DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES,

ODUDUWA UNIVERSITY IPETUMODU, PMB 5533, ILE-IFE, OSUN-STATE.

GST 110 (AGRICULTURE, RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES, ANIMAL

HUSBANDRY AND HEALTH) LECTURE NOTES.

LECTURER: OSENI, S. R.
 LECTURE 1:

THE CONCEPT OF AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is a way of life that involves production of animals, fishes, crops, forest resources for

the consumption of man and supplying the agro-allied product required by our sectors. It is seen

as the inherited and dominant occupation employing about 70% of Nigerians. Though,

subsistence agriculture is practiced in this part of the world, it will not be an overstatement to say

that it is the life-wire of the economies of developing countries.

The sector has the following as its component:

 Crop production: this involves the cultivation of different crops which may be food crops or

cash crops. Food crops are mainly for consumption like yam, cassava, rice, beans maize, tomato,

cocoyam, millets corn etc. The cash crops are only meant for sale either locally or export to

generate foreign exchange. They include cocoa, rubber, cotton, palm oil, palm kernel, groundnut

etc. Livestock, this involves rearing of domestic animals for consumption. Such animals include

goat, ram sheep etc.

 Forestry: this concerns the preservation and maintenance of economic trees

or plants. It also involves the extraction of various form of resources associated with forest. We

derived a lot from such plants preserved and they include timber for plywood, furniture building

of houses, boat manufacture of papers, electric pole etc. Other resources like wild life, roots and

herbs.

 Fishing: this involves breeding and catching of fish from the river for domestic

consumption and commercial purpose. In fact, there are some countries that specifically focus on

this subsector as one of the means of generating revenue.

 Peasant farming: this involves cultivation of a small scale (acres of land). This is also called

subsistence agriculture because it is provided to meet domestic needs and survival or to eke out

living from their farm produce. The size of the of the land used by peasant farmers is determine

by the size of their family, land and the number of the size of the family interested in agriculture.

Rudimentary agriculture equipment such as hoes, cutlasses, and axes etc which are crude in

nature are usually used.

 Plantation farming: this is the system that involves the use of a large estate of land permanently

planted with economic or commercial crops. Such crops planted on plantation farming include

cocoa, tea, cotton, sugar, tobacco, rubber, sugarcane, palm tree, coffee and other commercial

crops. In plantation farming land could be owned by government, private, individuals or

corporate bodies. Mechanized equipment and modern inputs are mainly used in plantation

farming. Mechanization is the extensive use of machine and the other type of advanced and

mechanical devices in agricultural production. Mechanized agriculture ensures large scale

production because the use of human labour is replaced with that of machines such as tractors,

ploughs, harvesters and other engine driven devices. This is highly capital intensive.

Agriculture is the predominant activity in most of the zones in Nigeria, percentage of persons

working in agriculture ranges between 24.4 and 85.1 percent across zones in Nigeria. With

respect to states, the activity ranges between 2.4 and 91.7 per cent, majority of states having over

50 percent. Increases in agricultural output brought about by increasing land and labour

productivity, will make food cheaper; benefit both rural and urban poor people who spend much

of their income on food. Under right condition, increase in agriculture productivity causes the

incomes of both small and large farmers to increase and generate employment opportunities.

These increases in income is particularly important because the proportion of people mainly
dependent on agriculture for their income remains high; ranging from 45% in East and South

Asia, to 53.2% in Asia and 63.5% in Sub-Saharan Africa. The agricultural sector has a traditional

role to play in the path of economic development. But in an economy like Nigeria, the

agricultural sector had suffered set back in recent times, which has attributed to widespread

poverty and insecurity experienced today. Though, no so-called developed nation

today actualized this status solely by agricultural transformation, but in many, conscious efforts

on agriculture at the early stage of development played a critical role in economic development.

Moreover, rapid increase in agricultural output by increasing land and labour productivity will

make food cheaper benefiting both the urban and rural poor people who spend much of their

income on food. Increasing productivity will bring about increased incomes of both farmers and

even non-farmers, because the proportion of people mainly dependent directly or indirectly on

agriculture and agricultural products for their income remains extremely high.
LECTURE 2:

AGRICULTURE AND THE NIGERIAN ECONOMY: BRIEF HISTORY

The Nigerian economy, like that of Brazil during the first decade after independence, could

reasonably be described as an agricultural economy because agriculture served as the engine of

growth of the overall economy. From the standpoint of occupational distribution

and contribution to the GDP, agriculture was the leading sector. During this period Nigeria was

the world's second largest producer of cocoa, largest exporter of palm kernel and largest

producer and exporter of palm oil. Nigeria was also a leading exporter of other major

commodities such as cotton, groundnut, rubber and hides and skins. The

agricultural sector contributed over 60% of the GDP in the 1960s and despite the reliance of

Nigerian peasant farmers on traditional tools and indigenous farming methods, these farmers

produced 70% of Nigeria's exports and 95% of its food needs. However, the

agricultural sector suffered neglect during the hey-days of the oil boom in the 1970s. Since then

Nigeria has been witnessing extreme poverty and the insufficiency of basic food items.

ROLES OF AGRICULTURE IN NIGERIA ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

 Provision of food for the rapid growing population (FOOD CONTRIBUTION ROLE)

 Increasing demand for industrial products and thus necessitating expansion of secondary

and tertiary output. (PROMOTION OF INDUSTRIALISATION)

 Providing additional foreign exchange earnings for the import of capital goods for

development through increased agricultural exports (FOREIGN EXCHANGE

CREATION ROLE)
  Increase rural income to be mobilised by state (CAPITAL ACCUMULATION).

 Provident productive employment (EMPLOYMENT GENERATION)

 Improvement of welfare of the rural people (SOCIO-ECONOMIC ADVANCEMENT)

At independence in 1960 agriculture accounted for well over half of our Gross Domestic Product

(GDP), and was the main source of export earnings and public revenue, with the agricultural

marketing boards playing a leading role, but today this leading role in the economy has been

taken over by the national oil company, the Nigerian National Petroleum Company (NNPC).

According to the Central Bank of Nigeria's data (2003), Oil still accounts for our major revenue

(gearing towards 80%) and almost 100% of our export earnings. Although agriculture

(particularly forestry, livestock and fishing) is shown to serve as the major activity of the

majority of Nigerians ; it is clear that we indulge in agriculture purely as personal survival

strategies rather than as a calculated effort to warming the engine of our countries economy. This

is really where our National economic problem lies. The gospel of economic salvation cannot be

preached without due regard to agricultural development. Agriculture is the major and most

certain path to economic growth and sustainability. It encompasses all aspect of human activities

- being the art, act, a cultural necessity and science of production of goods through cultivation of

land and management of plants and animals which creates an activity web-chain that satisfies

social and economic needs. Agriculture is the mainstay of mankind; therefore wise nations all

over the globe give it a priority by developing and exploiting this sector for the upkeep of their

teeming populations through the earning of revenue for development purposes; as well as

employment for the stemming down crimes, corruption and other forms of indiscipline which

work against all factors of life, living and most of all economic production. While many nations

in the world are working hard and reaping their harvests in this direction, Nigeria happens to
belong among the few that have greatly retarded from their past glorious heights in agriculture,

down to a near zero scale of agricultural production. Surely, this neglect is because of

irresponsible and ill-purposeful leadership. Nigeria is blessed with a wide variety of agricultural

potentials, ranging from varieties of crops to varieties of animals and plants and natural

agricultural-supportive factors like forests , waters, sands and most of all human resources that

are being under-used (or not even used as at now). We have it all, yet we lack it all; and that is

why we are hungry in the face of plenty to eat. How can our Nation grow well if we cannot

cultivate and manufacture our own food? Nigeria's economic development can only be realistic

through the total resuscitation of our agricultural sector. This will propel the sector to produce

food and fibres to feed our people and the industry at a rate faster than the birth-rate; yet

reducing the death rate. The injection of vigour into the agricultural sector will also fasten the

creation of self-reliance, self-contentment and self sufficiency (which will be translated to

National sufficiency). Adequate supply of raw materials for industries, increased foreign reserve;

and increase in the export of non-oil commodities and improvement in the standard of living of

the masses are issues that a revitalized agricultural system can provide. This will encourage the

growth of a physically fit and mentally alert population. Succinctly put, the development of the

agricultural sector will generally improve the revenue generation of our nation and discourage

our over-reliance on oil and gas, which has created a 'Dutch disease ' for the Nigerian economy.

The economic independence, which the agricultural sector can offer, this nation (if developed)

will undoubtedly propel us to political and economic independence, which we cannot truly boast

of today as a debtor and borrower nation. Rural and urban development, rural and urban

employment; and of course the control of urban migration and general development of other

sectors of the economy will be the positive chain reactions of an improved Agricultural sector.
LECTURE 3:

BARRIERS TO AGRICULTURAL PERFORMANCE IN NIGERIA

It is observed that the prospect of agricultural sector is very bleak unless there are remedial

policies measures take place. The trends of agricultural output expansion, productivity and

foreign exchange earnings have been extremely abysmal, sometimes declining sometimes

stagnant and at best growing at negligible rate.

 The land use and tenure system remain largely the same in spite of the land use act. In

order to improve the performance of agricultural sector in promoting development

objective, the land use act should be revisited by government and made more favourable

to the farmers.

 The employment of low – productivity primitive technology persists in Nigeria

agricultural sector predominated by peasant farmers. It is difficult to experience

significant increase in productivity. In fact, with the unceasing rural-to urban migration,

old men, women, and children are largely left behind with the likelihood that productivity

and output will fall.

