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2.1 The Fundamental Conditions motion of elastic waves are generated and can be
recorded by the appropriate detection instru-
An application of an external force, on part of a ments. These are normally referred to as the
medium (elastic medium), leads to creation of (seismic waves).
internal opposing forces which intend to resist
the deformations caused by that external force.
Typical forms of the resulting deformations are 2.2 Theory of Elasticity
changes in volume and/or in shape which are
created at the affected location. In consequence, As it is stated above, the fundamental conditions
the medium will return to its original condition for a seismic field to be created is that the med-
after the external force is removed. This property ium must possess the elasticity property. Two
of resisting of changes in volume and in shape main concepts are governing the propagation of
and return to original conditions after removal of seismic waves in an elastic medium: the (stress)
the external force is called (elasticity). Provided and the (strain). Stress represents the external
that the changes are small, rock media in nature force applied to the elastic medium, and strain is
are considered to be perfectly elastic in nature. the resulting changes in volume and in shape.
As a result of the elasticity property of media, The relation between stress and strain, for a
the changes (volume and shape changes) oscil- particular medium (perfectly elastic medium),
late about their neutral positions and, at the same gives evaluation expressions for the elasticity
time, propagate away from the energy property of that medium. The stress-strain pro-
source-location. Energy transfer in this manner portionality constants are the elastic coefficients
(motion that leaves out no permanent distortions) which serve as measures of the elasticity of a
is commonly referred to as (wave motion). particular medium.
The fundamental condition for the creation The principal types of changes experienced by
and propagation of seismic waves (seismic field) a medium due to passage of a seismic wave are
is a source of mechanical energy of impulsive re-distribution of the internal forces (stress
type which is initiated within an elastic medium. changes) and modification of the volume and
The energy source may be natural (as in geometrical shape (strain changes). The theory of
earthquake-generated waves) or artificial (as in elasticity deals with analysis of these principal
firing of a dynamite charge). In both cases wave effects and the related physical changes.
T
Tz
Ty
Tx
ΔA
Fig. 2.1 Stress (T) and its components (Tx ,Ty, Tz) acting on the elementary area (DA)
2.2 Theory of Elasticity 25
C
y
z
The three stress components (Tx , Ty , Tz) per each of the three
areas (A, B, C)
Tyz B
A
T
Txz Tzz
T T
Tyx
Tyy
C
Txx Tzx
Txy Tzy
Fig. 2.2 The stress components. The mutually perpendicular planes (A, B, C) making up the area-set and the nine
components of the involved stress tensor
meter (N/m2) which is called Pascal, where one In general, when a body is subjected to elastic
Pascal is equal to 1 N/m2. stress, both of its size and shape will change. As
it is mentioned above, the resulting changes
represent elastic strains when each point of the
2.2.2 Strain stressed body experiences a displacement of its
own which is different from the displacements
In reference to Fig. 2.3, let us consider the two experienced by the other points of the body. This
points (P1 and P2) located within an unstressed implies that there are two types of strains, namely
body, where the first point, P1 is located at (x, y, z) the “volume strain” and the “shape strain”
and the second point (P2) at (x + dx, y + dy, (Fig. 2.4).
