International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 1079–1087

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

A review of dwell sensitive fatigue in titanium alloys: the role of

microstructure, texture and operating conditions
M.R. Bache ∗
I.R.C. in Computer Aided Materials Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Wales, Swansea, Singleton Park,
Swansea SA2 8PP, UK

Abstract

The phenomenon of ambient temperature dwell sensitive fatigue in titanium alloys has been a concern to the gas turbine industries
for over three decades. However, largely due to economic constraints, it is unlikely that the titanium alloys will be replaced by
novel substitutes in the foreseeable future. Therefore, with the use of the near a and a/b variants for safety critical components in
the low and high pressure compressor sections of the engine, the potential effects of “cold dwell” continue to compromise design.
A significant amount of research has been conducted during the intervening years to understand the fundamental deformation
mechanisms controlling dwell behaviour. The present paper will explore these findings and highlight the important issues for
consideration during the design and service of future aerospace components and alternative high performance applications.
 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Titanium alloys; Fatigue; Dwell loading; Quasi-cleavage facets; Cold creep; Stress redistribution

1. Historical background demanding mechanical conditions during routine oper-

Titanium alloy developments were instrumental in the
advancement of gas turbine technology over the latter
half of the 20th century. Compared to steels, which
dominated the early engine designs manufactured
immediately after the Whittle era, the near a and a/b
titanium alloys in particular offered a clear advantage in
terms of reduced density and corrosion resistance. With
an operating temperature capability approaching 600 °C,
they were soon recognised as candidates for critical rot-
ating components such as discs and blades in the low to
high pressure sections of the compressor. Despite being
in use even some 50 years later, their employment for
such applications is guaranteed for some considerable
time to come. This is due to the fact that, although novel
replacement materials including the metal matrix com-
posites and intermetallics are now well advanced, these
substitute materials are expensive to develop, technically
problematic to manufacture on the industrial scale and
to date remain unproven under service conditions.
Critical disc and blade components experience
∗
Tel.: +44-1792-295-287; fax: +44-1792-295-693.
E-mail address: mbache@swansea.ac.uk (M.R. Bache).
ation. Since loading will be principally cyclic in nature,
extensive fatigue databases have been generated over the
years in support of titanium component design,
employing both laboratory and test bed assessments.
Initially, these data were applied to the early fatigue
lifing methods based on the “life to first crack” approach,
generating stress-life (SN) or strain-life (e–N) curves to
set safe operating conditions for service. In essence, a
component would ultimately be retired on exceeding the
safe life or alternatively “retired for cause” on the detec-
tion of a fatigue crack [1]. This philosophy ignores any
potential remaining life, whilst the crack continues to
grow in a subcritical manner and in this sense the
approach may be considered inefficient. With the advent
of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), the alterna-
tive “defect tolerant” lifing schemes were applied to
aerospace applications from around 1970 onwards. In
this case, from a detailed knowledge of fatigue crack
propagation characteristics, calculations of safe life are
performed assuming the presence of an initial “defect”.
In contrast, the latter approach ignores the concept of
crack initiation or nucleation and assumes a pre-existing
crack will grow from the very first loading cycle. Whilst
these separate lifing techniques have their merits, it is
argued that a “holistic” approach to describe the fatigue