 Ineffective Government support, government merely plays lip service to agricultural

development efforts through declaration of laudable objective of food self sufficiency has

always been orchestrated over the decades through various strategies like ‘Operation

Feed the Nation’ of the 70’s, Green Revolution of the early 80’s, Better-life for rural

women’ of the 80’s, Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP of the 1990s

etc.) despite these Nigeria still imports substantial food items like rice, wheat, poultry
 products and milk products. The government credit support continues to fail and that is

why changes are continually being made to the credit institutions and policies.

 The political instability and insecurity to life and property exert a heavy toll on the

agricultural sector. Cattle herders are always clashing with the crop farmers in the

agricultural rich middle belt. Considering all these major problems, if remedial policies

are failed to be put in place the contribution of the sector to the promotion of

development will not be encouraging.

RECOMMENDATIONS

 Establishment of agricultural fund to finance and facilitate medium/large scale

agricultural production, credit should be granted to farmers who are ready and willing to

embark on medium/large scale farming to enhance employment, production for local

consumption and for export in order to generate foreign exchange revenue for the

Nigeria. The essence of the Fund is to address the most basic constraints facing

agriculture, which is funding; and the disbursement of such funds should be through

banks, which would do normal credit appraisal and rating.

 Harmonization of agricultural research institutions, it is widely accepted that research and

technology are the vehicles on which agricultural development move forward. A

thorough analysis of the objectives, roles and activities of each institute should be made

with a view to streamlining their operations for better and effective performance. The

focus of the institutions should be to enhance yield in agricultural production through

continuous research that would bring in new seedlings etc. Also, there is the need to

commercialize research findings, government should set up Research Grants to assist

research institutes execute research projects. The results can thereafter be sold to venture
 capitalists, commercial enterprises, or even purchased by the government itself. This

would go a long way in encouraging researchers to embark on commercially viable

studies in agriculture.

 Agricultural friendly government policies and policy orientation must be put in place.

There must be favourable change in government attitude. The transformation agenda of

Nigeria is a right action in the right direction as agricultural sector is given a considerable

developmental attention.

 Nigeria possesses abundant arable land, about 90% of which is unutilised. Government

must ensure that it enforces the provisions of the land Use Act, and discourage

harassment of agricultural investors or farmers with right of occupancy conferred by the

state.

 Due to the fact that there is a long dry season (six months more or less) during which

period farmers are idle and seek gainful employment in urban centres. With irrigation

facilities, half of the year becomes available for farming activities, apart from the fact that

irrigation permits proper control of water to maximise yield unlike the unpredictable

rainfall. Government should ensure and make provision for efficient irrigation and

optimal water resource management.

 Suitable rural infrastructure development should be made priority by the government.

This must take into consideration the special needs of rural areas and agricultural sector.

For instance, in term transportation, the vehicles like ‘Keke NAPEP’ will be more

suitable for them, as the maintenance cost will be low and it will be easy for the farmers

to transport their goods and output.

LECTURE 4:

AGRICULTURAL POLICIES

According to the Federal Ministry of Agriculture in 1989, the purpose of agricultural policy is

the development of favourable and sustainable guidelines for the promotion of efficient

agricultural practices that will guarantee food security, provide employment for the citizens, raw

material for all agro – based industries as well as to earn foreign exchange. It is the synthesis of

the framework and action plans of government designed to achieve overall agricultural growth

and development. This usually entails the upgrading of infrastructures and infusion of

technology to advance production from the primitive farming stage to fully mechanized systems

through an appropriate policy framework so as to discharge constitutional duties to the populace.

The objectives of the policy include;

 Production of food, adequate in quantity and quality to meet the population growth;

 Production of raw materials for local agro- industries and for export to earn foreign

exchange;

 Modernization of agricultural production, processing, storage and distribution through the

infusion of improved technologies and management, so that agriculture can be more

responsive to the demands of other sectors of the Nigerian economy;

 Provision of gainful employment for the majority of the rural population;

 Protection and improvement of agricultural land resources and preservation of the

environment for sustainable agricultural production

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF AGRICULTURAL POLICY

Agricultural policies in Nigeria have undergone four main phases:

  The first from 1960 to 1969;

 the second from 1970 to 1979, the period of the oil boom;

 the third from 1980 to the late 1990s, during the structural adjustment program

(SAP);

 and the current National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy

(NEEDS) framework.

After independence agriculture provided most of the country’s food, earned most of the foreign

exchange and generated a substantial proportion of government revenue at the early stages of

economic development in Nigeria. The abundance of food and cheap labour in the rural settings

across the nation during this period resulted in complacency on the part of the government

thereby putting the enactment of a virile and strong policy in the doldrums for decades. Hence,

government efforts to develop agriculture at this stage concentrated more on the production of

cash crops like groundnut and cotton (in the north), cocoa and coffee (in the west); and palm

produce and rubber in the east in part to satisfy the demands of our colonial administrations of

cheap sources of exportable raw materials for their industrial growth. The mild food scarcity of

1960 to 1970 stirred up the government to concentrate briefly on food production. This was

evidenced in the planned expenditure (PE) of 1962 to 1968 when 9.8% of the PE was allocated

to the entire agricultural sector. Between 1970 and 1982 agricultural growth stagnated at less

than 1% with sharp decline in the production of export crops. Similarly, per capital calorific food

supply declined from surpluses in the 1960s to a deficit of 38% in 1982 when Nigeria turned a

net importer of vegetable oil, meat, dairy products, fish and grains, notably rice wheat and maize

with the food import bills rising astronomically. The factors responsible for this trend in
agricultural growth of the economy was identified by FMA (1984) and grouped under two major

classes namely;

 Demand side factors

 Production side factors.

On the demand side, the main contributory factors were the high rates of population growth, per

capital real income and urbanization deriving from high rate of rural urban migration. During

this period the economy recorded an urban population growth rate of 4.7% per annum as against

1.95% per annum in the rural areas.

On the production side, many fundamental problems arose from farm resource constraints,

especially labour and capital availability, poor production technology, poor storage, poorly

developed marketing systems and the past neglect of agriculture in development planning.

Consequently, to curtail the aforementioned problems, government rolled out a plan of action

which was basically policies designed to stimulate the growth and development of agriculture to

positively impact on the overall growth of the Nigerian economy. They include such policies as

the restructuring of marketing board system for export crops, creation of marketing boards for

grains and root crops. This and subsequent policies also have broad components for

implementation amongst the federating units and the private sector.

LECTURE 5:

ROLES OF TIERS OF GOVERNMENT

The Nigerian Federal constitution has divided responsibility for agricultural development among

the three tiers of government (federal, states and local governments) and these are contained in

the exclusive and concurrent legislative lists. The Federal government’s roles are mainly in three

forms:

 Developmental roles

 Supportive roles

 Service delivery roles of interest are those policies that have direct effect on

mechanization.

Federal government

 Demand-driven agricultural research including biotechnology to continually increase the

yield of crops:

 Support to rural infrastructural development;

 Development and maintenance of large dams and their auxiliary infrastructure and

provision of support to state and local government in the development and maintenance

of small and medium scale dams for maximum use of irrigation water;

 Maintenance of strategic National Food Reserve for the purpose of food security;

 Promotion of agro-industrial development

State governments
  Promotion of primary production of all items of agricultural produce;

 Development and management of the irrigation areas of large dams;

 Management of impounded water and downstream structure of large dams;

 Promotion of appropriate farm mechanization;

 Investment in rural roads and water supply;

 Training and manpower development.

Local governments

 Provision of rural infrastructure;

 Management of irrigation areas of dams;

 Provision of land for farming activities within the provision of the land use act.

Private sector

 Agriculture produce storage, processing and marketing;

 Agricultural mechanization;

 Support for research in all aspect of agriculture.

LECTURE 6:

CROP PRODUCTION

Crop production is a branch of agriculture that deals with growing crops for use as food and

fiber. Sustainable crop production is a way of growing or raising food in an ecologically and

ethically responsible manner. It teaches us what crops should be cultivated in a particular climate

and in each kind of soil and what water management practices are to be followed in order to

realize the higher productivity. It is basically conversion of environmental inputs (solar energy,

CO2, water, soil nutrients) into economic products in the form of human or animal food or

industrial raw material. A number of different principles are involved in crop production namely;

Monocropping: it is a practice that involves planting a single crop on a large tract of land.

Multicropping: this is an agricultural method of planting multiple species on one land either

during the same growing season or in successive growing seasons. Multicropping can involve;

1. Intercropping:

a method of planting two or more crops of differing characteristics in close proximity to reduce

weeds, to encourage plant diversity in order to avoid insect and pest infestation and to provide

shade, nitrogen fixation or other benefits to plants being grown. Intercropping is growing of

two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land with a definite row pattern. Multiple

cropping in the form of intercropping is predominant in the regions of dry, humid and semi-arid

tropics.

Advantages of intercropping

i. Intercropping gives additional yield income/unit area than sole cropping.

ii. It acts as an insurance against failure of crops in abnormal year.

iii. Inter-crops maintain the soil fertility as the nutrient uptake is made from both layers of soil.

iv. Reduction in soil runoff and controls weeds.

v. Intercrops provide shade and support to the other crop.

vi. Inter cropping system utilizes resources efficiently and their productivity is increased (Reddy

and Redid, 1992).

vii. Intercropping with cash crops is higher profitable.

viii. It helps to avoid inter-crop competition and thus a higher number of crop plants are grown

per unit area.

Disadvantages of intercropping

i. Yield decreases as the crops differ in their competitive abilities.

ii. Management of intercropping having different cultural practices seems to be difficult task.

iii. Improved implements cannot be used efficiently.

iv. Higher amount of fertilizer or irrigation water cannot be utilized properly as the component

crops vary in their response of these resources.

v. Harvesting is difficult.