z + dz). Now, we let this body to deform as a
result of a stress system created within it. If the two
points (P1 and P2) were displaced from their 2.2.3 Common Types of Strain
original positions by equal displacements (D,
say), then it is considered that there is no strain Mathematical analyses of strain show that the
taking place. Strain occurs only when there is total strain of a three dimensional body, depends
variation of displacement of any point, within that on only six different derivatives of displace-
medium, with respect to the others. In the lan- ments. These strain components (eab), can be
guage of mathematics, we say that strain depends written down as follows (Richter 1958, p. 236):
on the derivatives of the displacement-
components with respect to the chosen coordi- exx = Dx / x
nates (x, y, z). The concept is clarified in Fig. 2.3. eyy = Dy / y
ezz = Dz / z
exy = ( Dx / y + Dy / x) / 2
exz = ( Dx / z + Dz / x) / 2
P1 P2 eyz = ( Dy / z + Dz / y) / 2
(a)
Fig. 2.4 The two types of strain; “volume” and “shape” strains
2.2 Theory of Elasticity 27
Rigid body-translation and rotation represent (or compressional) stress. The longitudinal strain
cases of no strain, since no volume and no shape (e) is defined to be the change in length in a
deformation are involved. In Fig. 2.5, an ele- certain dimension, of a body under stress relative
mentary cube (shown here in plan) is used to to its original length. For a rectangular lamina of
show simple types of elastic deformation (strain) dimensions (Dx by Dy), the longitudinal strains
and no-strain changes. (ex and ey) in the x and y directions are defined as
In general, an elastic body under stress can (Fig. 2.6):
experience two types of distortions; changes in The longitudinal strains can be extensional
volume and changes of shape. These changes, (tensile strain) or compressional (contraction
which occur as result of stress, are expressions of strain). Longitudinal strains (ex and ey) are
the physical properties of the stressed body. In its defined as:
simple form, elastic strain can be divided into
two main types. These are: the volume-changing ex ¼ Dx =Dx
strain (leading to body compression or dilatation) ey ¼ Dy =Dy
and the shape-changing strain (leading to body
shape distortion). where (Dx and Dy) are the changes in length in
x and y directions respectively.
The minus sign that appeared in the ey
2.2.4 The Volume-Changing Strain expression is entered to denote that the change
(Dy) is compression which is in opposite direc-
The familiar example on this type of strain is the tion to the dilatation change (Dx), in the x-
longitudinal strain of a body under an extensional direction.
Dy
Δy Δy
Δx Δx Dx
ex = Dx / x ey = - Dy / y
Fig. 2.6 Definition of the longitudinal strain as applied for a rectangular lamina of dimensions (Dx by Dy)
28 2 Seismic Waves
x x
2.2.5 The Shape-Changing Strain displacements. When the displacements are equal
a body may experience pure translation (rigid
As longitudinal strain gives expression for the body-translation) or pure rotation (rigid
volume changes resulting from stress application, body-rotation), as shown in Fig. 2.8.
the shear strain gives the corresponding measure Rigid-body changes which do not involve
for the shape deformation. Using the example volume or shape changes, such as these, are not
above (Dx by Dy rectangular lamina). The shear considered to be elastic strains.
strain (also called angular strain) is considered to
be the average of the two angles by which two
neighboring sides rotate as a result of the shearing 2.2.6 The Cubical Dilatation
stress. Thus, the shear strain (exy) is defined as:
exy ¼ ð/ þ bÞ=2 A parameter, closely related to longitudinal strain
and of special importance in the theory of elas-
where (/ and b) represent the angles of rotation ticity is the Cubical Dilatation (h). At a certain
of the two sides (Dx and Dy) brought about by point within a strained medium, this is defined as
the shear stress (Fig. 2.7). the fractional change in a unit volume surrounding
Since these two angles are very small (usually that point. Thus, for a three dimensional body with
so, in seismic-field conditions), they can be rep- longitudinal strains (exx, eyy, ezz), the cubical
resented by their corresponding tangents, giving dilatation can be computed as follows:
exy ¼ ða þ bÞ=2 ¼ ðDx =Dy þ Dy =DxÞ=2 h ¼ ð1 þ exx Þð1 þ eyy Þð1 þ ezz Þ 1
where the angles (a & b) are in radians. For small strains exx, eyy, ezz (which is the
It should be emphasized that strain occurs case in seismic-field conditions), the products of
only if the body particles experience unequal these terms may be neglected giving the result:
2.2 Theory of Elasticity 29
h ¼ exx þ eyy þ ezz ¼ Dx =Dx þ Dy =Dy þ Dz =Dz For an isotropic body (physical properties are
independent of direction) and for an elastic body,
under small strain, strain varies linearly with the
The sign convention of (h) is negative for applied stress. This linear stress-strain relation-
compression and positive for expansion strains. ship is governed by a well-known mathematical
equation. It is the Hooke’s law.
