Analytical Phase
Data analysis
- converting data to information
Branches:
Descriptive Statistics
-methods applied in order to organize,
summarize and present data in a form
which will make them easier to
analyze and interpret
Inferential Statistics
-methods involved in order to make
generalizations and conclusions about
a target population, based on results
from a sample
Variables
-a value of a characteristic that
changes from subject to subject or
from time to time
Relationship between Variables:
Dependent Variable
- the outcome or response variable
Independent Variable
- the variable that is presumed to
influence the outcome
Confounding Variable
- An extraneous variable which by
itself may influence the outcome
and which may be mistaken to be
the effect of the independent
variable being considered.
Types of Variables:
Qualitative Variables
- categories are simply used as
labels to distinguish one group
from another
Quantitative Variables
- categories can be measured and
ordered according
quantity/amount
Discrete Quantitative Variables
- can assume only integral values or
whole numbers
Continuous Quantitative Variables
- can attain any value including
fractions or decimals
Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scale
- unordered categories
Ordinal Scale
- ordered categories
Interval Scale
- the exact distance between two
categories can be determined but
the zero point is arbitrary
Ratio Scale
- Similar to interval but the zero
point is fixed
Kinds of indicators
- Parameters – derived from the
entire population
- Statistics – derived from a sample
of the population
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean – arithmetic average
Median – middle value
Mode – most frequently occurring
value
Measures of Variation
Range
- the difference between the highest
observation and the lowest
observation
Variance
to - refers to how much the individual
observations differ from the mean
Standard Deviation
- square root of the variance
Coefficient of Variation
- Measures the relative dispersion
which expresses the standard
deviation as a percentage of the
mean
Frequency Distribution:
- the proportion of subjects found in
the different classes of the
population
Proportion, ratio and rate:
Proportion
- a / (a+b)
- e.g. proportion of patients cured
Ratio
- a/b
- e.g. sex ratio = no. of males : no.
of females
Rate
- e.g. incidence rate = (no. of new
cases over a period of
time/population at risk) x 100,000
How is the method of data
analysis determined?
The method of data analysis that
should be used for a study
depends on:
- the objectives and the research
design
- the scale of measurement/type
of data
METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS
Descriptive Statistics
- Computations of indicators
 Measures of central tendency:
mean, median, mode
 Measures of variation: range,
standard deviation
  frequency/percentage
distribution; rates, ratios
Organizing, presenting &
summarizing data in forms that
facilitate interpretation
- Inferential Statistics
o computations of
indicators
o comparison of indicators
o test for significance of
observed differences
o determination of degree
of association
Criteria for selection of a Statistical Significance vs.
statistical test:
• Level of Measurement of the
Data
– Nominal
– Ordinal
– Interval/Ratio
• Specific objectives to be
attained
• Types of samples
• Assumptions of the test
Purpose of doing the test:
• to determine if a sample could
have come from a population
with a stipulated mean or
proportion or from a population
of some pre-specified
distribution
• comparison of two means or
proportions
• comparison of more than two
means or proportions
• determination of correlation or
association between variables
Type of Samples
• Independent samples – the
elements in one sample is not in
any way influenced by the Preparing a R Report:
characteristics of the elements  Written/oral summary of the
selected in the other sample. study
• Paired or related samples –  Must be presented in the order
samples which are matched for of the R process
certain variables  Goof professional writing
Two kinds of statistics test (clear,concise,accurate)
Parametric tests – involves  Presented in an informative and
numerical data, measured either on an interesting manner
interval or ratio scale
Non-Parametric tests – involves Presentation of R Fdngs:
data that are not truly numerical being  Local
only on a nominal or ordinal scale  Regional
 National
Practical Significance:
• Practical Significance refers 2 ways of Presentation:
to the benefits that may be I. Oral R Reports
derived from the application of II. Written R Reports
the knowledge or technology
tested by the study. Call for abstract – request for a
• Statistical Significance summary that the researchers wishes
measures the probability of to present at a conference
accepting a wrong hypothesis or
of rejecting a true hypothesis Contents of the abstract:
 Purpose
Dissemination Phase  Design
- Communicating R fdngs  Research question
- Utilization of R fdngs  Methodology
 Hypothesis
Framework for disseminating R  Major fdngs
Fdngs STEPS:  Conclusions
1. identify target audiences
2. develop the necessary Advantages of presenting R
infrastructure to facilitate the results at a conference over
preparation of publications and publishing the Fdngs in a journal
presentations article:
3. identification of the most  Investigator will present fdngs
appropriate means of communicating which are recent
R Fdngs to the target audiences  Inv will be able to interact with
those who are interested
  Inv will locate other Rers with
similar studies
 Immediate feedback from
participants
500-1000 words average length of
abstract
Journal Articles – 10-15 pages
4x8 ft Poster
Thesis- concerned with testing
existing theories
Dissertations- contain more in depth
investigation; provide new knowledge,
new theories
Goal for conducting Ng. R : to
promote EBP
Barriers to the Utilization of Ng. R
 Nurses lack of knowledge
 Nurses negative attitude
 Inadequate dissemination of R
fdngs
 Lack of institutional support
 Fdngs are not ready for use in
practice
CONSORT – Consolidated standards
of reporting trials
R Report – is a means of
communicating key aspects of the
study to the R consumer
Types of R reports:
 Theses and Dissertations
 Online reports
 Traditional journal articles
 Presentations @ professional
meetings
Major elements or R report for
presentation:
a. Introduction / overview of how
the problem for study emerged
b. Formation of the problem
c. Purpose & importance of
investigation
d. Conceptual model/ related lit.
Referee Journal – one in which subject
experts chosen by the editorial staff to
evaluate manuscripts
Nonreferee journal - editorial staff/
consultants review manuscripts not
necessarily experts
Empirical Phase
2 STEPS
1. Collecting the Data
- where and when data will be
collected.
- what, who, where, when and
how.
- describes participants
Important points to Remember
Researchers must:
- Maintain confidentiality
- Should be serious in keeping
their appointment.
- Participants should be informed
time and place their pressure
are required.
- Enough materials are available
to complete the study.
Important Dimensions:
1. Structure
• Structured Method
- Limited opportunities to explain.
- Includes fixed set of question to
be answered.
• Unstructured Method
- No formal instrument
- “essay type”
- Very hard to analyze.
2. Quantifiability
- Subjective to analysis must be
gathered in such a way that
data can be quantified.
3. Researcher’s Obtrusiveness
- Obviousness of the researcher
4. Objectivity
- No feelings
- Evident when 2 independent
researchers arrive at similar
observations
- Checklist
Major types of Data Collecting Method:
A. Self – Reports
- Good deal of information can be
gathered by questioning people.
Ex.
1. Questionnaire
- Paper & Pencil test answered in
writing
- Person, mail or internet – most
conveniently clarify
misunderstanding.
 - Cover letter should accompany
a questionnaire.
Guidelines:
• Adequate margin & spacing
• Should be neat in
appearance & grammatically
correct and no typing errors.
• Should be kept short as
possible
• State questions in an
affirmative manner
• Avoid ambiguous questions
(avoid double (-) questions)
• Should contain neutral
wording.
• Information on how to
complete the questionnaire
must be clear & concise.
Types of Questions
a. Demographic questions
- Sex, age, educational
background, religion
b. Open-ended questions
- Essay-type
c. Close-ended questions
- True/false
- Must have no overlapping
- Should be complete choices
d. Contingency questions
- Follow-up questions
e. Filler questions
- Fill in the blank
- Purpose of the study would not
be very obvious.
Advantage
• Quick and inexpensive
• Easy to test its reliability and
validity
• Adm. Is less time consuming
than interview
• Data can be obtained in a
widespread geographical area.
• Respondents can remain
anonymous
Disadvantage
• Mailing will be costly.
• Response rate is low (needs
participants who are literate)
• May provide socially acceptable
answers
• No opportunity to clarify items
• Must be literate.
• Must not be a representative of
the population
• May fail to answer items
2. Interview
- Face to face encounter or
through telephone call
- Oral exam
Categories:
a. Unstructured – not formal
b. Structured – set of questions
c. Semi-structured and promoting
(ad lib) questions.
Guidelines:
Before:
- Important to introduce yourself
& explain purpose of the study.
- How they are chosen & how info
will be used.
- How long interview will take.
During:
- Ensure comfortable
atmosphere.
- Subjects should be in a
comfortable position (maintain
personal distance).
- Undesired noises must be
controlled.
- Should use language that is
understood by subjects & talk in
conversational tone.
- Should be informed that there
are no wrong right answers.
- Sensitive questions should be
asked last.
After:
- Ask for any questions.
- Common courtesy (must be
thanked for participation.
- Further explanations may be
made.
- Respondents: how to obtain
results.
Advantage:
- In depth questions are obtained.
- Response rate is high.
- Nonverbal & verbal manners
can be observed.
- Can be obtained in a wide range
of subjects.
- Data are usable.
Disadvantage:
- Training programs are needed.
- Time consuming & expensive.
- Arrangement may be difficult to
make.
- May provide socially acceptable
responses (subjective)
- Subject may be (anxious)
influenced by interviewer’s
characteristics.
- May misinterpret nonverbal
behavior.
B. Observation Method
- Systematic collection.
- Uses senses.
a. Structured- checklist (guide)
b. Unstructured- don’t knew what
will happen next.
Phenomena Amenable
- Characteristic & condition of
individual.
- Act & behavior.
- Skills attainment &
performance.
- Verbal communication.
- Nonverbal communication.
- Environmental characteristics.
Categories
A. Non- Participant Observer-
Overt
- Participants are aware
with no participation.
- Clearly identified as
researcher.
B. Non- Participant Observer-
Covert
- With consent
- One who doesn’t before
the beginning of data
collection identifies him
to the subjects who are
being observed.
- Subject will not alter
behavior.
- Non- ethical.
C. Participant Observer- Overt
- Becomes involved with
subject openly & with full
awareness of those
people being observed.
D. Participant Observer- Covert
- Not Ethical
- Spy
- Interacts with subjects &
observes their behavior
with their knowledge.
Points to Remember:
- Training sessions will be
necessary.
- Preferable to have more than 1
observer = reliability.
- Client’s welfare should take
precedence.
- Researches must determine
how & when observations will
be made.
C. Biophysiologic Measures
- BP, stool, v/s.
- Physical data of subject.
- More objective & accurate than
any other data collection
methods.
Types:
1. Vivo Measurements
- BP, stool, v/s
- Highly complex instruments
system.
2. Vitro Measurements
- Blood tests, CBS.
- Take something from the body
then to the lab.
Advantage:
- Reliable, accurate, & precise.
- Objective
- Provides vital measures of
targeted variables
- Available equipment in hospital
setting.
- Cost may be low.
Disadvantage:
- Presence of certain data
- May adversely influence the
subjects.
- No interferences that may
create artifacts in
measurements.
- Special expertise may be
necessary to use some of these
devices.
Criteria for D/C Selection of
Instruments:
1. Practicality of the instruments-
cost & appropriateness.
2. Reliability- consistent & stable
Types:
- Stability Reliability-
consistency over time.
-Similar results are obtained.
-Correlation coefficient is used.
- Equivalence Reliability- 2
instruments / observers
with same result.
- Concerns the degree to which 2
different forms of an instruments
obtain the same result, 2 or more
observers using a single instrument
obtain the same exits.
- Internal Consistency
Reliability- all items
measure the same
variable.
- Split half method can be used to
measure this.
3. Validity – degree to which an
instrument measure swhat is
approved.
Types:
- Face validity- instrument
shows that its measuring
what’s supposed to be
measured.
- Content validity-
concerned with the scope
 or range of items used to
measure the variable.
- Criterion validity- not only
based on questions but to
other criteria.
- involved determining the relationship
between an instrument and an
external criterion.
ATTITUDE SCALES
- Assign identification no.
to the responses or
observations of different
subjects.
- Coding of data /
Translation of data in
numeric forms
- Written document to
compute files
- Transferring the data
from written docs into
computer files for
subsequent analysis.

1. Likert Scales – agree,

undecided, disagree
2. Semantic Differential Scales
- Friendly, 7654321
- Indicate their position
about some concept
along continuum between
2 adjectives.
- Rate a concept on a
series of opposite
adjectives.

Visual Analogue Scale

- To measure subject
exposure such as pain,
fatigue and dyspnea
- Straight line (100mm
long)

2. Preparing the Data for Analysis

Preliminary Activities
- Examine questionnaire to
determine if they are
usable