Types of intercropping

a. Mixed intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row

arrangement.

b. Row intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are

planted in rows.
c. Strip inter-cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously in different strips wide

enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the crops to interact

ergonomically.

d. Relay inter-cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously during part of the life

cycle of each. A second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage but

before it is ready for harvest.

2. Crop rotation:

The practice of changing what is planted in a particular location on a farm from season to season.

Crop rotation refers to recurrent succession of crop on the same piece of land either in a year or

over a longer period of time. Component crops are so chosen so that soil health is not impaired.

It also means growing a set of crop in a regular succession on a piece of land in a specific period

of time, with an object to get maximum profit least investment without impairing soil fertility. A

good crop rotation should have the following;

a. It should be adaptable to existing soil, climatic and economic factors

b. It should be based on proper land utilization

c. It should contain sufficient area under soil improving crops to maintain and also build up

the organic matter contents of the soil

d. It should provide food grains and oilseeds to families and roughages, fodder for

livestocks

e. It should help in the control of weeds, pests and diseases

LECTURE 7:

Advantages of an ideal crop production

i. It increases overall yield of crops mainly due to maintaining physical- chemical properties

of soil. Soil fertility is restored by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, encouraging microbial

activity (more organic matter) and protecting soil from erosion, salinity and acidity.

ii. It helps in controlling insects, pests and soil borne diseases.

iii. It also controls weeds.

iv. It prevents or limits periods of peak requirements of irrigation water. Crops requiring high

irrigation if followed by light irrigation, this will not affect or deteriorate the soil physical

condition.

v. It facilitates even distribution of labour and crop make proper utilization of all resources

and inputs. Family and farm labour, power, equipment and machines are well employed

throughout the year. Farmers get a better price for their produce due to higher demand in

local market. So there is regular flow of income over year.

vii. Inclusion of crops of different feeding zones (root system) and nutrient requirement

maintains the better balance of nutrient in soil. Growing crops of different root depths avoids

continuous depletion of nutrients from the same depth. e.g. deep rooted crops take nutrients

from deeper zone and during that period upper zone get enriched. Similarly, surface feeding

roots take nutrients from upper zone when lower zone get enriched. So growing same crop

without rotation results in loss of soil productivity.

viii. Diversification of crops reduces risk of financial loss due to unfavorable conditions.

Diversification of crops means variety of crops can be grown for meeting the domestic needs
 of farmers and livestock, to reduce risk of market fluctuations, mechanism of farming,

growing expensive crops. So all variety of crops are grown in rotation for more benefits.

ix. It improves soil structure, percolation and reduces changes of creation of hardpan in sub

soil and also reduces soil erosion.

x. The family needs of feed, food, fuel, fiber, spices, sugar etc. are fulfilled and also fulfill

needs of livestock.

xi. Advantages of raising short duration crops (catch crop/vegetables) when long season

crops cannot be raised due to some reasons.

Factors affecting crop rotation

a. Net profit per hectare

b. Growth habit and nutrient requirement of different crops.

c. Soil type and slope

d. Infestation of weeds, pests and diseases

e. Irrigation facilities

f. Climatic conditions

g. Land, labour, power and other resources

h. Food habit and requirements

i. Market facilities

Principles of crop rotation

1. The crops with tap-root should be followed by those which have a fibrous root system. This

helps in proper and uniform use of nutrients from the soil and roots do not compete with each

other for uptake of nutrients.

2. A shallow rooted grain crop, deep rooted cash crop and restorative crop (legume crop) should

be included in the rotation for providing food, fodder, cash and maintaining the fertility and

productivity of soil. The leguminous crops should be grown after non-leguminous crops because

leguminous fix atmospheric N into soil and more organic matter to soil. Apart from this, legumes

need more phosphate and less nitrogen while non- legumes need more of nitrogen and relatively

low phosphorus. So nutrient requirements of these crops are different and such combination

helps farmers in reducing cost of cultivation.

4. Selection of the crops should be based on soil, climate, season and market demand.

5. More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops because crops like potato,

sugarcane, maize, etc. need more inputs such as better tillage, more fertilizer higher number of

irrigations, more insecticides, better care than crops like oil seeds, pulses, etc. which need little

less care or little less inputs.

6. Two or three crops are taken in a year on same land under irrigated conditions. However, a dry

crop should be included in the rotation to avoid damage to the soil due to continuous irrigation.

7. The selection of crops should be problem based e.g. on sloppy lands which are prone to soil

erosion, an alternate cropping of erosion promoting ( erect growing crops like millet etc) and

erosion resisting crops like legumes, should be adopted. Selection of crops should suit the

farmer‟s financial conditions.

9. Both wide spaced crop and thickly planted crops should be included in rotation for control of

weeds. e.g. wide spaced crops like tobacco controls weeds due to frequent inter culturing and

dense ( thick ) forage or legume crops control weeds and soil erosion e.g. soybean.

10. Crops with different botanical relationship should be altered for control of weeds, pests and

diseases.

11. Effect of previous crop on succeeding crop should be considered for obtaining maximum

yield and harvest quality of produce.

12. Enough elasticity may be kept in rotation so that if pest or diseases destroy a crop, another

crop can be substituted.

13. Fertile and well-drained land should be utilized for important good rotation, less fertile land

for soil improving crops (legumes) and salt tolerant crops on acidic, saline or alkali soils.

14. The ideal crop rotation should be built up around a hub crop for which the greatest

comparative advantages exist. e.g. in areas of dairy industry oil seeds like groundnut or pulses

will supply cattle feed (oil cakes and roughages) or in irrigated areas near cities, growing of

vegetables or floriculture will be profitable.

15. Selection of crops should be demand based, i.e. the crops, which are needed by the people or

area. So that produce can be sold at a higher price. The area devoted to each crop should be

constant from year to year.

LECTURE 8:

CROP CLASSIFICATION

It is important to classify crops in agriculture in order:

 To get acquainted with crops

 To understand the requirement of soil & water for different crops

 To know adaptability of crops

 To know the growing habit of crops

 To understand climatic requirement of different crops

 To know the economic produce of the crop plant & its use

 To know the growing season of the crop

 Overall to know the actual condition required to the cultivation of plant

Classification is done to generalize similar crop plants as a class for attaining better

understanding of them. Field crops are classified in the following ways:

 According to range of cultivation

 According to the place of origin

 According to botany of the crop plants

 According to plant products come to commercial field

 According to use of crop plants and their products

 According to season

 According to life cycle of crop plants

 According to cultural requirement

 According to important uses

Range of cultivation

i. Garden crops: They are grown on a small scale in gardens. e.g., onion, brinjal, etc.

ii. Plantation crops: They are grown on a large scale in estates and perennial in nature.

e.g., tea, coffee, cacao, rubber etc.

iii. Field crops: They are grown on a vast scale under field condition. They are mostly

seasonal such as rice, wheat, cotton etc.

Place of origin

i. Native crops: They are grown within the geographical limits of their origin, e.g., rice,

barely, blackgram, green gram, mustard, castor, sugarcane and cotton, grown in India,

are native to India.

ii. Exotic or Introduced crops: They are introduced from other countries, such as tobacco,

potato, jute, maize, apple, etc.

Botanical/taxonomical classification

According to systematic botany, plants are classified into species, genus, order, family etc.

Similarly crop plants are grouped into families as:

i. Poaceae (Graminae): Cereals, millets and grasses

ii. Papilionaceae (Legumes): Pulses, legume fodders, vegetables, groundnut, berseem,

green manures etc.

iii. Cruciferae: Mustard, Indian rape seed, radish cabbage, cauliflower etc.

iv. Cucurbitaceae: All gourds, cucumber, pumpkin etc.

v. Malvaceae: Cotton, lady‟s finger, roselle etc.

vi. Solanaceae: Potato, tomato, tobacco, chillies, brinjal

vii. Tiliaceae: Jute

viii. Asteraceae (Compositae): Sunflower, safflower, niger

ix. Chenopodiaceae: Spinach, sugar beet

x. Pedeliaceae: Sesame

xi. Euphorbiaceae: Castor, tapioca

xii. Convolvulaceae: Sweet potato

xiii. Umbelliferae: Coriander, cumin, carrot, anise

xiv. Liliaceae: Onion, garlic

xv. Zingiberaceae: Ginger, turmeric

LECTURE 9:

Commercial classification

Based on the plant products which come into the commercial field are grouped as:

i. Food crops: Rice, wheat, green gram, soybean, groundnut, etc.

ii. Food crops/Forage crops: All fodders, oats, sorghum, maize, napier grass, stylo,

Lucerne etc.

iii. Industrial/Commercial crops: Cotton, sugarcane, sugar beet, tobacco, jute, etc.

iv. Food adjuvunts: Turmeric, garlic, cumin, etc.

