The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’.

Psyche means ‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus psychology was first defined as
the ‘science of soul”. According to earlier psychologists, the function of psychology was to study the nature, origin and destiny of the human soul. But soul is something
metaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed and touched and we cannot make scientific experiments on soul. In the 18 th century, psychology was understood as the
‘Science of Mind’. William James (1892) defined psychology as the science of mental processes. But the word ‘mind ‘ is also quite ambiguous as there was confusion
regarding the nature and functions of mind. Modern psychologists defined psychology as the “Science of Consciousness”. James Sully (1884) defined psychology as the
“Science of the Inner World”. Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined psychology as the science which studies the “internal experiences’. But there are three levels of
consciousness – conscious, subconscious and the unconscious and so this definition also was not accepted by some. Thus psychology first lost its soul, then its mind
and then its consciousness. At present only its behaviour exists. William McDugall (1905) defined psychology as the “Science of Behaviour”, W.B. Pillsbury (1911) and
J.B. Watson (1912) also defined psychology as the science of behavior.
Educational psychology is that branch of psychology in which the findings of psychology are applied in the field of education. It is the scientific study of human behaviour
in educational setting. According to Charles. E. Skinner, “Educational psychology deals with the behaviour of human beings in educational situations”. Thus educational
psychology is a behavioural science with two main references– human behaviour and education. In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational Psychology is the science of
Education”. Education by all means is an attempt to mold and shape the behaviour of the pupil. It aims to produce desirable changes in him for the all-round
development of his personality. Nature: Its nature is scientific as it has been accepted that it is a Science of Education. We can summarize the nature of Educational
Psychology in the following ways:1. Educational Psychology is a science. 2. Educational Psychology is a natural science. 3. Educational psychology is a social science. 4.
Educational psychology is a positive science. 5. Educational psychology is an applied science. 6. Educational psychology is a developing or growing science. Types:
Psychology has a very wide scope. It has a number of branches and is applied in a number of fields. The various branches and fields of psychology can be grouped under
two heads – General and Applied. These general and applied branches of psychology are as follows: General Branches: General Psychology, Abnormal Psychology,
Child Psychology, Physiological Psychology, Animal or comparative Psychology, Social Psychology, Differential Psychology, Para Psychology. Applied Branches: Clinical
Psychology. Military Psychology. Industrial Psychology, Psychology of Business Management, Crime Psychology, Educational Psychology.
Different types of techniques and methods are used by researchers to collect data and conduct research studies. With the increasing use of educational technology in
education, psychology and other social sciences, new research strategies are evolved. Following are the important methods and techniques of collecting data are:
Observation Method: With the development of psychology as an objective science of behaviour, the method of introspection was replaced by careful observation of
human and animal behaviour. Observation literally means looking outside oneself. It is a very important method for collecting data in almost all type of research
studies. Different type of Observation used in research, direct or indirect, scheduled or unscheduled, natural or artificial, participant and non-participant. But there are
two basic types of observation. They are: 1. Natural observation 2. Participant observation, Experimental Method: This method has been developed in psychology by
the continuous efforts by psychologists to make objective and scientific study of human behaviour. One of the major contributions of the behaviorism is the
development of experimental method to understand, control and predict behaviour. It is the most precise, planned systematic observation. The experimental method
uses a systematic procedure called experimental design. Experimental design provides important guide lines to the researcher to carry out his research systematically.
The lay out of the design depends on the nature of the problem that an investigator wants to investigate.
Growth is the progressive increase in the size of a child or parts of a child. Development is progressive acquisition of various skills (abilities) such as head support,
speaking, learning, expressing the feelings and relating with other people. Importance of assessing G&D:The assessment of growth and development is very helpful in
finding out the state of health and nutrition of a child. Continuous normal growth and development indicate a good state of health and nutrition of a child. Abnormal
growth or growth failure is a symptom of disease. Hence, measurement of growth is an essential component of the physical examination. Factors affecting G&D: Each
child’s path or pattern of growth and development is determined by genetic and environmental factors. The genetic factors determine the potential and limitations of
growth and development. If favourable, the environmental factors, such as adequate nutrition, facilitate the achievement of the genetic potential of growth and
development. Unfavourable factors, acting singly or in combination, slow or stop growth and development. Some of the unfavourable factors are malnutrition,
infections, congenital malformations, hormonal disturbances, disability, lack of emotional support, lack of play, and lack of language training. To promote optimum
growth, these environmental factors can be removed or minimized. Once they are removed, there follows a period of catch up growth. During this period the growth
rate is greater than normal. This growth rate continues until the previous growth pattern is reached. Then the growth rate is reduced to the normal rate determined
by the individual’s genetic factors. A child genetically determined to be tall grows slightly more rapidly than a child genetically determined to be short. Similarly, a child
genetically determined to be clever develops their intellect more rapidly than a child genetically determined to be less intelligent. Measuring Growth: There are various
measurements that are used to measure growth. These are: weight, height, head circumference, mid upper arm circumference, the eruption of teeth. The factors that
promote development include good nutrition, emotional support, play and language training. Good nutrition, Emotional Support: These are: Love; Security;
Acceptance as an individual; Self-Respect (Self-Esteem); Achievement; Recognition; Independence; Authority. Play: Physical, Manipulative, Creative, Imaginative.