strain
30 2 Seismic Waves
The linearity property governed by Hooke’s law 2.2.9 The Elastic Moduli
means that there is a proportionality-constant for the
linear stress-strain relation for any particular body The elastic modulus of a body is the propor-
under stress. Mathematical studies showed that, for tionality constant of the stress-strain linear rela-
an isotropic body, two elastic coefficients are suf- tionship. It expresses an important physical
ficient (Richter 1958, p. 238). These are the Lame’s property which is the extent of resistance of that
coefficients (k & l), which are sufficient in char- body to the applied stresses. Moduli of important
acterizing the elastic properties of a medium. practical applications are Young’s Modulus, bulk
By use of Lame’s coefficients (k & l), modulus, and shear modulus. These are defined
Hooke’s law can be presented in the following in the following discussions.
compact form:
(i) Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio
Let a simple tensile stress (Tx) be applied to
Tij = λ θ ij+ 2µ eij an isotropic bar placed along the x-axis. This will
cause the bar to experience a longitudinal
extension (ex) in the x-direction and, at the same
where the symbols (i & j) take the values x, y,
time, it experiences lateral contractions along y-
and z, and the term dij = 1 when (i = j), and
and z-directions. Being an isotropic body, the
dij = 0 when (i 6¼ j). T and e are the stress and
contractions in the y- and z-directions (ey, & ez)
strain respectively.
are equal. These changes (expressed by the
This compact form of the Hooke’s law can be
strains ex, ey, & ez) are governed by the elastic
presented in the following explicit equations:
coefficients of the stressed body. The coefficients
which govern the stress-strain relation, in the
Txx = λ θ + 2µ exx presence of the tensile stress (Tx), are Young’s
Tyy = λ θ + 2µ eyy modulus (Y) and Poisson’s ratio (r).
Tzz = λ θ + 2µ ezz For a one-dimensional stress acting on a body
obeying Hooke’s law, Young’s modulus (Y) is
For pure shear strain (that is with no change in the proportionality constant in the linear relation
volume, for h = 0), the Law expresses the rela- that connects stress (Tx) with strain (ex). The
tions for purely shearing strain, that is: relationship is:
V
A F
P
P x
V-ΔV
h ∅
P
Fig. 2.11 An elastic cube under hydrostatic compression Fig. 2.12 An elastic rectangular block under shearing
forces force (F) acting on area (DA)
32 2 Seismic Waves
k ¼ rY=ð1 2rÞ ð1 þ rÞ
2.3 Wave Motion Equation
l ¼ Y=2ð1 þ rÞ
If two neighboring points in a stressed medium
experience the same stress, no motion of one of
Other relations are presented in Table 2.3.
them will occur with respect to the other. How-
ever, relative motion will take place when there
is a stress difference. In other words, motion
2.2.10 The Elastic Moduli
occurs when there is a stress gradient. This
Interrelationships
reminds us of an analogous case we met in the
creation of strain (see Sect. 2.2). The two cases
For a homogeneous and isotropic medium under
may be expressed as follows: Displacement
stress, the stress-strain relationship is linear
gradient is required to create strain and stress
within the elastic (Hookean) state. The propor-
gradient is required to cause motion.
tionality constants are the elastic moduli or
2.3 Wave Motion Equation 33
2.3.1 One-Dimensional Scalar Wave This strain (exx = ∂Dx/∂x) is produced by the
Equation corresponding stress gradient (∂Txx/∂x).