Economic/Agrarian/Agricultural/Agronomical classification

This classification is based on use of crop plants and their products. This is an important

classification as for as agronomy is concerned.

i. Cereals: They are cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains (one seeded

fruit– caryopsis). Their larger grains are used as staple food e.g. rice, wheat, maize,

barley, etc. The word cereal was derived from the word ceres, which denotes a goddess

who was believed as the giver of grains by Romans.

ii. Millets: Small grained cereals, which form the staple food in drier regions of the

developing countries, are called millets. e.g. major- sorghum, pearl millet or cumbu and

finger millet or ragi. Minor- fox-tail millet, little millet, common millet, barnyard millet

and kodomillet
 iii. Oil seeds: They yield seeds rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable oils. e.g.

groundnut or peanut, sesame or gingelly, sunflower, castor, linseed or flax, niger,

safflower, mustard and cotton.

iv. Pulses: Seeds of leguminous plants used as food. They produce dal rich in protein. e.g.,

red gram, black gram, green gram, cowpea, Bengal gram, horse gram, dew gram,

soybean, peas or garden pea and garden-bean.

v. Feed/Forage: It refers to vegetative matter, fresh or preserved, utilized as feed for

animals. It includes hay, silage, pasturage and fodder. e.g., bajra napier grass, guinea

grass, fodder-sorghum, fodder-maize, lucerne, desmanthus, etc.

vi. Fibre crops: Plants are grown for their fibre yield. There are different kinds of fibre.

They are: seed fibre–cotton, (ii) stem fibre-jute, mesta, (iii) leaf fibre–agave, pineapple.

vii. Sugar and starch crops: They are grown for production of sugar and starch. e.g.,

sugarcane, sugar beet, potato, sweet potato, tapioca and asparagus.

viii. Spices and condiments: Crop plants or their products are used to flavour, taste, and add

colour to the fresh or preserved food. e.g., ginger, garlic, fenugreek, cumin, turmeric,

chillies, onion, coriander, anise and asafetida.

ix. Drug crops/medicinal plants: They are used for preparation of medicines. e.g., tobacco,

mint etc.

x. Narcotics, fumitories and masticatories: Plants/products are used for stimulating,

numbing, drowsing or relishing effects. e.g., tobacco, ganja, opium poppy.

xi. Beverages: Products of crops are used for preparation of mild, agreeable and stimulating

drinking. e.g., tea, coffee, cocoa.

According to ontogeny
It is a classification based on the life cycle of a plant.

i. Annual crops: Crop plants that complete life cycle within a season or year. They

produce seed and die within the season. e.g., wheat, rice, maize, mustard.

ii. Biennial crops: Plants that have life span of two consecutive seasons or years. First

year/Season these plants have purely vegetative growth usually confined to rosette of

leaves. The tap root is often fleshy and serves as a food storage organ. During the

second year/season, they produce flower stocks from the crown and after producing

seeds the plants die. e.g., sugar beet, beet root, cabbage, radish, carrot, etc.

iii. Perennial crops: They live for three or more years. They may be seed bearing or

non-seed bearing. e.g., sugarcane, napier grass. In general perennial crops occupy

land for more than 30 months.

LECTURE 10:

According to cultural requirement of crops

i. According to suitability of toposequence

a. Crops grown on upland: They are grown on upland leveled elevated land with drain

all around or unbunded leveled land with drains or drops. Crops that cannot tolerant

water stagnation come under this group. e.g., red gram, groundnut, maize, sorghum,

cotton, sesame, napier etc. Crops that require sufficient soil moisture but cannot tolerate

water stagnation. e.g., potato, sugarcane, upland rice, ragi, wheat, black gram, Bengal

gram.

b. Crops grown on lowland: They are grown on lowlands provided with dykes or bunds

all around to stagnate water. Crops that require abundant supply of water and can

withstand prolonged water logged conditions. e.g., rice, daintier, paragrass and jute.

ii. According to source of water

a. Irrigated crops: The crop cultivation primarily depends upon the irrigation water for a

part/entire growth period of the crop. All crops irrespective seasons are possible to be

raised in this category.

b. Rainfed crops: The crop cultivation entirely depends upon the rainfall received. Crop

varieties depend upon the season and the rainfall pattern.

iii. According to moisture availability in the soil

 a. Wet lands: The soil moisture is allowed to occupy both macro and microspores.

Anaerobic field condition prevails here. Crops suitable are those crops, which tolerate

water stagnation. e.g., green manures like sesbania group, grasses etc.

b. Dry lands: The soil moisture is allowed only on to microspores. Macro pores are

filled with air. Magnitude of soil moisture varies according to the crop. Crops like maize,

highly sensitive to excess moisture and drought, crops tolerant to drought and temporary

stagnation, sorghum are cultivated in this type of field condition.

iv. According to the suitability of the textural groups of soils

a. Crops suitable to sandy to sandy loam (light) soils: Sorghum, bajra, green gram,

sunflower, potato, onion, carrot etc.

b. Crops suitable to silty loam (medium) soils: Jute, sugarcane, maize, cotton, mustard,

tobacco, Bengal gram, red gram, cowpea, etc.

c. Crop suitable to clay loam (heavy) soils: Rice, wheat, barley, linseed, lentil, para

grass, guinea grass, marvel grass etc.

v. According to tolerance to problem soils

a. Tolerant to acidic soils: Wet rice, potato, mustard, etc.

b. Tolerant to saline soils: Chillies, cucurbits, wheat, sorghum, bajra, cluster beans,

barley etc.

c. Tolerant to alkali/sodic soils: Barley, cotton, Bengal gram, berseem, sunflower,

maize, etc.
 d. Tolerant to waterlogged soils: Wet rice, daincha, para grass, napier grass, guinea

grass, etc.

e. Crops tolerant to soil erosion: Marvel grass, groundnut, black gram, rice bean, moth

bean, and horse gram, etc.

vi. According to tillage requirement

a. Arable crops: They require preparatory tillage. e.g., potato, tobacco, rice, maize.

b.Non-arable crops: They may not require preparatory cultivation/tillage. e.g., para

grass.

vii. According to the depth of root system

a. Shallow rooted crops: Rice, potato, and onion

b. Moderately deep rooted: Wheat, groundnut, castor and tobacco

c. Deep rooted: Maize, cotton, and sorghum

d. Very deep rooted: Sugarcane, safflower, lucerne, and red gram

viii. According to the tolerance to hazardous weather condition

a. Frost tolerant: Sugar beet, beet root.

b. Cold tolerant: Potato, cabbage, and mustard.

c. Drought tolerant: Bajra, jowar, barley, safflower, castor.

ix. According to method of sowing/planting

 a. Direct seeded crop: Where the seeds are sown directly either dry or sprouted. e.g.

upland rice, wheat, jowar, bajra, groundnut etc.

b. Planted crops: Where plant parts are planted directly. e.g., sugarcane, potato, sweet

potato, napier, guinea grass.

c. Transplanted crops: Where seedlings are raised in the nursery, pulled out and

planted in the field. e.g. rice, ragi, bajra, tobacco, bellary onion, brinjal.

x. According to inter-tillage requirement specially earthing up

a. Intertilled crops: Potato, sweet potato, groundnut, maize, sugarcane, and turmeric.

b. Non-intertilled crops: Fodder sorghum, deenanath grass, para grass etc.

LECTURE 11:

xi. According to length of field duration of crops

a. Very short duration crops (up to 75 days): pulses

b. Short duration crops (75-100 days): sunflower, cauliflower, upland rice

c. Medium duration crops (100-125 days): wheat, jowar, bajra, groundnut, sesame, jute,

etc.

d. Long duration crops (125–150 days) : mustard, tobacco, cotton

e. Very long duration crops (> 150 days): sugarcane, red gram, castor, etc.

xii. According to the method of harvesting

a. Reaping: rice, wheat,

b. Uprooting by pulling: Cassava, black gram, lentil, rapeseed

c. Uprooting by digging: potato, sweet potato, groundnut, carrot

d. Picking: cotton, vegetables, brinjal, bhindi, chillies

e. Priming: tobacco

f. Cutting: berseem, napier, amaranthus

g. Grazing: para grass, kolukkattai grass, and stylo.

xiii. According to post harvest requirement

a. Curing: tobacco, mustard

 b. Stripping: jute, sun hemp

c. Shelling: groundnut

d. Ginning: cotton

e. Seasoning: turmeric, chillies

f. Grading and sorting: potato, rice, wheat, fibre crops etc.

xiv. Based on crops growing soil condition

a. Psammophytes (Sandy soil): castor

b. Lithophytes (Rock surface): ferns

c. Chasmophytes (Rock crack): potato

d. Acedophytes (Acid soil): potato

e. Basophytes (Alkali soil): Rice

f. Calciphytes (Basic soil): asparagus

g. Halophytes (Saline soil): sugar beet, alfalfa

xv. Based on climatic condition

a. Tropical crop: coconut, sugarcane

b. Sub-tropical crop: rice, cotton

c. Temperate crop: wheat, barley

 d. Polar crop: all pines, pasture grasses

According to important uses

i. Catch crops/contingent crops: These crops are cultivated to catch the forth-

coming season. It replaces the main crop that has failed due to biotic or climatic

or management hazards. Generally, they are of very short duration, quick

growing, harvestable or usable at any time of their field duration and adaptable to

the season, soil and management practices. They provide feed, check weed

growth, conserve soil, utilized added fertilizer and moisture. e.g., green gram,

black gram, cowpea, onion, coriander and bajra.

ii. Restorative crops: These crops, which provide a good yield along with

enrichment or restoration of soil fertility or amelioration of the soils. They fix

atmospheric nitrogen in root nodules, shed their leaves during ripening and thus

restore soil conditions. E.g., legumes.

iii. Exhaustive crops: These crop plants, which on growing leave the field exhausted

because of a more aggressive nature. e.g., gingelly, brinjal, linseed, sunflower etc.

iv. iv. Paira crops/residual crops: These crop plants which are sown a few days or

weeks before the harvest of the standing mature crops to utilize the residual

moisture, without preparatory tillage. The standing crop and the later sown (paira)

crop become simultaneous (forming a pair) for a short period. For e.g., rice fallow

pulses black gram, lathyrus, lentil etc. Paira crops in succession may constitute

relay cropping.