Language. Emotional development refers to the ability to recognize, express, and manage feelings at different stages of life and to have empathy for the feelings of
others. The development of these emotions, which include both positive and negative emotions, is largely affected by relationships with parents, siblings, and peers.
Emotional development in various Stages: Infant, Toddler, School going, Adolescent. Social development refers to the process by which a child learns to interact with
others around them. As they develop and perceive their own individuality within their community, they also gain skills to communicate with other people and process
their actions. Social development most often refers to how a child develops friendships and other relationships, as well how a child handles conflict with peers.
Importance: Develop language skills, Build self-esteem, Strengthen learning skills, Resolve conflicts, Establish positive attitude. Stages: The Stage of Pre-Social
Behaviour, Progress from Individualisation to Socialisation, Expansion of Child’s Social World, The Socialising Process during Adolescence. Physical development is the
process that starts in human infancy and continues into late adolescent concentrating on gross and fine motor skills as well as puberty. Physical development involves
developing control over the body, particularly muscles and physical coordination. The peak of physical development happens in childhood and is therefore a crucial
time for neurological brain development and body coordination to encourage specific activities such as grasping, writing, crawling, and walking. As a child learns what
their bodies can do, they gain self-confidence, promoting social and emotional development. Physical activities geared toward aiding in physical development
contribute significantly to a person’s health and well-being. Stages: Infancy: General Characteristics, Growth in Height and Weight, Body Proportions, Other changes.
Early: General Characteristics, Motor Development, Lymphatic System, Each child has his own tempo of Growth. Later childhood: Slow but steady growth, Motor
Development, Years of Healthy growth. Adolescence: Peak Period, Spurt in physical growth, Physical Coordination. Intellectual development refers to the changes that
occur, as a result of growth and experience, in a person’s capacities for thinking, reasoning, relating, judging, conceptualizing, etc. In particular it concerns such changes
in children. The various intellectual abilities are inter related and developed as a whole. They are inter-dependent. Moreover, intellectual development is a continuous
process. The factors that affect intellectual development include maturation, learning and education. Intellectual development is a function of the nervous system,
especially of the brain. Stages: Birth to Three Years, Three to Six Years, Six to Twelve Years, Twelve to Eighteen Years.
Gales and others: “Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training.”, J.P. Guilford: “Learning is any change in behaviour, resulting from
behaviour”, Charles E. Skinner: “Learning is the process of progressive behaviour adoptions.”, Colvin: “Learning is the modification of our readymade behaviour due
to experience”. Characteristics: Learning is Growth, Adjustment, Intelligent, Active, the product of Environment, both Individual and Social, Purposeful, organising
Experience, All living, True Learning affects the conduct of the learner, Universal, Change, a Process not a product, transferable, Learning is total reaction of the
individual to total situation.Process In its simplest form, learning means acquisition of experience.In its complex form, it means acquisition, retention and modification
of experience. It means establishing new relationship between stimulus and response. It means development of method of problem solving. It is motivated by
adjustment to environment. It includes all activities which leave a permanent effect on the individual. The process of learning includes the following: Acquisition of
new experiences, Retention of new experiences in the form of impressions or engrams or skill, Development of the experiences, step by step, Synthesis and organisation
of the old and the new experiences, resulting in a novel pattern., Learning is possible both on the cognitive, affective and conative side. Acquisition of knowledge is
cognitive, modification of emotions is affective, and acquisition of skills and habits is conative.