0142-1123/$ - see front matter  2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0142-1123(03)00145-2
1080 M.R. Bache / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 1079–1087
process would be more beneficial. This approach
accounts for the full range of fatigue processes starting
from initiation, through to short or small crack, then long
crack growth and subsequently on to rapid failure [2].
Since titanium compressor components fall into a “high
performance” category and their high operating stresses
dictate a small LEFM critical flaw size, the holistic
approach is particularly appealing since the vast majority
of the operating life will be spent in the initiation and
early crack growth stages [1]. Therefore, this implies a
need for a detailed understanding of deformation and
crack development on a microscale (i.e. from grain to
grain). This is especially so for some of the commonly
employed titanium alloys which tend to possess a rela-
tively large grain size.
The specific phenomenon of ambient temperature
dwell sensitivity was first recognised in late 1972/early
1973 through the uncontained failure of two titanium
alloy fan discs in Rolls-Royce RB211 engines which at
that time powered Lockheed Tristar aircraft [3,4]. These
events occurred at a precarious economic time for both
Rolls-Royce and Lockheed, with the former still
recovering from the extensive capital outlay of the
RB211 research and development programme [4]. The
fan discs experiencing the problem were manufactured
from the near a alloy IMI 685. These discs had entered
service after previously satisfying all the accepted
fatigue criteria of that era, including full scale, test rig,
spinning assessments. However, the early service fail-
ures were indicative that additional factors were affect-
ing the fatigue response and it was soon agreed that
fatigue in titanium alloys at ambient temperatures could
no longer be described by simple load on/load off cycles.
A typical flight operation, broken down in simplistic
terms into a sequence comprising take off–cruise–land-
ing, Fig. 1, could not be modelled as a single LCF cycle.
The action of the relatively long term hold or “dwell”
at high mean stress during the cruise stage had clearly
influenced fatigue performance. As a reaction to these
events, the 685 discs were replaced with Ti-6Al-4V (Ti
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of a single duty cycle for a civil gas
turbine engine. Operational timescales represented as minutes (m) or
hours (h).
6/4) on the ground that this alloy had already accumu-
lated significant service experience without such inci-
dents and newly commissioned assessments demon-
strated an insensitivity to dwell loading for this finer
grained variant. To this day, all RR engine designs for
civil applications, including the present Trent family of
power plant, utilise Ti 6/4 for fan disc components in
common with the vast majority of competing engines
offered by their rivals in Europe and the US. Clearly,
the issue of dwell sensitivity continues to compromise
modern engine design. It is vital that successive gener-
ations of aero-designers and those working with titanium
alloys in alternative sectors such as marine, offshore,
petro-chemical and land based power generation, are
made aware of the issue and the factors controlling “cold
dwell” behaviour.
2. Fracture characteristics and early investigations
The immediate research efforts were naturally centred
in the UK, involving collaboration between Rolls-Royce
and what was then the Royal Aircraft Establishment at
Farnborough (RAE). Detailed failure analysis illustrated
that the dwell failures had initiated subsurface and,
therefore, some distance away from the predicted peak
stress locations. Later modelling of compressor disc
stresses explained why such subsurface sites were pre-
ferred due to cyclic stress redistribution [5]. Invariably,
the initiation sites were characterised by the presence of
“quasi-cleavage facets”. These inherent features, pro-
duced during the early stages of fatigue fracture in all the
near a and a/b titanium alloys, Fig. 2, are now known to
form on the basal plane of the hexagonal alpha crystallo-
graphic unit [6]. Despite the adjective “quasi-cleavage”
it will become evident in the following sections that they
are not considered to be the result of a brittle fracture
mechanism, but instead due to the gradual separation of
Fig. 2. Quasi-cleavage facets formed at a subsurface initiation site in
Ti–6Al–4V.
 M.R. Bache / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 1079–1087
slip damage concentrated within a persistent planar slip
band [7].
A much referenced paper published by Evans and
Gostelow, detailing a laboratory assessment of IMI 685
under cyclic and dwell loading, confirmed the reduction
in fatigue life across the low cycle fatigue regime (103–
105 cycles) due to the imposition of a 5 min hold at peak
stress [8]. More recently, a 2 min dwell has often been
adopted as a more practical period for dwell assess-
ments. Due to the relatively large cross-sectional dimen-
sions of the fan discs, one of the primary factors con-
sidered to be controlling the dwell response was that of
constraint and plane strain. However, Evans and Goste-
low had actually reported subsurface failures in their
small section laboratory specimens [8]. More systematic
studies involving specimens of various section size were
conducted by Hoeppner and co workers in IMI 685 and
IMI 829, an alternative near a alloy which also demon-
strates dwell sensitivity [9]; however, this latter work
appeared to be inconclusive with respect to the effects
of constraint. Subsequent work on IMI 685 at Swansea,
utilising a tubular specimen containing a 1.5 mm wall
thickness (designed for use under tension or torsion),
yielded some excellent examples of quasi-cleavage
facets [10], reproduced in Fig. 3. It has been concluded,
therefore, that bulk constraint is not a pre-requisite for
dwell behaviour.
The role of interstitial elements in controlling the
stress–strain response of titanium alloys is well docu-
mented [11–13]. Species such as hydrogen, nitrogen and
oxygen all provide an improvement in yield and ultimate
strength. However, this is typically accompanied by a
reduction in ductility. Subsequently, the formation of
brittle hydrides, through the time dependent diffusion of
hydrogen under the influence of a hydrostatic stress field,
has been proposed as a cause of the dwell phenomenon
Fig. 3. A large scale facet formed in a tubular specimen of Timetal
685 [10].
1081
[14]. However, the exact role of hydrogen remains unre-
solved, not least due to the fact that any precipitating
hydrides are virtually impossible to detect in titanium
alloys. Unlike the zirconium family of alloys, which
readily illustrate the formation of super-saturated
hydrides that can subsequently dominate fracture behav-
iour [15], no such features have been evident in titanium.
Abnormally high internal hydrogen contents have been
shown to adversely affect fatigue performance under
dwell loading in IMI 685 [16]. However, this was
accompanied by a distinct a/b interface failure mode,
Fig. 4. This is untypical of the facetted fractures demon-
strated by “as received” stock materials with a nominal
hydrogen content of approximately 60 ppm and the in-
service disc failures. It may also be pertinent to note that
Nelson, performing crack propagation experiments in the
same alloy, found almost identical fracture surface fea-
tures when tests were performed in a concentrated gase-
ous hydrogen environment [17]. Finally in terms of the
hydride debate, IMI 685 material that has been heat
treated to extract hydrogen (to levels ⬍10 ppm) persists
in showing a dwell effect [18] and this effect is reiterated
for IMI 685 containing ⬍20 ppm H2 in Fig. 5. The evi-
dence against a hydride induced mechanism for dwell
failure is considered to be significant. However, there
appears to be no doubt that hydrogen may play a subsidi-
ary role in its control of plastic deformation and dislo-
cation motion [19,20].
3. Controlling factors—time dependency
If chemical or environmental processes such as
hydride formation are discounted as a means of inducing
early dwell failures, then the alternative time dependent
mechanism of creep has to be considered. Creep is nor-
Fig. 4. Typical fracture surface produced in Timetal 685, containing
an abnormally high concentration of internal hydrogen (250 ppm),
under fatigue at 20 °C [16].
1082 M.R. Bache / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 1079–1087
Fig. 5. Cyclic and dwell fatigue response of Timetal 685 with low
(⬍20 ppm) internal hydrogen at 20 °C (R = 0.1).
mally considered to be a high temperature failure mode
(i.e. at temperatures ⬎0.3 Tm, where Tm is the melting
temperature of the alloy) [21]. However, numerous
reports have been published relating to the ability of
titanium alloys to accumulate strain when under static
or cyclic load at room temperature. The influence of
ambient temperature creep in titanium was noted as an
artefact of the early dwell incidents. Such “cold creep”
effects form a continuing area of study for Mills and co-
workers based at Ohio State University in the USA.
Their work has demonstrated that ambient temperature
strain accumulation results from planar slip damage
[22,23]. All the near a and a/b alloys demonstrate what
has become known as “cold creep” irrespective of grain
size and microstructural form, although the rate of defor-
mation is clearly controlled by such parameters. This is
illustrated in Fig. 6 for IMI 685 in two microstructural
conditions tested at identical cyclic stress conditions.
Fig. 6. Accumulation of cyclic strain in basketweave and aligned
forms of Timetal 685.
The enhanced rate of strain accumulation due to a dwell
cycle is also demonstrated in Fig. 7.
The cold creep phenomenon in titanium alloys comp-
lements the theories of fatigue crack initiation or Stage
I cracking which require plastic deformation in the form
of dislocation movement on favourably orientated slip
planes, albeit cyclic deformation under fatigue loading.
However, at first sight, two specific features of the facet-
ted fractures do not appear to conform to such models.
Firstly, as stated previously, the components and sub-
sequent laboratory specimens all failed from subsurface
sites. Secondly, the facets tend to lie on a plane perpen-
dicular to the principal tensile loading direction and,
therefore, are more difficult to ascribe to a slip defor-
mation model. In order to explain this behaviour, Evans
and Bache [7] have compared facet formation to the
planar slip band model of Stroh [24]. The basis of this
model, which essentially describes a process of stress
redistribution between “weak” and “strong” grains, is
believed to represent early crack formation in all
titanium alloys under fatigue loading and has been
widely adopted amongst the titanium research com-
munity [25,26]. As illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3, facets are
inherent features in all titanium variants, the only vari-
ation being their scale, which is in turn controlled by the
alloy grain size. Through a series of experiments
employing the electron back scattered diffraction tech-
nique (EBSD), the relative strength of neighbouring
grains has been shown to be highly dependent on the
orientation of basal planes with respect to the axis of
loading [6,27,28]. This form of characterisation has been
successfully extended to the component scale by workers
at the GE engine company who have utilised EBSD to
produce textural maps of grain orientations in the alloy
Ti 6242 [29].
A relationship between stiffness and basal plane orien-
tation had been reported for single crystals of pure
titanium as early as the 1960’s [30,31]. A variation in
Fig. 7. Accumulation of cyclic strain under cyclic and dwell (2 min)
loading in Timetal 685.
 M.R. Bache / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 1079–1087
Fig. 8. Variation in elastic modulus with orientation of titanium sin-
gle crystals [31].
elastic modulus according to the angle between the ten-
sile stress axis and the basal plane was measured, Fig.
8. An interesting point to note from this data is that the
typical value of E ascribed to the majority of titanium
alloys when processed in the polycrystalline form tends
to fall close to the average of the extreme single crystal
values at approximately 120 GPa. The probability of
neighbouring grains possessing different elastic proper-
ties is clearly a reality. This anisotropic behaviour on the
microstructural scale is fully consistent with the redistri-
bution model and is believed to control early defor-
mation and facet formation.