v. Smother crops: These crop plants which are able to smother or suppress the

weed growth by providing suffocation (curtailing movement of air) and

 obscuration (of the incidental radiation) through their dense foliage developed due

to quick growing ability with heavy tillering or branching, planophyllic or

procumbent or trailing habits. e.g., barley, mustard, cowpea, etc.

vi. Cover crops: These crop plants, which are able to protect the soil surface from

erosion (wind, water or both) through their ground covering foliage and or root

mats. e.g., groundnut, black gram, marvel grass, sweet potato

vii. Nurse crops: A companion crop nourishes the main crop by way of nitrogen

fixation and or adding the organic matter into the soil. e.g., cowpea intercropped

with cereals

viii. Guard/barrier crops: These crop plants help to protect another crop from

trespassing or restrict the speed of wind and thus prevent crop damage. Main crop

in the centre surrounded by hardy or thorny crop. e.g., mesta around sugarcane;

sorghum around cotton; safflower around gram

ix. Trap crops: These crop plants are grown to trap soil borne harmful parasitic

weeds. For e.g., orabanche and striga are trapped by solanaceous and sorghum

crops, respectively. Nematodes are trapped by solanaceous crops (on uprooting

crop plants, nematodes are removed from the soil). Castor in cotton, groundnut

act as crop for army worm pest.

x. Augmenting crops: These sub crops are sown to supplement the yield of the

main crop. e.g., mustard or cabbage with berseem to augment the forage yield of

berseem.

xi. Alley crops: These arable crops are grown in „alleys‟ formed by trees or shrubs,

established mainly to hasten soil fertility restoration, enhance soil productivity

and reduce soil erosion. They are generally of non-trailing with shade tolerance

capacity. For e.g., growing pulses in between the rows of casuarina.

LECTURE 12:

Essential nutrient elements for crop growth

Essential nutrient elements play an important role in improving growth and development of

crops resulting in higher crop production. In 1954, Arnon proposed certain criteria for

determining the essentiality of an element:

i. An element is considered as essential, when plants can not complete its vegetative or

reproductive stage of life cycle due to its deficiency;

ii. its deficiency can be corrected or prevented only by supplying the same element and

iii. the element is directly involved in the metabolism of the plant.

The essential elements can be classified based on the amount required, their mobility in plant

and soil, their chemical nature and their functions in the plant.

On the basis of the required amount of nutrients: Twenty elements have been demonstrated

to be essential for plant growth. These elements have been classified into two groups on the basis

of the required amount by the crop plants

 Macro/major element: It is required in relatively large amounts. It needs in

concentration of 1000 g g-1 of dm or more. E.g Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O),

Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), ) Potassium (K), ) Sulphur (S), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium

(Mg)

 Micro/minor/trace element: It is required in relatively small amounts. It needs in the

concentration of less than 100 g g-1 of dm. e.g Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Boron

(BMolybdenum (Mo) Copper (Cu) Zinc (Zn) Chloride (Cl) Cobalt (Co)
On the basis of mobility in soil

 Mobile nutrients: They are highly soluble and are not adsorbed on clay complex: e.g.

NO3-, SO4-2, BO3-2, Cl-, and Mn++.

 Less mobile nutrients: They are also soluble, but they are adsorbed on clay complex and

so their mobility is reduced. e.g. NH4+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, Cu++.

 Immobile nutrients: Ions are highly reactive and get fixed in the soil. H2SO4-, HPO4-

-, Zn++.

On the basis of mobility in plant

Knowledge of the mobility of nutrients in plants help in finding what nutrient is deficient. A

mobile nutrient in plant, move the growing points in case of efficiency. Deficiency symptoms

therefore appear on the lower leaves.

 Mobile: N, P and K

 Moderately mobile: Zn

 Less mobile: S, Fe, Mn, Mo and Cl

 Immobile: Ca and B

On the basis of chemical nature Nutrients can be classified in to cations and anions and

metals and non-metals based on their chemical mature.

 Cations: K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu

 Anions: NO3-,H2PO4,SO4

 Metals: K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu

 Nonmetals: N, P, S, Mo, Cl
Plants absorb elements in ionic and non ionic forms. Ionic and non ionic forms for different

nutrient elements have been given in table below.

Yield curve for macro and micro nutrients
LECTURE 13:

Weather and soil elements and their effect on crop growth

Crop growth is defined as irreversible increase in size, measured as dry weight which occurs

throughout the crop life cycle. It may be expressed in terms of dry weight, length, height or

diameter. Crop development is the progression through the morphological changes which occur

during growth of the crop. It is more readily described qualitatively than quantitatively. For

example, development of a crop plant from germination to maturity.

Weather elements

i. Air temperature

ii. Solar radiation

iii. Precipitation

iv. wind

v. Composition of the atmosphere

Air temperature: It is a measure of intensity of heat. Temperature required for the growth is

ranging from 5 to 45 oC. It directly influences photosynthesis, respiration, cell wall permeability,

nutrient and water absorption, transpiration, enzyme activity and protein coagulation.

Solar Radiation: This is the radiant energy from the sun, measured as a total amount (direct

solar plus sky radiation) expressed in cal cm-2 min-1 measured by pyrheliometer. For

photosynthesis, only visible part of the total solar energy is of importance. Photosynthesis in

green leaves use solar energy in wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.7 m often referred to as

photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) or simply light. Radiant energy influences the
protoplasm permeability, intake and loss of water, enzyme activity, respiration, photosynthesis,

flower initiation and ripening of fruits. There are three aspects of solar radiation; light-intensity

(quantity), duration (day length) and quality (spectral distribution).

Precipitation: The essential requirement of water for plant growth can be visualized from the

fact that it may constitute 70-95% of total fresh weight when it is actively growing. Precipitation

is the major source of soil moisture for crop growth in dry regions during rainy season. A

number of physiological processes in crop growth is affected due to water stress. Cell growth,

cell wall and protein synthesis are adversely affected by the stress. Stomatal closure due to water

stress restrict CO2 intake leading to reduced photosynthesis. Precipitation also influences

atmospheric humidity. High humidity can increase the risk of disease and pest outbreak.

Consequences of high intensity rains of long duration (floods) on crop production are well

established.

Wind: Plant responses to wind. Wind over the crop surface can alter the onset of drought during

dry periods due to water vapor loss through transpiration. This may lead to stomatal closure and

reduce rate of gaseous exchange leading to reduced photosynthesis and crop growth. Strong

winds in association with rain can cause lodging, particularly at flowering in cereals. Provision

of windbreaks in exposed areas can minimize the adverse effects of high wind speed. Growth of

plants, in general, seems to be inhibited at wind speeds above 10kmph. However, there are

individual variations.

Composition of the atmosphere: Certain gases, such as sulphur dioxide (SO2),carbon monoxide

(CO) and hydrofluoric acid (HF) when released into air in sufficient quantities are toxic to plants.

Acid rain is often due to relatively high concentrations of surphur dioxide and sulphates. Some of
the effects that acid rain can have on plants and soil include increased leaching of inorganic

nutrients, damage to leaves at pH<3, reduced microbial activity, reduced availability of soil

nitrogen, etc. Injury to vegetation by fluorine released during the manufacture of metallic

aluminum and the production of phosphatic fertilizers has been reported.

LECTURE 14

Soil elements

i. Soil air

ii. Soil temperature

iii. Soil moisture

iv. Soil reaction (pH)

v. Mineral nutrient supply

Soil can be defined as a thin layer of the earth‟s crust which serves as a natural medium for the

growth of plants. Soils are formed by the disintegrations & decomposition of parent rocks due to

weathering and the action of soil organisms & also the interaction of various chemical substances

present in the soil. Soil is formed from parent rock by the process of weathering over a long

period by the action of rain water, temperature and plant & animal residues. A vertical cut of 1.5

to 2 m deep soil indicates a layer varying from a few cm to about 30 cm of soil, called surface

soil, elbow that a layer of sub soil & at the bottom, the unrecompensed material which is the

parent rock.

Roles of soil

 Soil is the natural media to grow the crop.

 Soil gives the mechanical support & act as an anchor

 Soil supplies the nutrients to the crop plants

 Soil conserves the moisture which is supplies to the crop plants

 Soil is an abode (house) of millions of living organisms which act on plant residues &

release food material to plants

  Soil provides aeration for growth of crop and decomposition of organic matter.

Soil air: The percentage by volume of soil occupied by air under field conditions or at a given

suction has been suggested as a measure of soil aeration status. As a rule, the higher the bulk

density, the more compact the soil and smaller the amount of pore space. This situation restricts

the plant growth due to its influence on root as well as shoot growth. High bulk densities inhibit

the emergence of seedlings, increase mechanical resistance to root penetration and decrease the

O2 supply to root system resulting in poor growth and yield of crops. Crops differ widely in their

sensitivity to O2 supply.

Soil temperature: It influences root growth and functions. The rate of germination and

emergence depends on soil temperature, as this can determine the survival of seedlings in rapidly

loosing soil moisture after sowing. Since most seeds are sown a depth of 2 to 5 cm, soil

temperature can influence crop establishment.

Soil moisture: Ability of soil to hold water is most important. Soil texture, structure and depth

determine its moisture retention capacity to meet the crop needs. Soil texture influences its

drainage characteristics and risk of erosion. Soil structure determines its suitability for arable

farming. Efficient use of inputs in crop production depends on optimum levels of soil available

moisture.

Functions of water: Major component of the plant body (90%) Act as solvent for dissolving the

nutrients & nutrient carrier Maintains/regulates the temperature of plant & soil as well Maintains

the turgidity of plant cells Essential for absorption of nutrients & metabolic process of the plants

Plant tissues constitute about 90% of water. Rain and ground water are the sources of the water.

Ground H2O is reused for irrigation through well, tank or canal, etc. Erratic rains are to be
conserved properly so that plants make best use of it. Rainwater is to be supplemented by

irrigation to meet the water requirement of crops for bumper yields. Water present in the soil

helps the plants in many ways

 Supplies the essential raw material for production of carbohydrates by photosynthesis

 Promotes physical, chemical & biological activities in the soil

 Gaseous diffusion in soil for proper aeration

Water is the life of plant and must be supplied in proper quantity. Too much water may suffocate

the plant roots & too little may not be able to sustain the plant. The water requirement of crops

differs from crop to crop & variety to variety as well, depending upon the growth habit,

genetically & physiological make up, duration of the crop, etc. For example, sugarcane, rice,

banana, wheat, groundnut, etc. are the high water requiring crops & gram, bajra etc. are the low

water requiring crops.

Soil reaction (pH): Availability of plant nutrients depends on soil reaction. Acid soils with high

Fe, Al, and Mn decrease the availability of phosphorus. Availability of Mo declines with

decrease in pH. Ammonical fertilizers left on soil surface are subjected to loss by volatilization at

pH more than 7. Water soluble phosphate will be converted into unavailable form around pH 8.

The effect of pH on nutrient availability has been explained in the table below
Mineral nutrient supply: Capacity of the soil to supply essential plant nutrient elements has

profound influence on crop production. Soil analysis provides estimates of the levels of available

nutrients for determining the suitability of a soil for a particular crop and in formulating more

precisely the fertilizer requirements. The inherent capacity of soil to supply amount of adequate

nutrients to plants in balanced form is known as soil fertility while soil productivity is the

capacity of soil to yield crops per unit area. Soil fertility differs from soil productivity as under:
LECTURE 15:

Tillage

Tillage is the important operation in crop production. With good tillage operations, higher yield

can be achieved. The word tillage is derived from the Anglo-Saxon words tilian, and

teolian, meaning to plough and prepare soil for seed to sow, to cultivate and to raise crops. Jethro

Tull is considered as father of tillage. He proposed a theory that ‘Plants absorb minute

particles of soils’. Therefore, he suggested that thorough ploughing and other operations were

necessary so as to make soil into fine particles. Though his theory is not absolutely correct,

tillage operations are carried out to prepare a fine seedbed for sowing crops. After harvest of the

crop, soil becomes hard and compact. Beating action of rain drops, irrigation and subsequent

drying, movement of inter-cultivation implements and labour cause soil compaction. Field

contains weed and stubbles after the harvest of the crop. Seeds need loose, friable soil with

sufficient air and water for good germination. The field should be free from weed and stubbles to

avoid competition with crop and to facilitate easy and smooth movement of sowing implements.

Tillage is the physical manipulation of the soil with tools and implements for obtaining

conditions ideal for seed germination, seedling establishment and growth of crops. The term tilth

is used to describe qualitative characteristics of a loose friable (mellow) and crumby conditions

of the soil favorable for crop production. In other words, tilth is a physical condition of the soil

resulting from tillage. A soil with good tilth is quite porous and has free drainage up to water

table. The capillary and non-capillary pores should be in equal proportion so that sufficient

amount of water is retained in the soil as well as free air.

The important objectives of tillage for crop production are:

  To prepare a suitable seedbed

 To destruct the weeds, insect pests and pathogen

 To conserve soil and moisture

 To improve soil physical properties (soil structure, soil aeration, pore space, etc)

 To encourage the root penetration

 To mix the applied manures and fertilizers

Seedbed preparation: Good seedbed is necessary for early seed germination and initial good

stand of the crop. The seedbed should be fine for small seeded crops and moderate for bold

seeded crops. Intimate contact between the soil particles is necessary to facilitate movement of

water for quicker germination.

Destruction of weeds, insect pest and pathogen: Tillage destroys a number of weeds, insect

pests and pathogens which are responsible for poor growth and development of the crop plants

results in poor yield.

Soil and moisture conservation: Proper tillage results in soil and moisture conservation through

higher infiltration reduced runoff and increased depth of soil for moisture storage. When the

compact soil is ploughed, it becomes fluffy and can hold more amount of water. Removal of hard

pans, increase the soil depth for water absorption.

Soil physical properties: Tillage has considerable influence on soil physical properties like pore

space, soil structure, bulk density, water content and colour. Tillage practices have, therefore,

greatest effect on seedbed preparation, seedling emergence and stand establishment.

Types of tillage
It is of two types, primary and secondary tillage.
LECTURE 16:

Primary tillage: Ploughing is the opening of the compact soil with the help of different ploughs.

Ploughing is done mainly to open the hard soil. In addition, ploughing should ensure inversion

(whenever necessary) of soil, uprooting of weeds and stubbles and less cloudy soil surface. The

implements which are used for ploughing, are known as primary tillage implements. Disc

plough, mould bold plough etc are the examples of primary tillage implements.

Secondary tillage: Lighter or finer operations performed on the soil after primary tillage are

known as secondary tillage. After ploughing, the fields are left with large clods with some weeds

and stubbles partially. Harrowing is done to a shallow depth to crush the clods and uproot the

remaining weeds and stubbles. Planking is done to crush the hard clods to smoothen the soil

surface and to compact the soil lightly. The implements which are used for other operations after

ploughing, are known as secondary tillage implements. Disc harrows, cultivators, blade harrow

etc. are the examples of secondary primary tillage implements Thus, the field is made ready for

sowing after ploughing by harrowing and planking. Generally sowing operations are also

included in secondary tillage.

Modern concepts of tillage In conventional tillage combined primary and secondary tillage

operations are performed in preparing seed bed by using animal or tractor, which cause hard pan

in sub soils resulting in poor infiltration of rain water, thus it is more susceptible to run off and

soil erosion. Farmers usually prepare fine seed bed by repeated ploughing, when the animal of

the farm is having less work. Research has shown that frequent tillage is rarely beneficial and

often detrimental. Repeated use of heavy machinery destroys structures, causes soil pans and

leads to soil erosion. Moreover energy is often wasted during tillage processes. All these reasons
led to the development of modern concepts namely the practices like minimum tillage, zero

tillage, stubble mulch farming and conservation tillage, etc.

Minimum Tillage Minimum tillage is aimed at reducing tillage to the minimum necessary for

ensuring a good seedbed, rapid germination, a satisfactory stand and favourable growing

conditions. Tillage can be reduced in two ways by omitting operations, which do not give much

benefit when compared to the cost, and by combining agricultural operations like seeding and

fertilizer application.

Advantages

 Improved soil conditions due to decomposition of plant residues in situ

 Higher infiltration caused by the vegetation present on the soil and channels formed by

the decomposition of dead roots

 Less resistance to root growth due to improved structure

 Less soil compaction by the reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles

 Less soil erosion compared to conventional tillage

Disadvantages

 Seed germination is lower with minimum tillage.

 More nitrogen has to be added as the rate of decomposition of organic matter is slow.

This point holds good only in temperate regions. Contrary to this in tropics, minimum

tillage recommended to conserve organic matter in the soil.

 Nodulation is affected in some leguminous crops like peas and broad beans.

 Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary equipment.

 Continuous use of herbicides causes pollution problems and dominance of perennial

problematic weeds (weed shift).

LECTURE 17:

Methods of obtaining minimum tillage

 Row zone tillage: Primary tillage is done with mould board plough in the entire area of

the field, secondary tillage operations like discing and harrowing are reduced and done

only in row zone.

 Plough plant tillage: After the primary tillage a special planter is used for sowing. In one

run over the field, the row zone is pulverized and seeds are sown by the planter.

 Wheel track planting: Primary ploughing is done as usual. Tractor is used for sowing,

the wheels of the tractor pulverize the row zone in which planting is done.

Zero Tillage/No Tillage/Chemical Tillage

Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage. Primary tillage is completely avoided and

secondary tillage is restricted to seedbed preparation in the row zone only. It is also known as no-

tillage and is resorted to places where soils are subjected to wind and water erosion, timing of

tillage operation is too difficult and requirements of energy and labour for tillage are also too

high. Weeds are controlled using herbicides. Hence, it is also referred as chemical tillage.

Types of zero tillage

 Till Planting is one method of practicing zero tillage. A wide sweep and trash bars clear

a strip over the previous crop row and planter–opens a narrow strip into which seeds are

planted and covered. In zero tillage, herbicide functions are extended. Before sowing, the

vegetation present has to be destroyed for which broad spectrum non-selective herbicides
 with relatively short residual effect (paraquat, glyphosate etc.) are used and subsequently

selective and persistent herbicides are needed (atrazine, alachlor etc.).

 Sod planting or sod culture: Sod refers to top few centimeters of soil permeated by and

held together with grass roots or grass-legume roots. Planting of seeds in sods without

any tillage operation is known as sod culture or sod seeding. Usually legumes or small

grains are mechanically placed directly into a sod.

Advantages

Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more number of earthworms. These soil

physical properties are apparent after two years of zero tillage. The organic matter content

increases due to less mineralization. Surface runoff is reduced due to the presence of mulch.
LECTURE 18:

Introduction to Agricultural Extension Education

Agricultural Extension: Agriculture Extension is the process of transferring the advance

agriculture technology to farming community.

Importance and scope of Extension Education:

The available improved agriculture technology has the potential of raising the yields of

agriculture products in the country at least twice or thrice. This can only be done, under the

existing set of conditions, if the technology is communicated to the farmers in manner they can

understand it and they are also convinced of its economical adoption in their local conditions.

This is the job of well planned, organized and effective extension department.

Specific Importance:

1. Extension uses democratic methods in educating the farmers.

2. Extension Helps in adoption of innovations.

3. Extension helps in studying and solving the rural problems.

4. Extension increases farm yields and improve the standard of living of farmers

5. Extension makes good communities better and progressive.

6. Extension contributes to national development programmes

Specific Scope:
It includes all activities of rural development. So extension programmes should be dynamic and

flexible. The areas indicating scope of Extension are listed below:

1. Increasing efficiency in agricultural production.

2. Increasing efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization of agricultural inputs and

outputs

3. Conservation, development and use of natural resources.

4. Proper farm and home management

5. Better family living.

6. Youth development.

7. Leadership development.

8. Community and rural development.

9. Improving public affairs for all round development.

Objectives of Agriculture Extension:

1. To raise the standard of living of the rural people by helping them in right use of their

resources.

2. To help in planning and implementing the family and village plans for increasing

production in various occupations.

3. To provide facilities for better family living.

Brief History in Agricultural Extension:

The birth of the modern extension service has been attributed to events that took place in Ireland

in the middle of the 19th century. Between 1845–51 the Irish potato crop was destroyed by

fungal diseases and a severe famine occurred. The British Government arranged for "practical

instructors" to travel to rural areas and teach small farmers how to cultivate alternative crops.

This scheme attracted the attention of government officials in Germany, who organized their

own system of traveling instructors. By the end of the 19th century, the idea had spread to

Denmark, Netherlands, Italy, and France.

The term "university extension" was first used by the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford in

1867 to describe teaching activities that extended the work of the institution beyond the campus.

Most of these early activities were not, however, related to agriculture. It was not until the

beginning of the 20th century, when colleges in the United States started conducting

demonstrations at agricultural shows and giving lectures to farmer’s clubs, that the term

"extension service" was applied to the type of work that we now recognize by that name.
LECTURE 19:

Recent Trends in Agricultural Extension/ Role of Private Sector in Agricultural Extension:

Extension service has been traditionally organized and delivered by the public sector all over the

world, which led to a situation wherein, whenever one refers to extension, it denoted public

extension service. Similarly, whenever private sector is referred to, there is a tendency to

consider only the corporate sector in the category. However, private extension has a broader

canvas including all relevant private groups than the narrow canvas of corporate sector.

Privatization of extension services does not aim at substituting private sector for public extension

service. In fact, privatization has adopted a variety of forms involving different stakeholders.

The success of an extension service depends on the effectiveness of planning at four levels

policy, programmes, projects and strategy. Policy and programmes must be decided by the

public extension system, while projects and strategy can be formulated by the private extension

organizations. When the private extension organizations get involved in providing extension

support to farmers, it is likely there will be competition among the various extension providers,

which will result in more efficient and demand-driven service. Both technical and allocative

efficiency which are basically economic in nature are well take care of by the private extension

agencies, resulting in cost minimization, profit maximization and optimal use of resources,

which are warranted in a competitive environment.

Public extension service often views sustainability of programmes only in terms of continuity.

Sustainability is different form continuity, which has both ecological and equity dimensions.

The private extension agencies, especially NGOs and media organizations provide valuable
service in ensuring sustainability of programmes in terms of the above two dimensions. The

private extension system offers the following services for farmers – terms of sharing, augmenting

and supplementing the public extension efforts besides offering unique and innovative initiatives,

which the public extension service can also emulate.

Private extension system can offer a variety of services for farmers in a competitive environment

which the public sector may not be able to. Hence, it is suggested that public sector extension

may limit its activities only to regulatory and enabling functions, and should mainly focus on

educational activities, which are unattractive to private sector delivery.

Roles and duties of extension workers at various organization levels:

Following are the roles and duties of extension worker;

1. An extension worker tries to stimulate the farmers to take interest in identifying their

farming problems and also help solve their own problems.

2. To teach farmers step by step procedure to reach the goal.

3. A primary role of extension worker is to develop the sense of attitudes and instrumental

behaviour among farming community to achieve goal.

4. An extension worker acts as multipurpose agent developing linkages between

government on one side and farmers on other.

5. An extension worker is a person who sets in motion a process of change.

6. Extension worker help farmers in facing critical situation during natural calamities.

7. An extension worker tries to create awareness among farming communities about

innovation and also tries to motivate them to adopt.

8. Extension worker is responsible for dissemination knowledge or providing information

which enable the farmers to understand and make a decision about particular innovation.

9. Extension worker acts as a vehicle of knowledge and also serves a teacher who instructs

the farmers in the proper usage of innovation.

10. Extension worker also acts as educator for educating the various adopter categories of

farmers.

11. Extension agent acts as facilitator for providing opportunity of research and learning

environment for farmers to help resolve their issues.

12. Extension worker acts as catalyst among research and farmers to achieve ultimate goals.
13. Extension worker acts as communicator for sharing knowledge right from source of

teacher to farmer as learner.

LECTURE 20:

Principles of effective extension work:

1. Understand the society norms: It is necessary that extension worker as a source should

be well aware about the norms of society i.e acceptable standard behaviour of farmers in

rural society. A change agent will be more useful if he adjusts the program of innovations

to the way of life of client and their norms.

2. Respond to client need: Extension worker shall acts according to the needs, wants and

demands of farmers in the manner they follow and convince for its ultimate adoption of

innovation. A change agent will be more successful if innovations are introduced that

match client’s needs.

3. Stress the compatibility with client past experience: Change agent should design

diffusion programs so that the innovations are compatible with their client past

experiences with innovations. The new change agent should investigate the outcomes of

past diffusion campaigns to determine how they might affect future diffusion efforts.

4. Use Opinion Leaders: It is important for change agent to work through opinion leaders

in a society. When the right person is the first to adopt a new idea, its diffusion will be

speeded.

5. Empathy with client: A successful extension agent not only works hard but also works

smart. This will improve the perceived credibility by clients.

By taking account of these principles as factors, we will be able to develop extension programs

that will effectively increase the rate of diffusion an adoption of new ideas and practices among

clients.
Communication Process and its components:

The goal of communication is to convey information—and the understanding of that

information—from one person or group to another person or group. This communication process

is divided into three basic components: A sender transmits a message through a channel to

the receiver. (Figure shows a more elaborate model.) The sender first develops an idea, which is

composed into a message and then transmitted to the other party, who interprets the message and

receives meaning. Information theorists have added somewhat more complicated language.

Developing a message is known as encoding. Interpreting the message is referred to as decoding.

The other important feature is the feedback cycle. When two people interact, communication is

rarely one way only. When a person receives a message, she responds to it by giving a reply. The

feedback cycle is the same as the sender‐receiver feedback noted in Figure 1. Otherwise, the

sender can't know whether the other parties properly interpreted the message or how they reacted

to it. Feedback is especially significant in management because a supervisor has to know how

subordinates respond to directives and plans. The manager also needs to know how work is

progressing and how employees feel about the general work situation.
The critical factor in measuring the effectiveness of communication is common understanding.

Understanding exists when all parties involved have a mutual agreement as to not only the

information, but also the meaning of the information. Effective communication, therefore, occurs

when the intended message of the sender and the interpreted message of the receiver are one and

the same. Although this should be the goal in any communication, it is not always achieved.

Barriers to Effective Communication:

Following are the barriers to effective communication;

Encoding Barriers. The process of selecting and organizing symbols to represent a message

requires skill and knowledge. Obstacles listed below can interfere with an effective message.

1. Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver. A breakdown in communication may result when a

message is not adapted to its receiver. Recognizing the receiver’s needs, status, knowledge of

the subject, and language skills assists the sender in preparing a successful message.

2. Lack of Basic Communication Skills. The receiver is less likely to understand the message

if the sender has trouble choosing the precise words needed and arranging those words in a

grammatically-correct sentence.

3. Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject. If the sender lacks specific information about

something, the receiver will likely receive an unclear or mixed message.

LECTURE 21:

4. Information Overload. If you receive a message with too much information, you may tend

to put up a barrier because the amount of information is coming so fast that you may have

difficulty comfortably interpreting that information.

5. Emotional Interference. An emotional individual may not be able to communicate well. If

someone is angry, hostile or joyful, that person may be too preoccupied with emotions to

receive the intended message. If you don’t like someone, for example, you may have trouble

“hearing” them.

Transmitting Barriers: Things that get in the way of message transmission are sometimes

called “noise.” Communication may be difficult because of noise and some of these problems:

1. Physical Distractions. A bad phone line or a noisy environment can destroy

communication. If an E-mail message or letter is not formatted properly, or if it contains

grammatical and spelling errors, the receiver may not be able to concentrate on the message.

2. Conflicting Messages. Messages that cause a conflict in perception for the receiver may

result in incomplete communication. For example of conflicting messages might be if a

supervisor requests a report immediately without giving the report writer enough time to gather

the proper information.

3. Channel Barriers. If the sender chooses an inappropriate channel of communication,

communication may cease. Detailed instructions presented over the telephone, for example,

may be frustrating for both communicators.

Adoption and Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations:

The Adoption Process: The mental process through which an individual passes from first

hearing about an innovation to final adoption is called the adoption process of innovation.

Steps in Adoption Process: There are five stages through which every person has to go while

adopting a new idea or practice, these are;

1. Awareness.

2. Interest.

3. Evaluation.

4. Trial.

5. Adoption.

1. Awareness Stage: At the awareness stage the individual is exposed to innovation but lacks

complete information about it. May be individual is informed about innovation, but it is

not yet motivated to seek more information.

