 Optional Equipment

1. Valve positioner
A controller that adjusts the instrument air in order to maintain the
stem position at the specified position. Greatly reduces the deadband of the
valve. Deadband is the difference between the actuation point and the re-
actuation point in a pressure actuation switch. For example: if a pressure
switch is set to operate at 100 psi on increasing pressure, the switch will
close when pressure rises to that point.

2. Booster relay
Provides high capacity air flow to the actuator of a valve. Can
significantly increase the speed of large valves, preventing the time lags, in
the systems where controller and the control valve are separated by
extremely long piping runs.

 Adjustable Speed Pumps

 Used extensively in the bio-processing industries (better to maintain sterile
conditions and relatively low flow rates).
 Fast and precise.
 Do require an instrument air system (i.e., 4-20 mA signal goes directly to
pump).
 Much higher capital costs than control valves for large flow rate applications.

 Control Relevant Aspects of Actuator Systems

 The key factors are the deadband of the actuator and the dynamic response as
indicated by the time constant of the valve.
 Control valve by itself- deadband 10-25% and a time constant of 3-15 seconds.
  Control valve with a valve positioner or in a flow control loop- deadband 0.1-
0.5% and a time constant of 0.5-2 seconds.

 Sensor Systems for CPI

Sensor Terminology :
1. Span, the arithmetic difference between the highest and lowest values of the
input that being sensed.
2. Accuracy, is the extent to which the measured value might be wrong and
normally expressed in percentage.
3. Repeatability, failure of the sensor to represent the same value under identical
conditions when measured at different times.
4. Calibration, the experimental determination of the transfer function of a sensor
or actuator. Typically, needed when the transfer function is not known or,
when the device must be operated at tolerances below those specified by the
manufacturer.

 Span and Zero Example

 Consider a case in which the maximum temperature that is to be measured is
350ºF and the minimum temperature is 100ºF.
 Then the zero is 100ºF and the span is 250ºF
 In addition, if the measured temperature is known at two different sensor
output levels (i.e., ma’s), the span and zero can be calculated directly.

 Smart Sensors
 Sensors with onboard microprocesssors that offer a number of diagnostic
capabilities.
 Smart pH sensors determine when it is necessary to trigger a wash cycle due
to buildup on the electrode surface.
 Smart flow meters use statistical techniques to check for plugging of the lines
to the DP cell.
 Smart temperature sensors use redundant sensors to identify drift and estimate
expected life before failure.

 Temperature Sensing Systems

 RTDs and thermistors are an order of magnitude more precise but are less
rugged and cost more than thermocouples (TC’s).
 Typical dynamic response time constant is 6-20 seconds for RTDs,
thermistors and TC’s.
 Additional thermal resistance on inside or on the outside of the thermal well
can result in an excessively slow responding temperature measurement.

 Pressure Measurements
 Usually based on mechanical balance bars
 Very fast measurement dynamics
 Repeatability less than ±0.1%

 Flow Measurements
  Orifice plate/DP cell most common approach. Good repeatability and fast
dynamic response.
 Magnetic flow meters and vortex shedding flow meters are also used in certain
situations. They are more expensive but more reliable and require less
maintenance.
 A straight run of pipe required for good accuracy for all flow meters.

 Orifice Plate/DP Cell Flow Indicator in a Flow Control Loop

FC Flow Setpoint

FT

Paddle Type Orifice Plate

 Sizing an Orifice for a Differential Pressure Flow Indicator
 b is the ratio of the orifice diameter to the pipe diameter.
 0.2 < b < 0.7
 Pressure drop at minimum flow should be greater than 0.5 psi.
 Pressure drop across the orifice should be less than 4% of the line pressure.
 Choose the maximum value of b that satisfies each of the above specifications.

 Vortex Shedding Meters

 A blunt object is placed in the flow path and the frequency of turbulent
oscillations correlates with the flow rate.
 Useful for clean low viscosity liquids and gases.
 Ensure that cavitation does not occur in the measuring zone.
 Example of a Vortex Shedding Meter
 Magnetic Flow Meters
 Based on measuring the current generated by the flow a conducting fluid
through a magnetic field.
 Have low pressure drop associated with them.
 Are applied to conductive fluid (tap water is conductive enough)
 Deposition on the electrodes is a limitation.

Example of a Magnetic Flow Meter

 Bottom Line on Flow Meters

Magnetic flow meters and vortex shedding flow meters require less
maintenance and are generally more reliable than orifice plate flow meters BUT
they are much more expensive.

 Level Sensors
 Usually based on the hydrostatic head in a vessel measured by the differential
pressure.
 Has a repeatability of about ±1% with a time constant less than 1 second.
 Level measurements based upon a float or x-rays are also used in special
situations.
 Upper Tap

Diaphragm
Vapor

DPT
Liquid

Lower Tap

Typical Differential Pressure Level Measurement

 Analyzer Sensor Systems

 GC- most common composition analyzer. Based on plug flow of a volatile
sample through a packed bed-behaves as deadtime. Deadtime and
repeatability depend on the particular components being measured.
 Radiation absorption- infrared, ultraviolet, and visible. Can be effective for
certain components.
 Sample system can affect dynamics and reliability of composition
measurement.

 Common Bio-Sensors
RPM,
Power

Dissolved O2 AT AT Redox

TT
pHT
PT
AT

Off Gas

Turbidity
Meter

FT
Air

Bio-Sensors
 Flow measurements: Coriolis meters and rotameters.
 Off-gas analyzers: mass spectrometers (one mass spec can provide online
measurements for up to 32 bio-reactors), O2 electrode for O2 concentration
and infrared spectrometer for CO2 concentration.
 Fermentation product analysis: HPLC and FIA
 Ion-specific electrodes
-pH sensor
-DO sensor
-Redox sensors
Measuring electrode Silver wire (Cathode)
(Anode)

Glass outer
Saturated AgCl tube
solution
AgCl(s) electrode

Porous plug

Fill solution

Membrane

Schematic of an Ion-Specific Electrode