By making use of the fact that the net force
In this section, we shall deal with the wave acting on any face is given by the stress acting on
motion equation which expresses the motion of a that face times the face area, we get the resultant
disturbance in one dimension. The disturbance in force (Fx) in the x-direction due to the stress
this particular case is the scalar quantity, the change (∂Txx/∂x) dx that occurred across the
cubical dilatation (h). distance (dx). This is computed as follows:
Let us consider an elementary parallelepiped
(of dimensions: dx, dy, Dz) located inside an Fx ¼ ð@Txx =@xÞ dx dy dz
elastic isotropic medium (Fig. 2.13).
At each face of this elementary body, when it By applying Newton‘s second law of motion
is under elastic stress, there exist three stress we can express (Fx) in terms of mass of the
components: one is normal and two are tangen- parallelepiped (dx dy dz times density q)
tial to the particular face. The three multiplied by acceleration (∂2Dx/∂t2) in the x-
stress-components (Txx, Tyx, and Tzx) are acting direction giving:
on the face perpendicular to the x-axis. Under
dx dy dz q @ 2 Dx =@t2 ¼ ð@Txx =@xÞ dx dy dz
elastic stress-strain conditions, each of these
components will have a gradient in the
x-direction (∂Txx/∂x, ∂Txy/∂x, and ∂Txz/∂x). For or:
a complete three dimensional state, additional
similar gradients occur in the other two directions q @ 2 Dx =@t2 ¼ ð@Txx =@xÞ
(y-direction and z-direction).
In order to simplify the mathematical deriva- This is the one-dimensional (dimension, x in
tion of the equation of seismic wave motion, let a this example) wave motion equation which
plane compressional seismic wave to be describes particle motion (displacement, Dx) in
advancing in the x-direction. In this case the terms of the applied stress (Txx). However, the
three stress-components are reduced to only one motion can be expressed in terms of displace-
component (Txx) creating the corresponding ment only. This is done by using the stress-strain
strain (exx). When a seismic plane wave propa- linear relationship expressed by Hooke’s law
gates in the x-direction, the two faces (perpen- equation for isotropic media (Txx = k h + 2l
dicular to the x-axis) of the parallelepiped will be exx). Substituting for (Txx), the previously-
unequally displaced, and hence, it is subjected to derived wave equation becomes:
an elastic strain (exx) which is, by definition,
given by the displacement gradient (∂Dx/∂x). q @ 2 Dx =@t2 ¼ kð@h=@xÞ þ 2lð@exx =@xÞ
x
plane wave fronts
36 2 Seismic Waves
2.3.4 The P- and S-Waves 330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in water, and (2000–
6000) m/s in rocks.
As it is presented above, there are two types of A solid medium having its Poisson’s ratio
disturbance that can move in accordance with the equal to (1/4) is called Poisson’s solid (Sheriff
standard wave motion equation. These are the 2002, p. 266).
scalar cubic dilatation (h) and the vector shear
strain (w).
From the wave equation it can be shown that 2.4 Classification of Common
the disturbance (h) moves faster than the other Elastic Waves
disturbance (w). Thus, when the two distur-
bances are generated by a certain source, the From analyses of stress and strain, we have seen
(h-wave) arrives earlier than the (w-wave). For that strain is, in general, made up of two types of
this reason the two waves are called Primary elastic disturbance; the cubic dilatation and the
(P-wave) and Secondary (S-wave) respectively. shear strain. Solution of the equation of motion
It is to be noted that the ratio of the P-wave showed that each of these types of deformation
velocity (vp = [(k + 2l)/q]1/2) to the S-wave travels through the medium with its own veloc-
velocity (vs = [l/q]1/2) is equal to [(k + 2l)/ ity. The first type of disturbance represents the
l]1/2. Using the relationship connecting (k) and moving “volume” strain and the second type
(l) in which k/l = 2r/(1 − 2 r), we can write: involves the “shape” strain. The first type is
called Longitudinal, Compressional, or Primary
vp =vs ¼ ½ð2 2rÞ=ð1 2rÞ1=2 wave (or just P-wave) which travels faster than
the second type which is called Transverse,
This formula clearly shows that the ratio of Shear, or Secondary wave (or just S-wave).