Factors affecting learning: 1. Intellectual, 2. Learning, 3. Physical, 4. Mental, 5. Emotional and social, 6. Teacher’s Personality, 7. Environmental factor
Approaches to learning skills can be learned and taught, improved with practice and developed incrementally. They provide a solid foundation for learning
independently and with others. ATL skills help students prepare for, and demonstrate learning through, meaningful assessment. They provide a common language that
students and teachers can use to reflect on and articulate on the process of learning. Approaches to learning are most powerful when teachers plan and students
engage with them in connection with significant and relevant content knowledge in order to develop transferable understanding. Behavioral: This approach to learning
is based on the idea that learners respond to stimuli in their environment. The role of the learning facilitator, therefore, is to provide relevant and useful stimuli so
that the learner responds to and gains the required knowledge or experience. (Ivan Pavlov: classical conditioning-dogs, B.F. Skinner: Reinforcement + -). Cognitive
theories are concerned with the role of the active mind in processing learning opportunities and developing. The tutor (if present) and the participant both engage
with knowledge; the role of the tutor is choosing the best method to convey understanding. (John Dewey: progressive education, B. S. Bloom: cognitive & affective
domain). The social learning theory is a development of early behaviourism theory. It proposes that people can learn, both directly and indirectly, by observing
others. In order that this learning becomes absorbed into their repertoire of behaviours, it needs to be positively reinforced. The more recent humanist theories take
into account the way that, in our society, previously polarised views of right and wrong have dissolved into a variety of potentially equally valuable truths, i.e., a
pluralistic approach. The stress on valuing diversity in many organisations and in society generally is a reflection of this ideology. An emphasis on active learning is at
the core of these humanistic approaches to learning. The terms 'andragogy' and 'pedagogy' highlight the difference between earlier models of training and the more
usual approach nowadays. Pedagogy is essentially based on instruction; knowledge is transmitted formally from one who knows to one who does not know. This type
of model has often been used in institutional settings, where it can be administratively easier to assume control of the learning experience, while ignoring the ability
or needs of the person to engage in self-directed learning – for example in schools and other educational establishments.Andragogy, however, provides us with a
process model in which the learner discovers knowledge at a pace to suit him/herself, supported by a facilitator, perhaps a coach or mentor.
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made
between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of
effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior that is not
reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished. Three types of responses: Neutral, Reinforcers (+,-), Punishment (+,-). Contribution T & L: Conditioning study behavior,
Conditioning and classroom behavior, Managing Problem Behavior, Dealing with anxieties through conditioning, Conditioning group behavior, Conditioning and
Cognitive Processes, Shaping Complex Behavior.
Piaget’s Theory (Developmental theory of learning): his theory was put forward by Jean Piaget whose study focused on the development of children understanding.
He did this through observing them while talking and performing different activities. His view was on how children`s minds work and develop has contributed a lot in
education. His particular insight was on the role of maturation in increasing capacity of children to understand their world. It was recognized that, children cannot
undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough to do so (Atherton, 2011). Piaget put forward some ideas relating on his study; Assimilation:
Accommodation, Conservation, Egocentrism, Schema (or scheme). Contribution T & L: A teacher's planning, Learner involvement, treat students, commence from
simple to complex. Information Processing Theory: Ashcraft, contends that, information processing is a cognitive process which attempts to explain how the mind
functions in the learning process. With this theory more emphasis is on how the information is processed than, how learning happens. The theory has three basic
components which are: SR, STM, LTM. Contribution T & L: teachers role of organizing properly, curriculum should be organized, kind of knowledge. Pavlov: Classical
conditioning is a term used to describe learning which has been acquired through experience. One of the best-known examples of classical conditioning can be found
with the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his experiments on dogs. In these experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate when they heard a bell ring. In order
to do this he first showed them food, the sight of which caused them to salivate. Later Pavlov would ring a bell every time he would bring the food out, until eventually,
he could get the dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without giving the dogs any food. In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed how a reflex
(salivation, a natural bodily response) could become conditioned (modified) to an external stimulus (the bell) thereby creating a conditioned reflex/response.
Components: The Unconditioned Stimulus (food), Conditioned Stimulus (bell), Unconditioned Reflex/Response (salivation), Conditioned Reflex (salivation in response
to bell). Cont. T & L: practice and master a task, how to motivate, emotional responses.
Motivation: It is a driving force which helps someone to perform a task. So, motivation can be named as a force which keeps the person moving on. The concept of
human motivation is defined as the processes within individuals that arouse them to action. It is what gets individuals “moving” towards specified activities and tasks.