Examples from both laboratory scale specimens and
rig components have been reported as a vindication of
the dislocation pile up model proposed by Stroh [6,32].
Slip within a favourably orientated (i.e. weak) grain with
its basal plane inclined to the applied tensile axis induces
a pile up at the boundary with a neighbouring grain, Fig.
9. This in turn induces a shear stress in the “strong” grain
and instigates the formation of a slip band which, under
the combination of the applied cyclic tensile loading σ1
and the supplementary tensile stress σ, progressively
opens up to form the nucleus of a fatigue crack. The
point at which the slip band can be designated as a crack
Fig. 9. The Stroh model for planar slip [24].
1083
is obviously a point of theoretical debate, as is the tem-
poral relationship between cracking in what Stroh orig-
inally called the “source” and “failure” grains. Since this
process usually occurs subsurface, this sequence of
events has never been observed experimentally. How-
ever, the optimum combination of shear stress to form
the slip band and tensile stress to open the crack would
suggest that it is the perpendicular facet in the failure
grain that forms the first “crack like discontinuity” as
proposed by Wojcik et al. [33].
An alternative “two element” redistribution model to
describe the anisotropic deformation of titanium alloys
on the microstructural scale is presented in Fig. 10.
Initially, a weak grain (where the basal plane could be
lying at say 45° to the tensile axis) sits juxtaposed to a
strong grain (designated W and S, respectively).
Whether these grains exist in a laboratory specimen or
in a component, one must assume the application of a
fixed stress sapp. Assuming a nominal difference in elas-
tic modulus in these two grains, as predicted in Fig. 8,
and an associated difference in yield strength, the two
grains will attempt to deform to different levels of strain
ew and es, respectively. However, in reality, on the micro-
structural scale, these grains will be constrained and both
will achieve some average value of strain eeff. The conse-
quence of this constraint is that, despite an applied fixed
stress, a condition of fixed strain with different levels of
stress (sw and ss, respectively, where notably sw ⬍ ss)
is imposed on the system. Consistent with the previous
slip band model, the weak grain essentially throws stress
onto the strong grain and it is presumed that the strong
grain preferentially fails. Again, laboratory and in-ser-
vice evidence supports this assumption, since dwell
sensitive fatigue appears to be most prevalent in alloys
where a mixture of microstructural conditions exists. For
example, in the thick section IMI 685 components, areas
of alignment within the optimum Widmanstatten or bas-
ketweave structure are often found as a result of insuf-
ficient cooling rate. Additionally, assessments on an
Fig. 10. Schematic two element model to describe stress redistri-
bution.
1084 M.R. Bache / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 1079–1087
Fig. 11. Best fit for cyclic fatigue crack growth (1 Hz sine) compared
to two repeat dwell tests (2 min dwell period) in Timetal 834 (disc
variant).
alternative near a alloy, IMI 834, demonstrated the
importance of prior work to break down regions of simi-
lar grain orientation [34].
Once the fatigue process has been instigated, through
the formation of the initiating facet, the imposition of a
dwell waveform appears to have minimal influence on
the rate of fatigue crack growth, Fig. 11. Note the data
in this figure relate to the alloy IMI 834 in the forged
disc condition which, as discussed below, is known to
demonstrate a dwell sensitive response in terms of total
life measurements. This insensitive crack growth behav-
iour is true, at least, for cracks which are relatively
“long” compared to the microstructure. In agreement
with the models for facet formation, which involve the
effects of enhanced time dependent planar slip defor-
mation under dwell loading, differences in cyclic and
dwell crack growth rates can be measured for “micro-
structurally short cracks”. The data illustrated in Fig. 12,
Fig. 12. Effects of mean stress and dwell loading on early crack
growth in Timetal 834 (thin section, notched specimens under tension).
again for IMI 834, also demonstrate a mean stress effect
under near threshold conditions which again is consistent
with the Stroh model since a high R ratio will promote
the pile up of dislocations and restrict the relaxation of
strain along the source slip band.
4. Alloy developments
During the intervening years, since dwell sensitive
failures were first recognised, a succession of alloy
developments have taken place in the drive to eliminate
dwell as a design limiting parameter. As mentioned pre-
viously, Ti 6/4 was considered to be dwell insensitive
when utilised in either aerospace recommended form i.e.
fine grained annealed a or bimodal a + b microstruc-
tures. However, Evans has demonstrated that Ti 6/4 can
illustrate dwell properties, as illustrated in Fig. 13, when
processed above the b transus and allowed to slow cool
to form a relatively coarse grained aligned morphology
[35]. Although this may not be considered significant in
terms of aero-engine applications which tend to avoid
such a microstructural condition, such localised struc-
tures are produced by welding operations and so atten-
tion to the dwell effect may be deemed necessary in
complementary industrial sectors where fabricated struc-
tures are produced (for example, marine and offshore
applications). An annealed a microstructure in Ti 6/4
was also shown to be sensitive to dwell, but only at very
high stress conditions approaching the UTS of the alloy.
The original problems associated with dwell failures
in IMI 685 arose from the decision to employ this alloy
as a disc material throughout the LP and HP compressor
when, in fact, the alloy had been optimised for creep
performance at high temperature alone. In hindsight, it
can be seen that the large grain size, enhancing a planar
slip deformation mechanism, was detrimental to static
and cyclic behaviour at ambient temperature. This in part
Fig. 13. Dwell sensitive fatigue response of Ti–6Al–4V processed
above the beta transus [35].
 M.R. Bache / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 1079–1087 1085