the P-wave velocity (vp) to the S-wave velocity These two types of waves (P- and S-waves)
(vs) is function of Poisson’s ratio (r) only. belong to a class of waves (called body waves)
According to (Dobrin 1960, p. 18), Poisson’s because they can propagate through the interior
ratio (r) generally ranges from 0.05 to 0.40, of the earth body. This group of waves is called
averaging about 0.25 for hard rocks. With this so to differentiate them from another class of
value (r = 1/4), the velocity ratio (vp/vs) waves which move on and near the free surface
becomes 31/2 (=1.732). This means that P-wave of the medium, called (surface waves) which
moves with velocity which is about 1.7 times as include Rayleigh- and Love-waves. Classifica-
fast as the S-wave moving in the same medium. tion of the common elastic (seismic) waves is
It is useful to note that P-wave velocity is shown in Fig. 2.15.
2.4.1 Body Waves P-wave is the fastest wave for a given medium
and, therefore, its arrival at a certain observation
Body waves are waves that can travel through an point is the earliest among the seismic
elastic materialistic medium in any direction. As wave-types. This is a common observation of
they move, the waves may experience changes in seismologists working on analysis of earthquake
their energy level and in their travel-path geom- seismograms. Propagation velocity (vp) of
etry subject to the physical properties of the P-wave depends on the medium density (q) and
medium. There are two sub-types of these waves; elastic properties (k & l) and it is given by the
the longitudinal and the transverse waves expression vp = [(k + 2l)/q]1/2.
(Fig. 2.16).
(ii) Transverse Waves
(i) Longitudinal Waves The travelling disturbance in this case is the shear
This type of waves is also known as compressional, strain or “shape” deformation. The medium
Primary, or just P-wave. The travelling disturbance which is traversed by this type of waves experi-
in this case is “volume” deformation expressed by ences no volume changes. A consequence of the
the cubical dilatation (h) as defined above. shear strain (rotation of part of the medium) is the
The particles of the medium, traversed by a transverse displacement of the path particles
plane P-wave, vibrate about their neutral posi- relative to the propagation direction. They are
tions in the direction of the wave propagation. also called (shear waves) or (Secondary, or just
The travel path consists of a sequence of alter- S-waves).
nating zones of compressions and rarefactions A horizontally moving S-wave, which is so
(Fig. 2.16a). This is the type of waves which is polarized that the particle motion is confined to
commonly employed in seismic reflection and vertical plane, is known as SV-wave (Fig. 2.16
refraction exploration work. b). When the polarization plane is horizontal, it is
(b)
SH-
propagation
direction
(c)
propagation
direction
38 2 Seismic Waves
called SH-wave (Fig. 2.16c). The velocity of The main sub-types of surface waves are
S-waves, vs is given by vs = [l/q]1/2. In Rayleigh waves and Love waves (Fig. 2.17).
liquid-media, where (l = 0), S-waves do not
(i) Rayleigh Waves
propagate.
Rayleigh waves, which were discovered by an
English scientist, Lord Rayleigh in 1885, are
usually developing at the free surface of a
2.4.2 Surface Waves
semi-infinite solid medium. Its wave amplitude
decays rapidly with increasing depth. The trav-
As it is implied by its name, surface waves are
elling disturbance in this case is a sort of com-
waves that move on the free surface of the earth.
bination of particle-motions of both P- and
The main features common among all surface
SV-waves. The particle motion, which has a
waves, observed on earthquake seismograms, are
retrograde elliptical orbit, takes place in a vertical
their relatively large amplitudes (high energy
plane parallel to propagation direction
content) and low frequencies when compared
(Fig. 2.17a). The minor axis of the elliptical orbit
with the body waves. In addition to that, they
is parallel to wave motion direction and it is
move with velocity which is generally slower
equal to two-thirds of its major axis. Rayleigh
than body waves moving in the same medium. It
waves travel on the surface of a solid medium
is a common observation that the dispersion
with velocity of 0.92 of the velocity of S-waves
phenomena are more prominent in surface waves
moving in that medium (Bullen 1965, p. 90). In a
due to dependence of the velocity on the fre-
sense, Rayleigh waves are similar to the familiar
quency of individual harmonic component.