It is a complex process which is made up of different processes. These are processes which helps the person to act. Types: Intrinsic motivation involves engaging in
a behavior because it is personally rewarding; essentially, performing an activity for its own sake rather than the desire for some external reward. Extrinsic motivation
occurs when we are motivated to perform a behavior or engage in an activity to earn a reward or avoid punishment. Nature, Characteristics and function: Psychological
concept, Never ending process, Related to human resources, Cause & effect of human satisfaction, Total individual motivation, Inspiration & encouragement, Complex
and unpredictable, Positive and negative motivation. Factors: Following are some research-based strategies for motivating students to learn.Become a role model for
student interest. Get to know your students. Use examples freely. Use a variety of student-active teaching activities. Set realistic performance goals. Place appropriate
emphasis on testing and grading. Be free with praise and constructive in criticism. Give students as much control over their own education as possible. Psychologist
Abraham Maslow first developed his famous theory of individual development and motivation in the 1940’s. He suggested that human beings have a hierarchy of
needs. That is, that all humans act in a way which will address basic needs, before moving on to satisfy other, so-called higher level needs. Maslow represented this
theory as a hierarchical triangle. This shows how basic needs must be met before one can “climb” the hierarchy, to address more complex needs. For example, first
one must meet the basic, physiological need for food, water and warmth. After that the focus would be on the need to be safe, then the need to belong to social
groups, and so on up the hierarchy. The important thing to recognize is Maslow’s contention that one’s sense of well-being. i.e. the ‘feel good factor’ increases as the
higher level needs are met. Maslow says that there are five basic needs, he made a pyramid of those needs and categorizes them as: Physiological needs. Safety needs.
Belongingness and love needs. Esteem needs. Self-actualization needs.
Intelligence: One of the most important single variables, which affect schooling, is intelligence. Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge. Success in
school and colleges and in one’s own profession, social adjustment, possession of general information etc. are all associated with the concept of “intelligence”. The
word intelligence is derived from the Latin verb ‘intellegere’ which means understanding. According to Alfred Binet intelligence is the ability for judgement or common
sense. Thorndike defines intelligence as “one’s capacity to deal effectively with situations”. For Jean Piaget, ‘intelligence is the ability to adapt to one’s surroundings’.
In the words of Cyril Burt, “Intelligence is the capacity of flexible adjustment.” According to David Wechsler (1977): ‘The global capacity to think rationally, act
purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment.’ Intelligence is defined as mental capability that involves the ability to reason, to plan, to solve problems, to
think abstractly, to comprehend complex ideas, to learn quickly and to learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking
smartness. In simple words, intelligence is nothing but thinking skills and the ability to adapt to and to learn from life’s everyday experiences. Role of heredity &
environment: Heredity and environment have an interactive influence on intelligence. Many researchers believe that there is a reaction range to IQ, which refers to
the limits placed on IQ by heredity. Heredity places an upper and lower limit on the IQ that can be attained by a given person. The environment determines where
within these limits the person’s IQ will lie. Despite the prevailing view that both heredity and environment influence intelligence, researchers still have different
opinions about how much each contributes and how they interact. Assessment: Intelligence tests attempt to measure intelligence—that is, basic ability to understand
the world around a person, assimilate its functioning, and apply this knowledge to enhance the quality of his/her life. Intelligence tests are psychological tests that are
designed to measure a variety of mental functions, such as reasoning, comprehension, and judgment. The goal of intelligence tests is to obtain an idea of the person's
intellectual potential. The tests center around a set of stimuli designed to yield a score based on the test maker's model of what makes up intelligence. Individual &
Group tests. The term "intelligence quotient," or IQ, was first coined in the early 20th century by a German psychologist named William Stern. Psychologist Alfred Binet
developed the very first intelligence tests to help the French government identify schoolchildren who needed extra academic assistance. Binet was the first to introduce
the concept of mental age, or a set of abilities that children of a certain age possess. Intelligence Quotient is a relative number comparing an individual’s mental and
cognitive abilities to the current average performance of a population. Several types of intelligence tests are used to measure these abilities.
Charles Spearman: General Intelligence: British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor.
After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar.
People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others.
He concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically expressed. Louis L. Thurstone: Primary Mental Abilities: Psychologist
Louis L. Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven
different primary mental abilities. The abilities that he described include: Verbal comprehension, Reasoning, Perceptual speed, Numerical ability, Word fluency,
Associative memory, Spatial visualization, Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligences: One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence, such as in the IQ test, are not a
full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct types of intelligence based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures.
The eight kinds of intelligence Gardner described are: Visual-spatial, Verbal-linguistic, Bodily-kinesthetic, Logical-mathematical, Interpersonal, Musical, Intrapersonal,
Naturalistic. Robert Sternberg: Tri-archic Theory of Intelligence: Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive
adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's life." While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single,
general ability, he instead suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as
"successful intelligence," which involves three different factors: Analytical: Creative intelligence: Practical intelligence: