13].
Figure 1. Biomass classification [13].
The crops used in this research are wood and sugarcane because forest biomass and wood
The crops
waste usedfor
account in the
thisgreater
research are wood
portion and sugarcane
of biomass materials because forestStates
in the United biomassand and wood
reached waste
231
million tons in 2012; which is expected to increase further to 286 million tons in 2017 (See Table 1) [6,7].
account for the greater portion of biomass materials in the United States and reached 231 million tons
in 2012; which is expected to increase further to 286 million tons in 2017 (See Table 1) [6,7]. Although
2
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Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
the total wood ashes can hardly be calculated, the total estimated annual wood ashes is estimated at
0.9–4.9 million dry tons in 2012 which is expected to increase to up to 6 million tons in 2017 [7]. Also,
agricultural biomass and waste reached 243 million tons in 2012 which is expected to further increase
to 292 million tons in 2017 (See Table 1) [6,7]. Among agricultural biomass, sugarcane is considered
the most important and the leading farm product [14,15].
Table 1. Annual biomass availability [6,7].
Biomass in 2012 Estimated Biomass in 2017 Percentage of Ash

Type of Biomass
(Million Dry Tons) (Million Dry Tons) Obtained (%)
Forest biomass and wood waste 231 286 0.4–2.1
Agricultural biomass and waste 243 292 1.5–9.1
2.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Biomass

Table 2 shows the average particle size (d50 ), bulk density and specific surface area of biomass
ashes and coal fly ash Class C. Wood ash and coal fly ash indicate similar average particle size while
sugarcane bagasse ash is notably smaller than others. In case of bulk density, sugarcane bagasse ash
values are smaller than wood ash, and coal fly ash Class C. Wood ash shows a relatively high specific
surface area that provides good absorption [16]. The specific surface area presented by sugarcane
bagasse ash is also higher than coal fly ash. Table 3 shows the chemical compositions of wood
ash, sugarcane bagasse ash and coal fly ash Class C. All of them include a large quantity of SiO2
(31.8%–85.5%).
Table 2. Average particle diameter, bulk density, and specific surface areas of ashes [9,17–24].
Average Particle Diameter (d50 ) Bulk Density Specific Surface Area

Materials
(mm) (kg/m³) (m²/kg)
Wood ash 0.230 663—977 4200—100,600
Sugarcane bagasse ash 0.023 410—590 900—943
Coal fly ash Class C 0.208 750—800 392—471
Table 3. Chemical composition of wood ash, sugarcane bagasse ash, and coal fly ash Class C [25–27].
Constituents Wood Ash Sugarcane Bagasse Ash Coal Fly Ash Class C
SiO2 31.8 85.5 40
Al2 O3 28 5.3 17
Fe2 O3 2.34 1.3 6
CaO 10.53 2.1 24
MgO 9.32 1.1 5
SO3 - - 3
Na2 O 6.5 - -
K2 O 10.38 3.5 -
3. Experimental Section
3.1. Materials
Wood and sugarcane bagasse ashes which are the most common biomass ashes are used in this
study as biomass ashes. Also, Ottawa 20/30 sand and coal fly ash Class C is used for comparison
with biomass ashes in the tests. Laboratory tests are performed to identify the characteristics. Wood
ashes are transported from a wood manufacturing company, RoyOMartin in Louisiana, which are
obtained after incinerating the wood residues of southern yellow pine trees. Sugarcane bagasse ashes
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Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
are collected from Alma Plantation Sugarcane Mill in Lakeland, Louisiana after burning the leaves,
branches, stems and other residual parts. Biomass ashes used in this study are bottom ashes. Both
companies have used the combustion technique of biomass in ASTM E1755; (1) the sample is taken
from 0–250 ˝ C in 1 h, (2) it is kept constant at 250 ˝ C for at least 1 more hour. Then, (3) temperature
is increased from 250–575 ˝ C in 30 min, (4) it is kept constant at 575 ˝ C for at least 2 h, (5) Sample is
taken out of the furnace and Mass is measured. (6) Finally, the process above is repeated two times.
So, in total, the sample night remain for 9 h inside the furnace.
3.2. Sample Preparation

In order to understand geotechnical behavior of mixed materials by replacing the soils with
biomass ashes, Ottawa 20/30 sand-biomass ash mixtures are used in this study. Ottawa 20/30 sands
are used as the large particle host materials, while biomass ashes are added to Ottawa 20/30 sands.
Ottawa 20/30 sands are replaced with the biomass ashes the same in weight to keep a constant total
dry weight. A variety of dry weight ratios (0.5%–10%) of mixtures that represent the dry weight of
Ottawa 20/30 sand and the weight of biomass ashes are prepared for laboratory tests.
3.3. Experimental Methods

Characterization. Sieve analysis (ASTM C117) and hydrometer tests (ASTM D422) are conducted
with Ottawa 20/30 sand, wood ash, sugarcane bagasse ash and coal fly ash Class C. Specific surface
area (ASTM C1069-09) is measured with wood ash, sugarcane bagasse ash and coal fly ash Class C
using specific surface area analyzer (Gemini VII 2390, Micrameritics, Norcross, GA, USA). Specific
gravity tests are conducted with a 500 mL water picnometer and a vacuum pump to extract air
bubbles in pore (ASTM D854). pHs of materials are measured using a benchtop pH meter (Thermo
Scientific Orion, 2 stars, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA). Ten grams of material are collected
and mixed with 10 mL of water in a centrifuge tube. Then, the tubes are placed in the centrifuge
before spinning those samples to extract the water from the pores of the materials and to measure
the pH (ASTM D4972). Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) (JEOL, Peabody, MA, USA) is used to
examine the microstructure of the materials. Samples are fixed with a two-layer adhesive carbon
and aluminum pin studs to be placed in the SEM adapter. Since biomass ashes are not conductive
materials, the samples need to be coated with a conductive layer of gold to prevent the charging
of the specimen. After coating, the pin studs are inserted into the specimen stage so that the
image processing can be taken with the Scanning Electron Microscope. X-ray diffraction (XRD),
Empyrean manufactured by Panalytical (Panalytical, Westborough, MA, USA), is used to analyze
the qualitative and quantitative chemical composition of biomass ashes and coal fly ash Class C.
Also, heavy metal concentrations in biomass ashes were explored by total metal analysis using
inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) (PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA,
USA). Samples digested in highly acidic (pH < 2) solution at 90 ˝ C were prepared for ICP-OES
analysis without boiling. Chemically bound metals within the sample were released into solution
(US EPA, 1996). The mixture of the acid solution and sample was filtered to remove fine particulates
and the filtrate was analyzed using a Perkin Elmer Optima 7300 DV ICP-OES (PerkinElmer).
Hydraulic Conductivity. Constant head tests (ASTM D2434) are conducted using Ottawa
20/30 sand. Diameter of specimen (D = 10.2 cm), height of specimen (L = 11.6 cm), head difference
(∆H = 25 cm) and void ratio (e = 0.56~0.70) are controlled. Falling head tests are conducted
with biomass ashes (ASTM D5084). The diameter of specimen (D = 7.62 cm), height of specimen
(L = 14.61 cm), initial head difference (∆H = 36.7 cm) and void ratio (e = 1.20~3.47) are controlled.
Also, Ottawa 20/30 sand-biomass ash mixtures including 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 4% biomass ashes are
used at a similar initial void ratio (e = 0.571~0.654) to Ottawa 20/30 sand with constant head tests.
Consolidation. One-dimensional consolidation tests are conducted with biomass ashes, Ottawa
20/30 sands, and Ottawa 20/30 sand-biomass ash mixtures with a variety of dry weight ratios (2%,
4%, 6%, 8%, 10%) (ASTM D2435). Test samples are set up in a stainless steel chamber that consists
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Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
of two top and bottom plates with drainage ports to prevent segregation (Figure 2). Diameter of
specimen (D = 6.4 cm) and height of specimen (L = 4.0 cm) are controlled. Initial void ratios of
Ottawa 20/30 sand (e = 0.632–0.674) and biomass ashes (e = 1.55–2.77) are controlled. Initial void
ratios of Ottawa 20/30 sand-biomass ash mixtures are similar to Ottawa 20/30 sand (e = 0.632–0.674).
Loading (12–192 kPa), unloading (192–24 kPa) and reloading (24–1536 kPa) with the same incremental
ratio equivalent to 1 are applied to the specimen using a GeoJac automated loading system made by
GeoTAC (Houston, TX, USA), which is instrumented with a 2000 load-pound capacity load sensor
at theincremental
bottom ofratio the equivalent
frame andto a1 direct current
are applied displacement
to the transducer
specimen using a GeoJac (DCDT)
automated onloading
top. This
loading system is controlled using the software Sigma-1 ICON (GeoTAC) for Windows.
system made by GeoTAC (Houston, TX, USA), which is instrumented with a 2000 load‐pound The loading
schedule
capacity load sensor at the bottom of the frame and a direct current displacement transducer was
is set up on GeoJac at the beginning of the tests and loading interval for specimens
determined to be 12 hours according to several preliminary tests that confirm the end of the primary
(DCDT) on top. This loading system is controlled using the software Sigma‐1 ICON (GeoTAC) for
Windows. ofThe
consolidation loading
these schedule
materials is set
for the up on GeoJac
proposed loadingat steps.
the beginning
(Note: In of the
the tests and loading
preliminary tests, all
interval
primary for specimens
consolidations was determined
of biomass ashes are to completed
be 12 hours within
according 4~6to several preliminary tests that
h).
confirm
Shear Wavethe Velocity.
end of the primary
While consolidation of
one-dimensional these materials
consolidation for are
tests the conducted,
proposed loading steps.
the shear wave
(Note: In the preliminary tests, all primary consolidations of biomass ashes are completed within 4~6 h).
velocity is measured for every load increment using bender elements set inside the modified
Shear Wave Velocity. While one‐dimensional consolidation tests are conducted, the shear wave
oedometer cell, which allows the measurement of the shear wave velocity as a function of increasing
velocity is measured for every load increment using bender elements set inside the modified
consolidation
oedometer stress [28] (Figure
cell, which allows 2).
the The shear wave
measurement which
of the travels
shear wave through
velocity the
as a soil specimen
function of is
generated by a function generator (33210A, Agilient, Santa Clara, CA, USA), with
increasing consolidation stress [28] (Figure 2). The shear wave which travels through the soil a square wave
of frequency
specimen =is 20 Hz andby
generated amplitude
a function =generator
10 V, which is connected
(33210A, to the
Agilient, Santa source
Clara, bender
CA, USA), element.
with a
The bender element that acts as the signal receiver is connected to the filter amplifier (3364,
square wave of frequency = 20 Hz and amplitude = 10 V, which is connected to the source bender
element. The bender element that acts as the signal receiver is connected to the filter amplifier (3364,
Krohn-Hite, Brockton, MA, USA), which in turn is connected to the digital oscilloscope (DSO6014A,
Krohn‐Hite, Brockton, MA, USA), which in turn is connected to the digital oscilloscope (DSO6014A,
Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). A total of 1024 signals are stacked to reduce the influence of
Agilent, Santa
uncorrelated noise. Clara, CA, USA).
The travel time A
oftotal of 1024
the shear signals
wave are stacked to
is determined reduce
using thethe influence
digitized of as
signal
uncorrelated noise. The travel time of the shear wave is determined using the digitized signal as
recorded by the oscilloscope [24], while tip-to-tip distance (the distance from the tip of the source
recorded by the oscilloscope [24], while tip‐to‐tip distance (the distance from the tip of the source
bender element to the tip of the receiver bender element) is used as the travel distance [28,29].
bender element to the tip of the receiver bender element) is used as the travel distance [28,29].

Figure 2. Schematic drawing of shear wave velocity measurement setup during consolidation.
Figure 2. Schematic drawing of shear wave velocity measurement setup during consolidation.
4. Experimental Results
4. Experimental Results
The characteristics of Ottawa 20/30 sand and biomass ashes are summarized. Hydraulic
The characteristics of Ottawa 20/30 sand and biomass ashes
conductivity, consolidation, and shear wave velocity are following . are summarized. Hydraulic
conductivity, consolidation, and shear wave velocity are following.
4.1. Basic Properties of Biomass Ashes
4.1. Basic Properties of Biomass Ashes
Particle Size Distribution. Figure 3 shows the results of the sieve analysis and hydrometer test of
each material which are repeated twice. The results show that particle size distributions of biomass
Particle Size Distribution. Figure 3 shows the results of the sieve analysis and hydrometer test of
ashes are somewhere between Ottawa 20/30 sand and coal fly ash Class C (Figure 3). Wood ash and
each material which are repeated twice. The results show that particle size distributions of biomass
sugarcane bagasse ash include 25.4% and 78% fine particles, which are less than 75‐μm (No. 200 sieve)
ashes are somewhere between Ottawa 20/30 sand and coal fly ash Class C (Figure 3). Wood ash
in size. Table 4 shows all coefficients obtained from the particle size distribution in Figure 3.
6966
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Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
and sugarcane bagasse ash include 25.4% and 78% fine particles, which are less than 75-µm (No. 200
sieve) in size. Table 4 shows all coefficients obtained from the particle size distribution in Figure 3.
100
80
Percentage Passing [%]

Sugarcane
Coal fly bagasse
ash ash
60
Class C
Ottawa 20/30
sand
40
Wood ash
20
0
0.00 0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
Particle Diameter [mm]
Figure 3. Particle size distribution of Ottawa 20/30 sand, biomass ashes and coal fly ash Class C.
Figure 3. Particle size distribution of Ottawa 20/30 sand, biomass ashes and coal fly ash Class C.
Table 4. Properties of wood ash, sugarcane bagasse ash and Ottawa 20/30 sand.
Table Test Ottawa 20/30

4. Properties of wood Coal Fly Ash
ash, sugarcane bagasse ash and Sugarcane Bagasse
Ottawa 20/30 sand.
Wood Ash
Sand Class C Ash
d10 (mm) 0.650 0.003 0.025 0.020
Ottawa0.750
20/30 Coal Fly Ash Sugarcane Bagasse
Testd30 (mm) 0.013 0.090 Ash
Wood 0.046
d50 (mm) Sand
0.870 Class0.022 C 0.180 0.055 Ash
d60 (mm) 0.900 0.030 0.260 0.063
d10 (mm) 0.650 0.003 0.025 0.020
Cu 1.38 10.00 10.40 3.15
d30 (mm)Cc 0.750
0.96
0.013
1.88
0.090
1.25 1.68
0.046
d50 (mm)
Specific surface area (m /kg)
2 0.870 0.022
411~423 0.180
12,025~14,025 922~932 0.055
d60 (mm)Gs 0.900
2.65 0.030
2.58 0.260
2.41 2.34 0.063
Cu pH 1.38
4.01 10.00 ‐ 10.40
12.57 8.65 3.15
d10C 0.96 30 = grain diameter at 30% passing, d
= grain diameter at 10% passing, d
c 1.88 1.25
50 = grain diameter at 50% 1.68
Specific surface = 2grain
aread60(m
passing, /kg)diameter at 60% passing, C411~423
u = Coefficient of 12,025~14,025 922~932
uniformity, Cc = Coefficient of
Gs
curvature, G 2.65
s = Specific gravity. 2.58 2.41 2.34
pH 4.01 - 12.57 8.65
Specific Gravity, Atterberg Tests, pH, Specific Surface. Specific gravities of wood ash (Gs = 2.41)
d10 = grain diameter at 10% passing, d30 = grain diameter at 30% passing, d50 = grain diameter at 50%
and sugarcane bagasse ash (Gs = 2.34) and coal fly ash Class C (Gs = 2.58) are smaller than Ottawa
passing, d60 = grain diameter at 60% passing, Cu = Coefficient of uniformity, Cc = Coefficient of curvature,
Gs = 20/30 sand (G
Specific gravity.s = 2.65) (Table 4). Acidity results indicate that wood ash (pH = 12.57) and sugarcane
bagasse ash (pH = 8.65) have high alkalinity while Ottawa 20/30 sand has acidity (pH = 4.01) (Table 4).
While coal fly ash Class C shows LL = 22.5 that is consistent with previous study (Note. LL is liquid
Specific Gravity, Atterberg Tests, pH, Specific Surface. Specific gravities of wood ash (Gs = 2.41) and
limit) [30], and both wood and sugarcane bagasse ashes used in this study do not show plasticity.
sugarcane Wood
bagasse ash ash
has (G
a quite higher
s = 2.34) andspecific
coal surface
fly asharea Class(12,025~14,025
C (Gs = 2.58) m2/kg)
arethan other than
smaller sugarcane
Ottawa 20/30
bagasse ash (922~932m2/kg) and coal fly ash Class C (411~423 m2/kg) that is consistent with
sand (Gs = 2.65) (Table 4). Acidity results indicate that wood ash (pH = 12.57) and sugarcane bagasse
previous study as outlined in Table 2. According to Ban and Ramli (2011), high values of specific
ash (pH =surface
8.65) area
have of high
wood alkalinity while Ottawa
ashes are attributable 20/30
to a high degree sand has acidity
of irregularity (pHshape
in particle = 4.01)
and (Table 4).
fly ash Class C shows LL = 22.5 that is consistent with previous study (Note. LL is liquid
While coalporosity of the surface [31].
limit) [30], andSEM Images. All photomicrographs of ashes used in this study show a heterogeneous mixture
both wood and sugarcane bagasse ashes used in this study do not show plasticity.
in different sizes and shapes. Particle morphologies of ashes are shown in Figure 4. SEM images of
Wood ash has a quite higher specific surface area (12,025~14,025 m2 /kg) than other sugarcane bagasse
wood ash show various particle sizes (10–200 μm) and the sub‐angular shapes (Figure 4a) that are
2 /kg) and coal fly ash Class C (411~423 m2 /kg) that is consistent with previous study
ash (922~932m
consistent with the results of particle size distribution in Figure 3. In previous studies, Naik and
as outlinedEtiégni also observed the irregularly‐shaped inorganic particles in wood ashes [17,18]. In the case of
in Table 2. According to Ban and Ramli (2011), high values of specific surface area of wood
sugarcane bagasse ash, their shapes are mainly sub‐angular and they have low sphericity; however,
ashes are attributable to a high degree of irregularity in particle shape and porosity of the surface [31].
they have a scattered particle shape and size to generalize the common shape. The particle size of
SEM Images. All photomicrographs of ashes used in this study show a heterogeneous mixture
the sugarcane bagasse ash observed in this study varies from 10–300 μm which is consistent with
in differentthe results of particle size distribution (Figures 3 and 4b). These SEM results are consistent with the
sizes and shapes. Particle morphologies of ashes are shown in Figure 4. SEM images of
wood ash results
show of various
previous particle sizes
studies that (10–200
indicate µm) and
a mixture the sub-angular
of particles shapeshigh
with rough surfaces, (Figure 4a) that are
porosity
and large surface areas in sugarcane bagasse ashes through SEM micrographs [9]. Both wood and
consistent with the results of particle size distribution in Figure 3. In previous studies, Naik and
Etiégni also observed the irregularly-shaped inorganic6
particles in wood ashes [17,18]. In the case of
sugarcane bagasse ash, their shapes are mainly sub-angular and they have low sphericity; however,
they have a scattered particle shape and size to generalize the common shape. The particle size of
the sugarcane bagasse ash observed in this study varies from 10–300 µm which is consistent with the
results of particle size distribution (Figures 3 and 4b). These SEM results are consistent with the results
of previous studies that indicate a mixture of particles with rough surfaces, high porosity and large
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Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
surface Marerials 2015, 8, page–page
areas in sugarcane bagasse ashes through SEM micrographs [9]. Both wood and sugarcane
bagasse ashes have porous structures that can explain the lower Gs and higher specific surface areas
sugarcane bagasse ashes have porous structures that can explain the lower Gs and higher specific
of both ashes than Ottawa 20/30 sand (Table 4). Most coal fly ash Class C consists of solid spheres
surface areas of both ashes than Ottawa 20/30 sand (Table 4). Most coal fly ash Class C consists of
and thesolid spheres and the diameter appears to be smaller than biomass ashes (Figure 3).
diameter appears to be smaller than biomass ashes (Figure 3).

Figure 4. SEM images of ashes: (a) wood ash, (b) sugarcane bagasse ash, (c) coal fly ash class C.
Figure 4. SEM images of ashes: (a) wood ash, (b) sugarcane bagasse ash, (c) coal fly ash class C.
Chemical Composition. The results of XRD analysis are consistent with previous studies shown
in Table 3. The results show that the majority chemical composition of all ashes is silica dioxide SiO
Chemical Composition. The results of XRD analysis are consistent with previous studies shown 2
in
(32.8%–84.2%) (Table 5). Sugarcane bagasse ash has much more SiO2 while wood ash has less SiO2
Table 3. The results show that the majority chemical composition of all ashes is silica dioxide SiO2
than coal fly ash Class C because some coarser quartz particles can adhere to the sugarcane bagasse
(32.8%–84.2%) (Table 5). Sugarcane bagasse ash has much more SiO2 while wood ash has less SiO2
surface and are harvested along with sugarcane bagasse [32].
than coal fly ash Class C because some coarser quartz particles can adhere to the sugarcane bagasse
Table 5. Chemical composition of biomass ashes and coal fly ash Class C.
surface and are harvested along with sugarcane bagasse [32].
Constituents Coal Fly Ash Class C Wood Ash Sugarcane Bagasse Ash
Table
SiO 2 5. Chemical composition
52.4 of biomass ashes
32.8 and coal fly ash Class C.
84.2
Al2O3 26.5 27.0 5.3
Fe2O3
Constituents Coal Fly7.5
Ash Class C Wood Ash 2.2 Sugarcane Bagasse 2.9 Ash
CaO 8.7 11.7 2.0
MgO SiO2 52.4
3.0 32.89.1 84.2 1.0
Al
SO 3 2 O3 26.5
1.9 27.0 ‐ 5.3 ‐
NaFe
2O O
2 3 ‐ 7.5 2.2 6.7 2.9 ‐
CaO
K2O ‐ 8.7 11.710.5 2.0 4.6
MgO 3.0 9.1 1.0
Heavy Metal Test. Total heavy metal concentrations were ascertained by the total constituent
SO3 1.9 - -
analysis and divided by 20 to compare with the maximum leachable concentration as shown by the
Na2 O - 6.7 -
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (Table 6). The results show that all heavy metal
K2 O - 10.5 4.6
concentrations are below the EPA maximum limit. If a waste is 100% solid, when the results of the
total constituent analysis (heavy metal test) divided by 20 are less than the limits of the maximum
leachable
Heavy Metalconcentration, the EPA
Test. Total heavy allows
metal for a total constituent
concentrations analysis instead
were ascertained by theof the toxicity
total constituent
characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) extraction [33]. Thus, both sugarcane bagasse ash and wood
analysis and divided by 20 to compare with the maximum leachable concentration as shown by
ash can be used through replacement of soil to improve soil properties.
the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (Table 6). The results show that all heavy metal
concentrations are below the EPA maximum limit. 7 If a waste is 100% solid, when the results
of the total constituent analysis (heavy metal test) divided by 20 are less than the limits of the
maximum leachable concentration, the EPA allows for a total constituent analysis instead of the
6968
Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) extraction [33]. Thus, both sugarcane bagasse ash
and wood ash can be used through replacement of soil to improve soil properties.
Table 6. Heavy metal contaminant concentration (ppm) in biomass ashes and coal fly ash Class C.
Heavy Metal EPA Sugarcane Bagasse Ash Wood Ash Fly ash Class C Type
Barium (Ba) 100 0.148 0.4608 1.72476
Arsenic (As) 5 0.00445 bdl 0.003935
Table 6. Heavy metal contaminant concentration (ppm) in biomass ashes and coal fly ash Class C.
Cadmium (Cd) 1 0.00185 nd 0.000845
Chromium (Cr)
Heavy Metal 5
EPA 0.0326
Sugarcane Bagasse Ash 0.0328
Wood Ash 0.036285
Fly ash Class C Type
Lead (Pb)
Barium (Ba) 5
100 nd
0.148 0.0116
0.4608 0.010215
1.72476
Mercury (Hg)
Arsenic (As) 0.2
5 nd
0.00445 ndbdl nd0.003935
Selenium (Se)
Cadmium (Cd) 11 nd
0.00185 nd nd nd0.000845
Chromium (Cr) 5 Note: bdl = below0.0326
detection limit; nd = non0.0328
detect. 0.036285
Lead (Pb) 5 nd 0.0116 0.010215
Mercury (Hg) 0.2 nd nd nd
Selenium (Se) 1 nd nd nd
4.2. Hydraulic Conductivity
Note: bdl = below detection limit; nd = non detect.
Ottawa 20/30 sand shows a greater hydraulic conductivity (K) than biomass ashes, as
anticipated, because of its larger particle size and pore size (Figure 5a). Additionally, wood ash with
Ottawa greater
d50 = 0.180 shows 20/30 sand shows conductivity
hydraulic a greater hydraulic
(K) thanconductivity
sugarcane (K) than biomass
baggage ash withashes,
d50 = as 0.055 at a
anticipated, because of its larger particle size and pore size (Figure 5a). Additionally, wood ash with
given void ratio. It is also observed that hydraulic conductivity (K) of all tested materials increases in
d50 = 0.180 shows greater hydraulic conductivity (K) than sugarcane baggage ash with d50 = 0.055 at a
line with the increase in void ratio reflecting increased number of channels for water flow (Figure 5a).
given void ratio. It is also observed that hydraulic conductivity (K) of all tested materials increases in
More notably, in line with the increase in biomass ash contents, hydraulic conductivity of Ottawa
line with the increase in void ratio reflecting increased number of channels for water flow (Figure 5a).
20/30 remarkably decreases (Figure 5b) because the smaller particles of biomass ashes fill in the pore
More notably, in line with the increase in biomass ash contents, hydraulic conductivity of Ottawa
20/30 remarkably
space between large sanddecreases (Figure 5b) because the smaller particles of biomass ashes fill in the
particles.
pore space between large sand particles.
(a) (b)
1.0E+00
Ottawa 20/30 Sand Ottawa 20/30 Sand
1.E+00 (e=0.654)
Hydraulic Conductivity, k [cm/s]
Fleshman
Hydraulic Conductivity, k [cm/s]
(2012)
1.E-01 Goetz 1.0E-01
(1971)
Sugarcane
1.E-02
bagasse ash
1.0E-02
1.E-03
Sugarcane
1.E-04 bagasse ash
Wood ash 1.0E-03 (e=2.064)
1.E-05
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Wood ash (e=1.198)
Void Ratio [e] 1.0E-04
0.0 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0
Mass fraction of finer ash [%]
Figure 5. Hydraulic conductivity of tested materials: (a) variation of hydraulic conductivity of
Figure 5. Hydraulic conductivity of tested materials: (a) variation of hydraulic conductivity of
Ottawa 20/30 sand, wood and sugarcane ahses with void ratio; (b) hydraulic conductivity of Ottawa
Ottawa 20/30
20/30sand‐biomass
sand, woodash and sugarcane
mixutres ahses with
as a function void
of fine ratio; (b)(0.5%~10%).
ash fraction hydraulicNote
conductivity
the results of
of Ottawa
20/30 sand-biomass ash mixutres as a function of fine ash fraction (0.5%~10%). Note the results of
Ottawa 20/30 sand are comparable with previous test results [34,35].
Ottawa 20/30 sand are comparable with previous test results [34,35].
4.3. Consolidation
4.3. Consolidation
Figure 6 shows the vertical strain of Ottawa 20/30 sand, biomass ashes and Ottawa 20/30
sand‐biomass ash mixtures as a function of vertical effective stress. Biomass ashes experience more
Figure 6 shows the vertical strain of Ottawa 20/30 sand, biomass ashes and Ottawa
vertical strain than Ottawa 20/30 sand and the mixture containing 2%~10% biomass ash. Sugarcane
20/30 sand-biomass ash mixtures
bagasse ash shows as astrain
more vertical function of vertical
than wood effective
ash. Particle stress.
shape, Biomass
including ashes experience
angularity and
more vertical
roughness, affects compressibility under the condition of vertical strain loading. Analysis biomass
strain than Ottawa 20/30 sand and the mixture containing 2%~10% of the ash.
compressibility of tested materials revealed that compression index (C ) =
Sugarcane bagasse ash shows more vertical strain than wood ash. Particle shape, including angularity
c 0.128 for Ottawa 20/30
sand, Cc = affects
and roughness, 1.105 for wood ash and Cunder
compressibility c = 1.521 for sugarcane bagasse ash (Figure 7) reflecting the
the condition of vertical strain loading. Analysis of
increase in compressibility of mixtures in line with an increase in biomass ash contents (note:
the compressibility of tested materials revealed that compression index (Cc ) = 0.128 for Ottawa
Compression index (Cc) is defined by the variation of the void ratio as a function of the change of
20/30 sand, Cc stress
effective = 1.105 for logarithmic
in the and CAdditionally,
wood ash scale). c = 1.521 forswelling
sugarcane bagasse
indexes ash (Figure
(Cs), calculated 7)the
from reflecting
8
6969
Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
the increase in compressibility of mixtures in line with an increase in biomass ash contents (note:
Compression index (Cc ) is defined by the variation of the void ratio as a function of the change of
effective stress
Marerials 2015, in the logarithmic scale). Additionally, swelling indexes (Cs ), calculated from the
8, page–page
unloading phase, are Cs = 0.008 for Ottawa 20/30 sand, Cs = 0.038 for wood ash and Cs = 0.100
unloading phase, are Cs = 0.008 for Ottawa 20/30 sand, Cs = 0.038 for wood ash and Cs = 0.100 for
for sugarcane bagasse ash.
sugarcane bagasse ash.
unloading
(a) phase, are Cs = 0.008 for Ottawa 20/30 sand,
(b) Cs = 0.038 for wood ash and Cs = 0.100 for
sugarcane bagasse ash.
0.0 0.0
(a) 0~10% (b) 0~10%
0.5
0.0 0.0
Strain Strain
Strain Strain
0.5
0~10% 1.0 0~10%
0.5
Vertical Vertical
Vertical Vertical
0.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
100%
2.0 100%
1.5
1.0
1.5 100% 2.5
1 10 100 1000 10000 2.0 1 10 100 1000 100%
10000
Vertical Stress [kPa] Vertical Stress [kPa]
(c) 1.5 (d) 2.5
0.00 1 10 100 1000 10000 0.00 1 10 100 1000 10000
(c) (d)
0.05
0.00 0.00
Strain Strain
Strain Strain
0.10
0.10
0.05
Vertical Vertical
Vertical Vertical
0%
0.15 0.10
0.10 0% 0.20 6%
6%
0.20 0%
10% 10%
0.15
0% 0.20 6%
0.25 6% 0.30
0.20 1 10 100 1000 10%10000 1 10 100 1000 10000
10%
0.25 0.30
1
Figure 6. Vertical 10
strain as 100
a function1000of vertical 1
10000 effective stress in 10
oedometer100 cell 1000 10000
(a) Ottawa sand
Figure 6. Vertical strain Vertical
as a function
Stress [kPa]of vertical effective stress in oedometer cell (a) Ottawa
Vertical sugarcane
Stress [kPa] sand
20/30 containing wood ash (0%–100%), (b) Ottawa sand 20/30 containing bagasse ash
20/30(0%–100%),
containing wood ash
(c) Ottawa sand
(0%–100%), (b)
20/30 containing
Ottawa
0%–10%
sand
wood
20/30 containing
ash, (d)oedometer
Ottawa sand
sugarcane
20/30
bagasse
containing
ash
Figure 6. Vertical strain as a function of vertical effective stress in cell (a) Ottawa sand
(0%–100%),
0%–10% (c) Ottawa
sugarcanewood
20/30 containing
sand
bagasse 20/30
ash.
ash
containing 0%–10% wood ash, (d) Ottawa sand 20/30
(0%–100%), (b) Ottawa sand 20/30 containing sugarcane bagasse ash
containing
0%–10% sugarcane
(0%–100%), bagassesand
(c) Ottawa ash.20/30 containing 0%–10% wood ash, (d) Ottawa sand 20/30 containing
0%–10% sugarcane bagasse ash.
Figure 7. Compressibility Index of Ottawa 20/30 containing wood ash and sugarcane bagasse ash.

4.4. Shear Wave Velocity
The measured shear wave velocity (Vs) of tested materials increases in line with an increase in
4.4. Shear Wave Velocity
applied
4.4. Shear Wave vertical stress which is attributable to the development of better contact between the
Velocity
The measured shear wave velocity (V
particles (i.e., increased contact area and coordinations) of tested materials increases in line with an increase in
number, Figure 8). Previous studies show that
The
shear measured
applied wavevertical shear
velocity (Vs)wave
stress of the velocity
which (Vpower
s ) ofto
is attributable
soils is the tested materials
the development
function of appliedincreases
of better
stress in line
contact
[36,37]. with an increase
between
Development the
of
in applied vertical stress vertical
which effective
is attributable to the development
loading of better contact
particles (i.e., increased contact area and coordination number, Figure 8). Previous studies show that
S-wave velocity versus stress during odometer is illustrated between
in Figure 8 for the
shear wave velocity (V
all
particles materials s) of the soils is the power function of applied stress [36,37]. Development of
used incontact
(i.e., increased this study.
areaS-wave velocity dramatically
and coordination number, increases
Figure 8).with the applied
Previous pressure
studies show that
S‐wave velocity versus vertical effective stress during odometer loading is illustrated in Figure 8 for
range of 0–766 kPa and then slowly increases in the range of 766–1532
shear wave velocity (Vs ) of the soils is the power function of applied stress [36,37]. Development kPa (Figure 8). The results
all materials
demonstrate
of S-wave velocity used
that in this
clean
versus study. effective
Ottawa
vertical S‐wave
20/30 sandvelocity
shows
stress dramatically
the highest
during increases
shearloading
odometer wave with isthe
velocity applied pressure
(Vs). Also,
illustrated the
in Figure 8
range of 0–766 kPa and then slowly increases in the range of 766–1532 kPa (Figure 8). The results
measured velocities decrease in line with the increase in biomass ash contents.
demonstrate that clean Ottawa 20/30 sand shows 9 the highest shear wave velocity (Vs). Also, the
6970
9
Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
for all materials used in this study. S-wave velocity dramatically increases with the applied pressure
range of 0–766 kPa and then slowly increases in the range of 766–1532 kPa (Figure 8). The results
demonstrate that clean Ottawa 20/30 sand shows the highest shear wave velocity (Vs ). Also, the
(a) (b)
400 0% 400
0%
2% 2%
4%
S- wave Velocity [m/s]
4%
S- wave velocity [m/s]

300 6% 300
8%
10% 6%
200 100% 200 8%
10%
100%
100 100
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Figure 8.8. Shear
Figure Shear wave
wave velocity
velocity as a function
as a function of effective
of vertical vertical stress
effective stress ash
(a) wood (a)
andwood ash and
(b) sugarcane
(b) sugarcane bagasse ash.
bagasse ash.
5. Analysis and Discussion
5. Analysis and Discussion
The lower hydraulic conductivity of biomass ashes (Figure 5a) can be explained according to
The lower hydraulic conductivity of biomass ashes (Figure 5a) can be explained according to
the following:
the following: (1) (1) Smaller
Smaller particles
particles of of biomass
biomass ashes (i.e., the
ashes (i.e., particle sizes
the particle sizes of
of 78%
78% ofof sugarcane
sugarcane
bagasse ash
bagasse ash and
and 25%
25% ofof wood
wood ash
ash are
are less
less than
than 75-µm
75‐μm as as illustrated
illustrated in in Figure
Figure 3)3) mean
mean aa smaller
smaller
pore size [38] causing lower hydraulic conductivity. (2) A plate‐like particle shape of biomass ashes
pore size [38] causing lower hydraulic conductivity. (2) A plate-like particle shape of biomass ashes
and the alignment of those particles in a certain direction, causing a phenomenon called tortuosity,
and the alignment of those particles in a certain direction, causing a phenomenon called tortuosity,
lead to an irregular flow path [38]. (3) Biomass ashes can absorb and hold much more water than
lead to an irregular flow path [38]. (3) Biomass ashes can absorb and hold much more water than sand
sand todue
due the to the hydrophilicity,
hydrophilicity, increasing
increasing the water the uptake
water uptake
that causes that hydraulic
causes hydraulic conductivity
conductivity to become to
become lower than Ottawa 20/30 sand [21].
lower than Ottawa 20/30 sand [21].
In the Ottawa 20/30 sand‐biomass ash mixtures, the smaller ash particles fill in the pore spaces
In the Ottawa 20/30 sand-biomass ash mixtures, the smaller ash particles fill in the pore spaces
between Ottawa 20/30 sands causing the decrease in hydraulic conductivity in line with an increase
between Ottawa 20/30 sands causing the decrease in hydraulic conductivity in line with an increase
in biomass ash contents (Figure 5b). Theoretically, the pore size of the loosest tetrahedral packing is
in biomass ash contents (Figure 5b). Theoretically, the pore size of the loosest tetrahedral packing is
0.414 D (Figure 9a) and the pore size of the densest cubic packing is 0.155 D (Figure 9b, Note, D is
0.414 D (Figure 9a) and the pore size of the densest cubic packing is 0.155 D (Figure 9b, Note, D is
the diameter of host particle). Equation (1) shows the theoretical void ratio of Ottawa‐biomass ash
the diameter of host particle). Equation (1) shows the theoretical void ratio of Ottawa-biomass ash
mixtures. Given
mixtures. Given the
the initial
initial void
void ratio
ratio (e =(e 0.654)
= 0.654) of mixtures
of mixtures usedused in study,
in this this study, the mixtures
the mixtures are closedare
closed to ensure the loosest packing because the range of void ratios
to ensure the loosest packing because the range of void ratios of Ottawa sand are e = 0.49–0.79 [39]. of Ottawa sand are
e = 0.49–0.79 [39]. Most particle sizes of wood ash (d
Most particle sizes of wood ash (d60 = 0.260) and sugarcane 60 = 0.260) and sugarcane bagasse ash (d
bagasse ash (d60 = 0.063) are less 60 = 0.063)
than
are less than 0.414 D (i.e., 0.414 D = 0.2691 and 0.414 D = 0.3726). Thus, most ash particles can fill
0.414 D (i.e., 0.414 D10 = 0.2691 and 0.414 D60 = 0.3726). Thus, most ash particles can fill in the
10 60
in the pore spaces in Ottawa 20/30 sands. Also, it is notable that a very low hydraulic conductivity
pore spaces in Ottawa 20/30 sands. Also, it is notable that a very low hydraulic conductivity can
can be obtained by adding very small amounts (only 1%–2% weights) of biomass ashes because the
be obtained by adding very small amounts (only 1%–2% weights) of biomass ashes because the low
low specific
specific gravitygravity of biomass
of biomass ashes the
ashes lower lower
voidthe void
ratio of ratio
Ottawa of 20/30
Ottawa 20/30 sand‐biomass
sand-biomass ash mixture ash
mixture (Equation (1)). Additionally, the calcium ions in wood ash react with the silica or alumina
(Equation (1)). Additionally, the calcium ions in wood ash react with the silica or alumina in soil that
in soil that leads to ofthe
leads to the formation formation
insoluble calcium of silicates
insoluble calcium silicates
or aluminates, or both.or Consequently,
aluminates, or theyboth.
can
Consequently, they can obstruct the water flow through the soil voids [40] and lead to the decrease
obstruct the water flow through the soil voids [40] and lead to the decrease in hydraulic conductivity
in hydraulic
along with theconductivity along with
increase in biomass ash the increase
contents. in biomass
In previous ash contents.
studies, In previous
Osinubi (2011) observed studies,
that
hydraulic conductivity of soils treated with sugarcane bagasse ash decrease from 4.2 ˆ 10 ash
Osinubi (2011) observed that hydraulic conductivity of soils treated with sugarcane bagasse ´ 10 to
decrease from 4.2 × 10
9.72 ˆ 10´11 with 8% ash −10 to 9.72 × 10−11 with 8% ash [40]. Also, previous laboratory tests show that
[40]. Also, previous laboratory tests show that foundry waste sand treated
foundry
with waste
a small sand of
amount treated with bagasse
sugarcane a small ashamount
reducesof sugarcane
the hydraulic bagasse ash reduces
conductivity [41]. the hydraulic
conductivity [41].
6971
Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
(a) (b)
(a) D (b)
D
D
D
ds=0.414 D ds=0.155 D
Figure9.9. Theoretical
Figure Theoretical pore sizes
pore of soil
sizes ofpacking: (a) the loosest
soil packing: tetrahedral
(a) the loosestpacking, (b) thepacking,
tetrahedral densest cubic
(b)packing.
the densest
cubic packing. ds=0.414 D ds=0.155 D
𝐺𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑒𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑥 ( − 1)
𝐺𝑠𝑎𝑠ℎ
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑥 = (a) the loosest tetrahedral packing, (b) the densest cubic
Figure 9. Theoretical pore sizes of soil packing: (1) packing.
𝐺𝑠
¯ 1 + 𝑥 ( 𝐺𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑´− 1)
𝑎𝑠ℎ
´ 1 esand ´ x Gs sand
Gs ash
where, emix is the void ratio of sand-biomass
emix “ ash 𝐺𝑠
mixture,
´𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1)esand is¯ the void ratio of sand, Gssand is the (1)
𝑒𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑥 ( 𝐺𝑠 Gs
specific gravity of sand, Gsash is 𝑒the specific gravity
1 x of𝑎𝑠ℎ
biomass
sand
´ 1ash and x is replacement weight ratio
𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
` (1)
𝐺𝑠 Gs ash
between sand and biomass ash. 1 + 𝑥 ( 𝐺𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1)
𝑎𝑠ℎ
where, emix is the void ratio of sand-biomass ash mixture, esand is the void ratio of sand, Gssand is the
where,
specific 5.2. Constrained
emix
gravity is the
of sand,Modulus
void ratio
Gsash of is sand-biomass ash mixture,
the specific gravity of biomassesand isash
theand
void ratio
x is of sand, Gs
replacement sand is the
weight ratio
specificsand
between gravityand of sand,
biomass Gsash.
ash is the specific gravity of biomass ash and x is replacement
The gradient of the stress-strain curve in Figure 6 is calculated by load increment to determine weight ratio
between sand and biomass
the development ash.
of the constrained modulus (M) with vertical stress. The summary plot in Figure
5.2. Constrained
10 shows the Modulus
increase in stiffness in line with increasing load, and decrease in stiffness in line with
5.2. Constrained Modulusash content. The shell structure of low-density wood and sugarcane bagasse
increasing biomass
The gradient
ashes of theconstrained
causes lower stress-strain curve
moduli in Figure
of biomass 6 is
ashes calculated
that is consistentbywith
load increment
previous resultsto[42].
determine
The gradient
the development of of
thethe stress-strain
constrained curve
modulus in Figure
(M) with 6 is calculated
vertical stress.by load
The
Also, the constrained moduli of wood and sugarcane bagasse ashes increase after reaching 100 and increment
summary to
plot determine
in Figure 10
the development
shows 200the kPa,
increase of the constrained
in stiffness
respectively, because modulus
in their
line with (M) with
increasing
shell structure may vertical
load, stress.
and be
possibly The
decrease summary
rupturedinunder plot
stiffness in Figure
in line
the given with
10 shows the
pressures
increasing biomassincrease
(Figure in stiffness in line with increasing load, and decrease
ash10).content. The shell structure of low-density wood and sugarcane bagasse in stiffness in line with
increasing
ashes causes biomass
lower ash content.
(a) constrained The shell
moduli structure
of biomass (b) of low-density
ashes woodwith
that is consistent and previous
sugarcaneresultsbagasse[42].
ashes causes lower100constrained moduli of biomass ashes 100 that is consistent with previous results [42].
Also, the constrained moduli of wood and sugarcane bagasse ashes increase after reaching 100
Constrained Modulus [MPa]
Also, the constrained moduli of wood and sugarcane bagasse ashes increase after reaching 100 and
and 200 kPa, respectively, because their shell structure may possibly be ruptured under the given
200 kPa, respectively, because their shell0~10% structure may possibly be ruptured 0~10% under the given
pressures (Figure 10).10 10
pressures (Figure 10).
100%
100%
(a) (b)
1 1
100 100
0.1 0~10% 0.1 0~10%

10 1 10 100 1000 10000 101 10 100 1000 10000
100%
100%
Figure 10. Constrained modulus as a function of vertical effective stress for all Ottawa 20/30
1
sand–biomass 1
ash mixtures. Constrained modulus is calculated by stress increment in a way of
dividing the average stress by the strain measured during load increment: (a) wood ash and
0.1 0.1
1
Constrained 10
modulus of 100
biomass 1000 10000
ash decreases in line1with increasing
10 100 1000
ash contents 10000
in mixtures
(Figure 11).The mixtures containing up to 10% biomass ash content have highly constrained
moduli.10.
Figure Because all testsmodulus
Constrained are conducted at relatively
as a function low biomass
of vertical ash stress
effective contentfor (<10%), it could
all Ottawa be
20/30
Figure
assumed10. thatConstrained
large modulusshould
sand particles as a make
function of vertical
theisstructural effective
skeleton, while stress
small for all Ottawa
biomass ash
sand–biomass ash mixtures. Constrained modulus calculated by stress increment in a way of
20/30 sand–biomass
particles ash mixtures.
are generally placed in Constrained
the pore space modulus
amongislarge
calculated
particlesby asstress
shownincrement in a 9.way
in Figure
dividing the average stress by the strain measured during load increment: (a) wood ash and
of Therefore,
dividing the
theaverage
applied stress will
by the strain measured
be mainly transferredduring
throughload
the increment:
contact of large(a) wood ash and (b)
sand particles,
and the contact
sugarcane bagasseofash.
large particles will determine the constrained moduli of soils containing up to 10%
biomass ashes.
Constrained modulus of biomass ash decreases in line with increasing ash contents in mixtures
Constrained 11 in line with increasing ash contents in mixtures
(Figure 11).The modulus
mixtures ofcontaining
biomass ashup decreases
to 10% biomass ash content have highly constrained
(Figure
moduli.11).The
Becausemixtures containing
all tests up to at
are conducted 10% biomasslow
relatively ashbiomass
content ash
havecontent
highly(<10%),
constrained moduli.
it could be
assumed
Because all that
testslarge sand particles
are conducted should make
at relatively the structural
low biomass skeleton,
ash content while it
(<10%), small biomass
could ash
be assumed
particles
that are generally
large sand placed make
particles should in thethe
pore space among
structural large
skeleton, particles
while as shownash
small biomass in particles
Figure 9.are
Therefore,
generally the applied
placed stress
in the pore will among
space be mainly
largetransferred
particles through
as shownthe
incontact
Figure of large sand the
9. Therefore, particles,
applied
and the contact of large particles will determine the constrained moduli of soils containing up to 10%
biomass ashes.
11
6972
Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
stress will be mainly transferred through the contact of large sand particles, and the contact of large
particlesMarerials
will determine the constrained moduli of soils containing up to 10% biomass ashes.
2015, 8, page–page
(a) (b)
15 15