2. Interest Stage: At the interest stage the individual becomes interested in the new ideas and

seeks additional information about it. The individual favours the innovation, but he has not

yet judged its utility in term of his own situation. The function of interest stage is mainly to

increase the individual information about innovation. The individual is more

psychologically involved with innovation at the interest stage than the awareness stage.

3. Evaluation Stage: At this stage the individual mentally applied the innovation to his

present and anticipated future situation and then decides whether to try it or not.
 4. Trial Stage: At this stage the individual uses the innovation on a small scale in order to

determine its utility in his own situation. The main function of trial stage is to demonstrate

the new idea in the individual’s own situation and determine its usefulness for possible

complete adoption.

5. Adoption Stage: At this stage the individual decides to continue the full use of the

innovation. The main function of adoption stage are consideration of trial results be

implemented for its ultimate and regular use. The adoption implies continued use of the

innovation in the future. The motivational component of behaviour is involved at the

adoption stage.

Diffusion Process of Innovation: It is process by which innovations become adopted by more

and more farmers or the process of spreading innovations within a community of farmers is

called diffusion process of innovations

Adopter Categories: There are five adopters categories are as follows;

1. Innovators (2.5%).

2. Early Adopter (3.5%).

3. Early Majority (34%).

4. Late Majority (34%).

5. Laggards (16%).

1. Innovators (2.5%): The innovators are the first farmers in the locality to adopt an

innovation. They go ahead risking possible loss in adopting an innovation. They are eager to
 try new ideas. Innovators are likely to attend meetings but are not likely to be impressed by

what other farmers in the locality think.

2. Early Adopter (3.5%): Early adopters are those who quickly follow the lead set by the

innovators. They are quick in seeing the value of the new practice in their community and

will try it if they feel it has a chance of success. Early adopters are more integral part of the

local social system than innovators.

3. Early Majority (34%): The early majority is made-up of those who watch the innovators

and the early adopters and consequently when impressed by their success adopt the

innovation. The early majority adopt a new practice just before the average member of the

social system. Early adopters and early majority are more likely to be present at local

meetings and are more likely to be influenced by others in attendance.

4. Laggards (16%): Late to adopt an innovation. Laggards live in isolation and conservative in

thinking. They are almost older in age and showing resistance in adopting an innovation.

Factors affecting the adoption of Innovation: Are as;

1. Government:

a. Provision of facilities: Government should help facilitate farmers in adopting an

innovation.

b. Training of extension worker: Specialized skill improvement trainings must be

imparted to extension workers for efficient dissemination of improved agriculture

technology to farmer’s field.

 c. Nature of innovation: There is need to find nature of innovation which best suits

the need of farmers for its full utility.

2. Extension worker: Well trained and skilled extension work would be capable to

transform the agriculture technology to farming community in real sense.

3. Farmers: Farmers are the best judge of an innovation. There are some reasons which

cause hindrance in the way of accepting innovation are as;

a. Illiterate: Most of the farmers are uneducated. They take sufficient time to think

about the theme of innovation.

b. Conservative mentality: Majority farmers are conservative minded. Their universe

is limited to home, religion and filed only.

c. Slavery minds: It is the great tragedy with the farming community that’s they look

at innovation with suspicious eyes, which affect the adoption of innovation.

d. Poverty: It is our misfortunate that farmers in the rural areas are poor as they

cannot afford the risk of loss in case of adoption of new idea.

Remedies: All above mentioned facts could be intercepted by the reasonable management, wise

planning from the Government, efficiency of extension workers and improvement of available

resources and their uses, use of opinion leaders is always helpful.

Laws of Adult Learning:

A. Law of Effect: This law states that when a response is followed by a feeling of satisfaction, it

is likely to be repeated in a similar situation. Law of effect is based on the emotional reaction of

human and animals. It has a direct relationship to motivation. The principle of effect is that

learning is strengthened.

It accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when

associated with an unpleasant feeling. The learner will strive to continue doing what provides a

pleasant effect to continue learning. Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to success and

motivate the learner, so the instructor (extension agent) should recognize and commend

improvement. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the learners

positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction.

B. Law of Exercise: This law states that things often repeated are best remembered. It is basis of

drill and practice. It has been proven that farmers learns best and retain information longer when

they are meaningful practice and repetition. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only

when it is followed by positive feedback. Farmers don’t learn complex tasks in a single session.

They learn by applying what they have shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues.

These include farmers recall, review and summary. All of these serve to create learning habits.

The instructor must repeat important items of subject matter at reasonable interval and provide

opportunities for farmers to practice while making sure that this process is directed towards goal.
C. Law of Readiness: It implied a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness. Individuals learn

best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to learn and they do not learn well

if they see no reason for learning. If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective and definite

reason for learning something, they make more progress than if they lack motivation. Since

learning is an active process, students must have adequate rest, health and physical ability. Basic

needs of the students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning.
Motivation Techniques:

1. Creative a Positive Work Environment

Motivate employees by giving them a positive work environment. Encourage teamwork and

idea-sharing, and make sure staff have the tools and knowledge to perform their jobs well. Be

available when employees need you to be a sounding board or a dispute mediator. Eliminate

conflict as it arises, and give employees freedom to work independently when appropriate.

2. Set Goals

Help employees become self-motivated by helping them establish professional goals and

objectives. Make sure goals are reasonable and achievable so employees don’t get discouraged.

3. Provide Incentives

Increase motivation by providing incentives to work toward. You can create individual

incentives for each employee or team incentives to motivate employees as a group. Financial

incentives can include cash prizes, gift cards or restaurant gift certificates.

4. Recognize Achievements

Celebrate employee achievements through employee-of-the-month or star performer awards.

Make a big deal out of accomplishments by celebrating at staff meetings. Print certificates or

issue a press release or post a notice on your company website. Recognize team

accomplishments as well as individual efforts.

5. Share Profits
Motivate employees with the incentive of a profit-sharing program. This approach promotes

collective goal-setting and teamwork. It also gives employees a sense of pride in ownership and

can improve performance and reduce turnover as well as raise morale.

6. Solicit Employee Input

Regularly survey employees about their levels of satisfaction. You can conduct anonymous polls

or hire an independent party to conduct a formal focus group. This will help you catch potential

morale breakers before they get out of hand. Soliciting employee input also shows staffers that

you care about their opinions and want to continually improve working conditions.

7. Provide Professional Enrichment

Encourage employees to continue their education or participate in industry organizations.

Provide tuition reimbursement or send employees to skills workshops and seminars. Promote

from within whenever possible, and create opportunities to help employees develop from a

professional standpoint.
Rural Youth and Women in Agriculture Development:

The role of rural youth and women in agriculture and in rural development is increasingly

recognized both at international and national level. There is a growing awareness of the need to

reach rural youth and women farmers and to fully involve them in development programmes.

However, extension services still face difficulties in effectively communicating and working

with rural youth and women. Among the reasons for this is the lack of adequate training material

addressing the issue of working with rural youth and women.

Awareness of the need for specific training material on the issue is the first step. However, while

much existing literature on extension mentions the need for such information on how to work

with rural women, very rarely are any specific examples or information given on how this can be

done.

By bringing together examples and practical information, this manual aims to fill this gap by

providing field extension workers with a series of practical ideas on how to effectively conduct

extension activities with women.

Module three aims to assist extension workers to use the information they have gained about the

needs, constraints and opportunities of rural women choosing extension packages which are

relevant and appropriate to women's specific situation. Problems and issues identified in the

previous module are used here in assisting extension staff to develop ways to overcome them.

The module analyses the technological aspects of the extension package as well as issues such as

credit, which often play a key role in farmers' decisions on whether or not to adopt a technology.
Despite the significance of women's role in agricultural development, evidence throughout

developing countries shows that women's farming productivity and efficiency levels often

remain very low. Among the key reasons for this is the lack of technical advice they receive on

production and marketing, cultural practices, skills and technology. Extension services

frequently fail to provide adequate information to women farmers through failing to recognize

their specific needs. Women farmers face specific constraints not faced by men. In addition to

their productive tasks they are frequently over burdened with household responsibilities which

they cannot delegate; they are often less educated than men and have a more limited access to

resources such as credit If an extension programme deals effectively with these constraints, it

will be easier for women farmers to get involved in its activities.

Women farmers also generally farm smaller plots of land than men, both in absolute terms and in

relation to household size. Female farmers generally own fewer tools than men.
Extension, research and farmers linkages

The aim of agriculture extension is to carry the results of research to the farmers so that they can

increase the agricultural production by the application of latest techniques developed at the

Agricultural Research Centre. This enterprise can function effectively when;

1. There is a strong and efficient research organization which is constantly evolving new

techniques for increasing agriculture production and is at the same time making a

researching analysis of the problems which arise at the farms. Research is therefore, the

fountain head from which extension draw its materials.

2. There should be a body of extension workers who are properly trained to provide

scientific knowledge and technical know how to the farmers in a manner and form which

they can understand. It is also the duty of extension workers to report to the research

stations, the difficulties and problems of the farming community, so that solutions should

be found for them.

3. That facilities for dissemination of knowledge through proper media are available to the

extension workers so that they can reach the farmers without difficulty and make them

absorb the new ideas and techniques.

The whole field of endeavour can be considered in terms of a triangle i.e the research efforts as

one corner, the farming community as the other. Extension is a vehicle to join the two. An

effective agricultural extension service acts as a connecting link between the research service and

the farming community.

 Extension

Research Farming Community

Thus agricultural extension services act as a two-way bridge linking the agricultural scientists on

one side and the farmers on the other.