water waves, with a fundamental difference, and
(a)
propagation
direction
(b)
surface layer
propagation
direction
Fig. 2.17 Particle displacement-mode of a medium traversed by plane surface-waves, (k) is wavelength. a Rayleigh
Wave, b Love Wave
2.4 Classification of Common Elastic Waves 39
that is the particle motion in case of Rayleigh Since they possess no vertical component,
waves describe an elliptical path whereas the Love waves are not detected by the geophone or
particle-motion path in case of water waves are by any such-like vertical-component sensing
circular in shape. instrument.
In the case where the semi-infinite medium is
overlain by a low-velocity surface layer, Rayleigh
waves exhibit a phenomenon known as (disper- 2.4.3 Seismic Noise
sion). Harmonic components of longer periods
(lower frequencies) travel faster. Consequently, Broadly speaking, the term (noise) used in seis-
the Rayleigh wave seismograms would, in gen- mology, is applied to all types of disturbance
eral, show decrease in period along the wave-train. which may interfere with (and impose masking
Components of too-long wavelengths (too long effects to) the seismic signal of interest. In this
compared with the thickness of the surface layer) way, the concept of seismic noise bears a relative
penetrate deeper and travel with velocity of about implication. Thus, when the interest is focused
0.9 times the S-wave velocity in the subsurface on reflected body waves, surface waves and other
material. The short wavelengths travel mainly in non-reflection waves (as direct and refraction
the surface layer with velocity of about 0.9 times arrivals) are considered to be the unwanted
the S-wave velocity in the surface layer. troublesome noise. If the interest is in the
Surface waves, normally seen on shot records, refraction arrivals, reflection arrivals become
obtained in seismic reflection surveys, are com- the unwanted noise. In the strict sense, however,
monly called (ground roll) and these are identified the ambient seismic disturbances (usually of
to be of Rayleigh-wave type. Sometimes, these are random energy distribution which form the
called pseudo-Rayleigh waves (Sheriff 2002). background of a distinct travelling signal) are
Ground-roll waves are considered to be unwel- considered to be the seismic noise.
comed noise and efforts are usually made to get rid Seismic noise has destructive effects on the
of them or at least minimize their masking effect seismic signals of interest. A signal recorded
caused to the seismic reflection signal. amid a background of noise is distorted and
weakened because of the interfering noise. Signal
(ii) Love Waves
resolution is badly affected with noise develop-
This is the second sub-type of surface waves which
ment. A measure for the signal resolution, called
was discovered, in 1911, by another English geo-
the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio) is usually
physicist named A.E.H. Love (1863–1940). It
applied. It is defined to be the ratio between
develops only in cases where a solid elastic
signal amplitude detectable amid a background
semi-infinite medium is overlain by a horizontal
seismic noise.
low-velocity layer. Like SH-wave vibration mode,
In exploration seismology seismic noise is
the particle movement is transverse and is confined
divided into two main types; coherent and inco-
to the horizontal plane (Fig. 2.17b). Love waves
herent noise (Fig. 2.18).
travel by multiple reflections between the top and
bottom boundary-planes of the surface layer. The (i) Coherent Noise
propagation velocity approaches S-wave velocity Coherent noise is a seismic event characterized by a
in the subsurface medium for very long wave- distinct apparent velocity and well-defined onset.
lengths and to that of the surface layer for short In reflection seismology, coherent noise which
wavelengths (Dobrin 1960, p. 23). Love waves appear on shot records, are source-generated seis-
always exhibit dispersion. As in the case of Ray- mic events. They are made up mainly of surface
leigh waves, Love waves propagation-velocity waves (ground roll) and air-waves which are of
increases with the period of the harmonic compo- fairly narrow bandwidth with low frequency range.
nent. Again, the vibration amplitude decays expo- Frequency content of this type of noise is typically
nentially with depth in the lower medium. below 20 Hz (Fig. 2.18).
40 2 Seismic Waves
amplitude
incoherent noise, random
noise (c), in relation to that
of the reflection signal (b)
0 20 40 60 80 100
frequency, Hz
(ii) Incoherent Noise at, in seismic data acquisition. Several ways and
Unlike coherent noise, the incoherent noise means are followed in the field-acquisition stage
consists of seismic events with unpredictable or in the following data-processing stage to get
amplitude and onset. This type of noise, which is enhanced S/N ratio. Suitable measures are
basically of random nature, forms the applied to the parameters of the seismic source
seismic-energy background of any seismic and detectors as well as those measures applied
shot-record. In earthquake seismology it is in processing work, in order to attenuate these
commonly known as (microseisms), and in noises and enhance the S/N ratio.
prospecting seismology it is called (incoherent
background noise), or (ambient noise) as it is
sometimes referred to. In addition to the ran- 2.5 Propagation of Seismic Waves
domness nature, the incoherent noise is charac-
terized by a broad amplitude spectrum that Seismic waves are generated from a sudden
covers a wide range of frequencies compared change in the internal strain occurring inside an
with the nearly limited bandwidth of reflection elastic medium. The generating source may be
signals or coherent noises (Fig. 2.18). In the natural as in the case of earthquakes or artificial,
geophysical literature we sometimes meet terms like exploding a charge of dynamite, as nor-
like (white noise) indicating wide-band noise, mally done in seismic exploration. All parame-
and (red noise) for low-frequency random noise. ters of an advancing seismic wave (waveform,
Intensive research work has been undertaken, speed, and travel-path geometry) may change
directed towards a greater understanding of the during the wave propagation. Form and mag-
source and characteristics of the incoherent nitude of these changes depend on the physical
noise. It is now generally accepted that it is properties of the host medium. Whether the
generated as a result of external energy sources source is natural or artificial, a seismic field is
like wind movements, sea-waves collisions with created when a sudden pressure pulse is initi-
sea coasts, in addition to other various natural ated. The generated seismic energy moves away
and artificial man-made activities. from the source zone in a form of a wave
Because of seismic noise which are unavoid- motion propagation. Under these conditions
able seismic events which get recorded alongside (seismic energy source within an elastic med-
the objective signal, the signal-to-noise-ratio ium), the seismic wave spreads out from the
(S/N) becomes an important parameter in signal source zone in every possible direction. A travel
detection studies. The S/N ratio is used as mea- ray-path, in a particular medium, is defined once
sure for the signal quality-level. Signal clarity the locations of both of the source-point and
(S/N enhancement) is a central objective, aimed detector-point are defined.
2.5 Propagation of Seismic Waves 41
ray
wave-front
42 2 Seismic Waves
the wave front is a line drawn normal to the 2.5.4 The Concept of the Interface
spherical wave-front (circles on the surface
plane) at that point. Concepts of the wave-front The Interface is that boundary-surface separating
and rays are shown in (Fig. 2.20) for a case of two different media. As far as the changes (chan-
dropping a pebble into a still pond. ges in spectral structure and propagation direction)
of seismic waves are concerned, two media are
considered to be different if both of the wave
2.5.3 Huygens’ Principle propagation velocity and the medium bulk density
are different. Since velocity is function of elastic
Huygens’ Principle states that each point on a coefficients, it can be said that density and elastic
wave-front acts as a source of a new wave which, properties are the factors which control the specific
in a homogeneous medium, generates a sec- characters of the media. The parameter which
ondary spherical wave-front, the envelope of expresses the combined effect of velocity and
which defines the position of a wave generated at density is called (acoustic impedance) which is
some later time. defined to be the product of velocity by the density.