10 10
M [MPa]
M [MPa]
766 kPa 766 kPa

(a) (b)
15 383 kPa 15 383 kPa
5 5
96 kPa 192 kPa
10 24 kPa 10 48 kPa
M [MPa]
0 0
M [MPa]
0 766
20 kPa 40 60 80 100 0 766
20 kPa 40 60 80 100
Biomass ash content [%]
383 kPa 383 kPa
Biomass ash content [%]
5 5
Figure 11. Constrained modulus variation with ash content: (a) wood ash and (b) sugarcane bagasse ash.
Figure 11. Constrained modulus variation with ash content:
96 kPa (a) wood ash and (b) sugarcane
192 kPa
bagasse ash.
5.3. Shear Modulus 24 kPa 48 kPa
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
The maximum shear modulus (Gmax) can be calculated using Equation
Biomass ash(2).
content [%]
5.3. Shear Modulus Biomass ash content [%]
2
𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥
Figure 11. Constrained modulus variation with ash = ρ ∙(a)
content: 𝑉𝑠 wood ash and (b) sugarcane bagasse ash. (2)
The maximum shear modulus (Gmax ) can be calculated using Equation (2).
where, ρ is the density of the soil specimen and Vs is the S-wave velocity.
5.3. Shear Modulus
Figure 12 is the summary plot of maximum shear modulus versus vertical effective stress while
Gmax “ ρ ¨ Vs2 (2)
loading all tested Ottawa
The maximum 20/30 sand-biomass
shear modulus (Gmax) can beash mixtures.
calculated The Equation
using results show
(2). that (1) the maximum
shear modulus increases along with applied stress, (2) the maximum shear modulus of Ottawa
where, ρ20/30
is the density
sand is higherof than
the soil specimen
biomass 𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥
and
ashes, and V=
(3) s is
the 𝑉𝑠 2 S-wave
ρ maximum
∙the velocity.
shear modulus decreases along with
(2)
Figure 12ρ is
biomass
where, ash
is the
the summary
content.
density of theplot of maximum
soil specimen and Vsshear modulus
is the S-wave versus vertical effective stress while
velocity.
loading all tested
Figure(a)12Ottawa 20/30 sand-biomass
is the summary plot of maximum ashshear
mixtures.
(b) modulus The results
versus show
vertical that stress
effective (1) the maximum
while
loading allincreases
shear modulus tested
1000 Ottawa along20/30with
sand-biomass
applied ash mixtures.
stress, (2)
1000 The maximum
the results show shear
that (1)modulus
the maximumof Ottawa
0% 0%
shear modulus increases along
20/30 sand is higher than biomass ashes, and with applied
2% stress, (2) the maximum shear modulus
(3) the maximum shear modulus decreases 2% of Ottawa
along with
4%
20/30 sand is higher than biomass ashes, and (3) the maximum shear modulus decreases 4% along with
biomass ash content. 6% 6%
biomass ash content.
Gmax [MPa]
Gmax [MPa]
100 8% 100
8%
10% 10%
(a) 100% (b) 100%
1000 1000
10 0% 10 0%
2% 2%
4% 4%
6% 6%
Gmax [MPa]
Gmax [MPa]
100 8% 100
8%
1 10% 1
10%
1 10 100 1000 100%10000 1 10 100 1000 10000
100%
10 10
Figure 12. Gmax as a function of vertical effective stress during loading for all tested Ottawa 20/30
sand–biomass ash mixtures. The numbers in the figure denote the ash content in the mixture:
(a) wood ash
1
and (b) sugarcane bagasse ash. 1
1 10 100 1000 10000 1 10 100 1000 10000
Figure 13 clearly demonstrates that the maximum shear modulus
Vertical Stress [kPa] VerticalofStress
clean Ottawa 20/30 sand
[kPa]
dramatically decreased in line with the addition of biomass ashes. Previous
Figure 12. Gmax as a function of vertical effective stress during loading for all tested Ottawa studies on mixtures
20/30 of
Figure sandGparticles
12. max as awith
largesand–biomass function
small of
silt vertical
particles effective
also show stress
the during loading
decrease in
ash mixtures. The numbers in the figure denote the ash content in the mixture: G forVsall
max (or ) tested
along Ottawa
with an
20/30 sand–biomass
increase ash andash
in contents
(a) wood of mixtures.
(b) The numbers
small silt bagasse
sugarcane particles ash.[43,44].inBecause
the figureall denote
tests arethe ash content
conducted withina the mixture:
relatively
(a) low
wood biomass
ash andash (b)content
sugarcane (<10%),
bagasseit could
ash. be assumed that large sand particles should make the
structural
Figureskeleton,
13 clearlywhile small biomass
demonstrates that ash particles are
the maximum generally
shear moduluslocated in theOttawa
of clean pore space20/30among
sand
the large particles.
dramatically Therefore,
decreased in line applied
with thestress will of
addition bebiomass
mainly transferred
ashes. Previousthrough the contact
studies on mixturesof large
of
Figure 13 clearly demonstrates that the maximum shear modulus of clean Ottawa 20/30 sand
sand sand
large particles, andwith
particles the small
contact silt of large also
particles particles
showwill determinein the
the decrease Gmax stiffness
(or Vs) alongof the withsoils.
an
dramatically
increase decreased
Consequently,
in contents inofline
an increasesmall with
in small
silt the addition
biomass
particles ofBecause
biomass
ash particles
[43,44]. will ashes.
all disrupt
tests Previous
arethe studies
direct contact
conducted withamong on large
mixtures of
a relatively
large sand particles
sandbiomass
low particles, with
ashleading small
content siltdecrease
to(<10%),
the particles
it could in bealso
maximum showshear
assumed thelarge
that decrease
modulus
sandinparticlesGmax
inline with (ortheVincrease
should s )make
along inwith an
the
increasestructural
in contents
biomass ash of small
content.
skeleton, silt particles
while small biomass ash [43,44].
particlesBecause all tests
are generally areinconducted
located the pore space with a relatively
among
the largeash
low biomass particles.
content Therefore,
(<10%),appliedit could stressbewill be mainlythat
assumed transferred
large sandthrough the contact
particles of large
should make the
sand particles, and the contact
structural skeleton, while small biomass ash particles of large particles will determine the stiffness
12 are generally located in the pore space of the soils. among
Consequently, an increase in small biomass ash particles will disrupt the direct contact among large
the large particles. Therefore, applied stress will be mainly transferred through the contact of large
sand particles, leading to the decrease in maximum shear modulus in line with the increase in
sand particles,
biomass ashandcontent.
the contact of large particles will determine the stiffness of the soils. Consequently,
6973
12
Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
an increase in small biomass ash particles will disrupt the direct contact among large sand particles,
leadingMarerials
to the 2015,
decrease in maximum shear modulus in line with the increase in biomass ash content.
8, page–page
(a) (b)
400 400
Gmax [MPa] 300 300

Gmax [MPa]
(a) 200 (b) 200
400 1532 kPa 400
100 192 kPa 100 1532 kPa
300 96 kPa 300 383 kPa
Gmax [MPa]
96 kPa
Gmax [MPa]
12 kPa
0 0 24 kPa
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
200 200
Biomass ash content [%] Biomass ash content [%]
1532 kPa
Figure 13. Small-strain shear modulus variation with ash contents: (a) wood ash and (b) sugarcane
100 100
Figure 13. Small-strain shear modulus 192 variation
kPa with ash contents:
1532 kPa (a) wood ash and (b) sugarcane
bagasse ash. 96 kPa 383 kPa
bagasse ash. 12 kPa 96 kPa
0 0 24 kPa
0 20 40 60 80 100
5.4. S-wave velocity and empirical relations 0 20 40 60 80 100
Biomass ash content [%] Biomass ash content [%]
5.4. S-wave velocity and empirical relations
S-wave velocity Vs can be controlled by the nature of interparticle contacts and coordination.
Figure 13. Small-strain shear modulus variation with ash contents: (a) wood ash and (b) sugarcane
The effective stress governs the Vs of uncemented particulate materials as predicted by the semi-
S-wave velocity
bagasse ash.Vs can be controlled by the nature of interparticle contacts and coordination. The
empirical power relation [37] (Equation (3)):
effective stress governs the Vs of uncemented particulate materials as predicted by the semi-empirical
β
5.4. S-wave
power relation [37]velocity and empirical
(Equation (3)): relations σ′𝑜
𝑉𝑠 = α˜( )¸β (3)
S-wave velocity Vs can be controlled by the nature 1𝑘𝑃𝑎
1
σo of interparticle contacts and coordination.
The effective
where, stress
o’ is the governs
average effective
Vs and
the Vsstress, “ αα andparticulate
of uncemented materials asdetermined
β are experimentally predicted by the semi-
parameters.
(3)
1kPa
empiricalispower
α-factor relation
the value of Vs[37]
when(Equation (3)): and it is related to packing, properties of the particles,
o’ = 1 kPa
σo ’ is the
where, contact average
behavior effective
and fabric stress,
changes; and α and
β-exponent captures β the experimentally
σ′𝑜 β are sensitivity of Vs to determined
stress changesparameters.
[37].
As the shear wave velocity is measured 𝑉
at
α-factor is the value of Vs when σo ’ = 1 kPa and it1𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑠 = α (
different )
is related to packing, properties of the(3)particles,
stress states, the β-exponent reflects not only
contact contact
behavior behavior but fabric
and fabric changes
changes; [37]. Generally,
β-exponent the higher
captures the stiffness of
the sensitivity of the soils,
Vs to the greater
stress changes [37].
where,
the o’ isbut
α-factor theβ-exponent
average effective stress,
decreases and αto
according and
theβfollowing
are experimentally
Equation (4)determined
(Figure 14)parameters.
[37].
As the shear wave velocity is measured at different
α-factor is the value of Vs when o’ = 1 kPa and it is related stress states, the β-exponent reflects
to packing, properties of the particles, not only
α
contact behavior but fabric
contact behavior changes
and fabric changes; β = 0.36
[37].β-exponent
Generally, − higher
the
captures the stiffness of the soils, the (4) greater the
700 the sensitivity of Vs to stress changes [37].
buttheβ-exponent
α-factorAs shear wave decreases accordingat to
velocity is measured the following
different Equation
stress states, (4) (Figure
the β-exponent 14) [37].
reflects not only
contact behavior but fabric 0.35
changes [37]. Generally, the higher the stiffness of the soils, the greater
the α-factor but β-exponent decreases according to ´ α
the following Equation (4) (Figure 14) [37].
β “ 0.36 0.30 β=0.36-α/700 (Sanamarina et al., 2001) (4)
700
α
β = 0.36 − (4)
700
β-exponent
0.25 Ottawa 20/30-sugarcane

bagasse ash mixture
(6-100%) (0-4%)
0.35
0.20 Ottawa 20/30-
wood ash mixture
0.30 β=0.36-α/700 (Sanamarina
0% et al., 2001)
(0-100%)
0.15
β=0.7212-0.0066 α
β-exponent
0.25 Ottawa 20/30-sugarcane 100%