acted as a driver for the development of a new alloy

from the IMI stable in the UK (later to become Timet
UK) designated IMI 834, which after considerable
research adopted a bimodal a + b microstructure, con-
sidered to be optimised against both creep and fatigue
[36]. Initial mechanical evaluations for fatigue response
were encouraging since laboratory specimens machined
from relatively small diameter round bar stock did not
illustrate a knock down in performance due to dwell
loading [34]. However, subsequent testing on specimens
extracted from an isothermal 834 disc forging showed a
dwell sensitivity at all applied stress levels above the
approximate cyclic yield stress, Fig. 14. Again, the
explanation of this behaviour was attributed to micro-
structural anisotropy. Whereas the bar stock had been Fig. 15. Cyclic and dwell fatigue response of Ti 6246 in the forged
disc condition [37].
heavily worked and subjected to a final solution heat
treatment before specimen manufacture, resulting in the
recommended 15% volume fraction of well distributed,
equi-axed, primary a grains, the disc material illustrated in Fig. 15) resulting from heat treatment above the b
regions of elongated a grains and localised agglomer- transus followed by working in the a + b field. This b
ation, Fig. 14. EBSD measurements taken from the heav- phase will be of a BCC crystallographic form and, there-
ily facetted fracture surfaces showed that the disc fore, more homogeneous in its slip deformation. This
material contained regions of common basal plane orien- will minimise the local grain to grain anisotropy. In
tation which promoted an effective increase in the con- addition, recent EBSD measurements of grain and a col-
trolling grain size and subsequent planar slip band length ony orientations, performed on Ti 6246 samples taken
[34]. Ti 6242, adopted for contemporary GE engine from forged discs, show that within individual prior b
designs, has been shown to illustrate similar microstruc- grains, the a lath colonies tend to transform with varying
tural anisotropy [29]; however, it should be emphasised basal plane orientations. This behaviour is consistent
that these effects are more likely to be an artefact of with the Burgers’ relationship describing crystallo-
process control rather than alloy chemistry. graphic phase transformations from BCC to HCP. Pre-
Coming up to date, the alloy Ti 6246 has been intro- vious work has highlighted not only the importance of
duced into selected Rolls-Royce Trent engine designs as basal planes in facet formation (crack initiation) but also
a compressor disc alloy. An improvement in fatigue the preference for crack growth along similar planes
strength for this variant over and above IMI 834 is [38]. A limited amount of information relating to
inferred from Fig. 15, whilst the insensitivity to dwell initiation and short crack growth in Ti 6246, performed
loading of Ti 6246 has been confirmed across the tem- using a laboratory test specimen under four point bend-
perature range ⫺60 to 150 °C [37]. This may be the ing, even suggests that cracks may initiate at grain
consequence of the increased volume fraction of the b boundaries in preference to transgranular facetting in this
phase within this alloy (contained within the dark matrix alloy [39].

Fig. 14. Cyclic and dwell fatigue response of Timetal 834 in bar and forged disc conditions [34].
1086 M.R. Bache / International Journal of Fatigue 25 (2003) 1079–1087
5. Future considerations
The present review of dwell sensitivity in titanium
alloys, based mainly on work performed in the UK but
complemented by additional internationally based stud-
ies, has demonstrated a belief that the accumulation of
time dependent, plastic strain on the local microstruc-
tural scale lies at the heart of the phenomenon. The
inherent anisotropic mechanical response of neighbour-
ing grains leads to the formation of quasi-cleavage facets
on basal planes which are orientated at a favourable
angle for subsequent crack propagation, i.e. perpendicu-
lar to the principal tensile loading axis. Therefore, the
dwell effect is considered to be an initiation, or at most
a “short crack”, dominated mechanism depending on the
individual’s interpretation of behaviour in this early
stage of the fatigue response.
Although the contribution of interstitial elements is
not considered as a controlling factor per se, other than
generally affecting bulk strength and the rate of strain
accumulation, it is agreed that the role of hydrogen in
particular may still warrant further investigation. If the
stress redistribution based models for facet development
are correct, then a significantly different fatigue response
may be expected for loading spectra containing com-
pressive loading. This is considered likely because either
the pile up stresses at the grain boundary would be
relieved via the reversed loading or the eventual embry-
onic facet will be prevented from opening by a reduced
tensile stress component. It is interesting to note that,
under static cold creep conditions, Mills and co-workers
have noted differences relating to deformation induced
under tensile or compressive loading [40] and further
work under compressive fatigue loading could prove
informative.
To the author’s knowledge, no data have been
reported for dwell evaluations performed under cyclic
strain controlled conditions. This would be of interest
to compare to the wealth of load and stress controlled
information, particularly in light of the two element
model proposed in Fig. 10 and the potential effects on
stress redistribution. Likewise, the increasing interest in
highly textured titanium alloy forms (e.g. uni-direc-
tionally rolled plate) should also warrant an assessment
of dwell response. These products can demonstrate basal
plane intensities on the macroscopic scale close to ×20
random [41]. Since fracture behaviour in these UD rolled
materials has been shown to be highly sensitive to basal
plane orientation under both uni-axial and multi-axial
stress conditions [42,43], the potential complications
introduced by time dependent strain accumulation
require characterisation.
Finally, considerable efforts are currently in progress
in the area of computer modelling to describe and predict
failure in the titanium alloys. Early, two dimensional
modelling correlated the need for an optimum combi-
nation of shear and tensile stresses to initiate cracks in
the alloy IMI 829 to experimental evidence [44]. With
the perpetual increase in computer processing capability,
such models can now be attempted on the three dimen-
sional basis [45]. These efforts address the fundamental
failure mechanisms in titanium alloys such as Ti 6/4
[46], specific dwell related issues in the disc alloy Ti
6242 [47] and the optimisation of process controls to
produce plate materials with deliberate macroscopic tex-
tures [42,48]. All these computational algorithms require
an accurate assessment of mechanical properties on the
individual grain scale and a fundamental description of
grain to grain interactions. Further work to enhance our
understanding of the dwell sensitivity and the conven-
tional cyclic fatigue behaviour of titanium alloys will
support these modelling activities and offer more
efficient use of these alloys in future engineering
designs.
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