0.10 bagasse ash mixture
40 (6-100%)
50 60 (0-4%)
70 80 90 100
0.20 α-factor [m/s] Ottawa 20/30-
wood ash mixture
Figure 14. Variation 0% used(0-100%)
0.15 of the α-factor and β-exponent to model Gmax= α (o’/kPa)β.
β=0.7212-0.0066 α
In the case of the sand-wood

0.10 ash mixtures, there is a more100% pronounced decrease in the β-factor
40 50 60 70 80 90
with the wood ash content when α-factor increases, indicating that the100stiffness of the soil-wood ash
α-factor [m/s]
mixture decreases with the addition of wood ash particles because 100% wood ashes have lower
stiffness thanFigure
Ottawa 20/30 sand.
14. Variation Furthermore,
of the new relations
α-factor and β-exponent usedbetween
to model G αmax
and β oparameters
= α ( ’/kPa)β. can be
Figure 14. Variation of the α-factor and β-exponent used to model Gmax = α (σo ’/kPa)β .
determined using the following Equation (5).
In the case of the sand-wood ash mixtures, there is a more pronounced decrease in the β-factor
withcase
the wood β =increases,
0.7212 −indicating
0.0066α that the stiffness of the soil-wood(5)
In the of theash content when
sand-wood ashα-factor
mixtures, there is a more pronounced decrease in the ashβ-factor
mixture decreases
However, in with
the the
case addition
of of
sugarcane wood ash
bagasse particles
ashes, α because
and β 100%
parameters
with the wood ash content when α-factor increases, indicating that the stiffness of the soil-wood ash wood ashes
follow have
the lower
similar
stiffness than
relations Ottawa (5)
as Equation 20/30
withsand.
lowerFurthermore, new relations
sugarcane bagasse between(0%–4%)
ashes content α and βHowever,
parameters can be
β factors
mixture decreases with the addition of wood ash particles because 100% wood ashes have lower
determined using the following Equation (5). 13
stiffness than Ottawa 20/30 sand. Furthermore, new relations between α and β parameters can be
determined using the following Equation β(5).
= 0.7212 − 0.0066α (5)
However, in the case of sugarcane bagasse ashes, α and β parameters follow the similar
relations as Equation (5) with lower sugarcane bagasse ashes content (0%–4%) However, β factors
13
6974
Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
β “ 0.7212 ´ 0.0066α (5)
However, in the case of sugarcane bagasse ashes, α and β parameters follow the similar relations
as Equation (5) with lower sugarcane bagasse ashes content (0%–4%) However, β factors rarely show
constant values with higher sugarcane bagasse ashes content (6%–100%). Thus, the results show that
more than 6% sugarcane bagasse ash in mixtures causes the changes in contact behavior as well as a
fabric change in mixture that is consistent with the results in Figure 8.
6. Conclusions
The characteristics and engineering behaviors of wood and sugarcane bagasse ashes are
evaluated in terms of hydraulic conductivity, consolidation, and S-wave velocity. The conclusions
obtained from this study include the following:
‚ Photomicrographs taken with SEM show that both wood ash and sugarcane bagasse ash
consist of a heterogeneous mixture of different particle sizes and shapes and have a shell
structure that lowers their densities. Thus, the specific gravities of wood ash (Gs = 2.41),
sugarcane bagasse ash (Gs = 2.34) and coal fly ash Class C (Gs = 2.58) are less than Ottawa 20/30
sand (Gs = 2.65). Also, their shell structure results in a higher consolidation index (Cc = 1.105
for wood ash, Cc = 1.521 for sugarcane bagasse ash) than Ottawa 20/30 sand (Cc = 0.128) and a
lower constrained modulus. However, the constrained moduli of wood and sugarcane bagasse
ashes increase after reaching 100 and 200 kPa, respectively, because their shell structure may
possibly rupture under the given pressures.
‚ XRD analysis displays that both wood ash and sugarcane bagasse ash mainly consist of SiO2 ,
Al2 O3 , Fe2 O3 , MgO, K2 O and CaO that are similar to coal fly ash Class C. The composition
which takes up the greater portion of biomass ashes is the silicon dioxide (32.8%~84.2%, SiO2 )
that is responsible for the hydrophilicity and can lower hydraulic conductivity by absorbing
more water.
‚ Wood and sugarcane bagasse ashes represent high alkalinity. Wood ash has a pH of 12.57 and
sugarcane bagasse ash has a pH of 8.65, while Ottawa 20/30 sand is acidic indicating a pH
of 4.01.
‚ Particle sizes of wood ash (d50 = 0.180 mm) and sugarcane bagasse ash (d50 = 0.055 mm)
are about halfway between coal fly ash Class C (d50 = 0.022 mm) and Ottawa 20/30 sand
(d50 = 0.870 mm). These smaller biomass ash particles can fill in the pore spaces between host
particles of Ottawa 20/30 sand, which lowers the void ratio of Ottawa 20/30 sand–biomass ash
mixtures. Thus, hydraulic conductivity values decrease significantly when replacing the soils
with only 1%–2% of biomass ash. Thus, the Ottawa 20/30 sand–biomass ash mixtures can be
used to decrease the hydraulic conductivity of geotechnical structures.
‚ Constrained modulus and shear modulus increase in line with increasing load but decrease in
line with increasing biomass ash content. Ottawa 20/30 sand has higher constrained modulus
and shear modulus than biomass ash. Ottawa 20/30 sand–biomass ash mixtures containing
up to 10% ash can possess a high stiffness like Ottawa 20/30 sand because smaller biomass ash
particles can be placed in the pore spaces between large sand particles, and larger sand particles
can form the structural skeleton. Thus, the applied stress should be transferred mainly through
the contact between large sand particles, and the contact between large particles will determine
the stiffness of the soils.
‚ β-factor decreases in line with increasing wood ash content when the α-factor increases.
However, in case of sugarcane bagasse ashes, α and β parameters follow similar relations as
Equation (5) with lower sugarcane bagasse ash content (0%–4%). However, β factors rarely
show constant values with higher sugarcane bagasse ash content (6%–100%).
6975
Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977
Acknowledgments: This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National
Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science, ICT, and Future Planning
(Grant No. 2013R1A2A2A01068174) and Louisiana Board of Regents, Pilot Fund Program (Contract
No. LEQSF-EPS(2014)-PFUND-351).
Author Contributions: Jongwon Jung and Francisco Grau conceived and designed the experiments;
Francisco Grau, Jong Wan Hu and Hyunwook Choo performed the experiments, Jongwon Jung and Francisco
Grau analyzed the data and wrote the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Engineering Behavior and Characteristics of Wood Ash and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

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Engineering Behavior and Characteristics of Wood Ash and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

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Engineering Behavior and Characteristics of Wood

Keywords: biomass; wood ash; sugarcane bagasse ash; characterization

Materials 2015, 8, 6962–6977; doi:10.3390/ma8105353 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Table 1. Annual biomass availability [6,7].

Biomass in 2012 Estimated Biomass in 2017 Percentage of Ash

2.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Biomass

Average Particle Diameter (d50 ) Bulk Density Specific Surface Area

3.2. Sample Preparation

3.3. Experimental Methods

Percentage Passing [%]

Table Test Ottawa 20/30

S- wave velocity [m/s]

Constrained Modulus [MPa]

Constrained Modulus [MPa]

0.1 0~10% 0.1 0~10%

Marerials 2015, 8, page–page

766 kPa 766 kPa

96 kPa 192 kPa

Gmax [MPa] 300 300

0.25 Ottawa 20/30-sugarcane

0.25 Ottawa 20/30-sugarcane 100%

In the case of the sand-wood

β “ 0.7212 ´ 0.0066α (5)

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