Huygens’ model of wave propagation requires To clarify the concept of the interface and the
that the secondary wave-fronts are active only at roll of the acoustic impedance waves hitting an
the points where the envelope touches their sur- interface let us consider a two-layer model which
faces. The wave energy is spreading out from the consists of two adjacent media (M1 & M2) of
primary source-points in all directions, but their velocities and densities (v1 & q1) for medium (M1)
mutual interactions make the resultant distur- & (v2 & q2) for medium (M2). The acoustic
bance zero everywhere except at the points impedances (z1 & z2) for the two layers are
where they touch the common envelope. (z1 = q1v1) and (z2 = q2v2) as shown in Fig. 2.22.
Applying the principle on plane-wave propaga- In analogy to the role of electrical impedance
tion in a homogeneous, and in an inhomoge- in the flow of electrical current, the acoustic
neous medium, is shown in Fig. 2.21. impedance expresses the extent of resistance the
Z1 = ρ1 V1 M1
Interface plane
Z2 = ρ2 V2 M2
Fig. 2.22 Concept of the Interface and definition of the Acoustic Impedance, z (=qv)
seismic energy meets when traversing a medium. place on ray-path direction or on the waveform of
The higher the acoustic impedance, the lower the the travelling seismic pulse. In nature, however,
particle vibration-velocity will be, and vice versa. the medium is far from this idealized form. In the
Acoustic impedance is measured by (kg s−1 m2) solid crust of the Earth, it is commonly made up of
or by the equivalent (Ns m3) units. rock layers of varying physical properties and
At an interface, an incident seismic wave varying geometrical forms and sizes.
(normally a P-wave in seismic exploration work) In such inhomogeneous environments a
would, under certain geometrical conditions, give moving seismic wave would suffer from a num-
rise to wave conversion in addition to reflection, ber of changes whenever it meets an interface
refraction, and diffraction. These cases shall be across which there is change in the properties of
dealt with in some details in the following the medium. In particular, changes in energy
discussions. content, waveform (spectral structure), propaga-
tion velocity, direction of motion, and new wave
generation. These changes, are generated at the
2.5.5 Changes of Propagation interface planes defining the layer bounding
Direction at Interfaces surfaces (Fig. 2.23).
The common changes in ray-path direction,
In an idealized homogenous and elastic medium, a which are of significance to exploration seis-
seismic wave propagates with no changes taking mology, are: reflection, refracted transmission
Layer-1
Layer-2
Layer-3
Layer-4
44 2 Seismic Waves
V1 V1 V1
V2 V2 V2
(refraction), and diffraction. These shapes of the of different density and elastic properties (dif-
moving wave ray-path occur at the boundaries of ferent acoustic impedances), four new wave
media having different seismic propagation phases are generated; reflected and refracted P-
velocities (Fig. 2.24). and SV-waves. If, however the incident is
SH-wave, the generated waves are only reflected
and refracted SH-wave. The SV-waves, gener-
2.5.6 Wave Conversion at Interfaces ated from an incident P-wave, (or P-waves gen-
erated from an incident SV-wave) are called
When a seismic wave impinges on an interface (converted waves) (Fig. 2.25).
separating two media, which differ in acoustic An incident seismic wave onto an interface
impedances, the incident seismic energy is partly will be partly reflected and partly transmitted
reflected and partly transmitted with certain across the interface. In general, the interface will
waveform changes. When the ray-path of an bring about wave conversion, reflection, trans-
incident seismic wave is oblique, that is inclined mission, and diffraction. It should be noted here
with respect to an interface, new waves are that refraction is a special case of transmission.
generated. If, for example, the incident wave is Refraction (ray-path bending) occurs only in the
P-wave (or SV-wave) separating two solid media case of inclined incidence.
P SV SV SH
P SH
SV
P
θ θ θ
M 1 , V1 , ρ1 M 1 , V1 , ρ1 M 1 , V1 , ρ1
M 2 , V2 , ρ2 M 2 , V2 , ρ2 M 2 , V2 , ρ2
P P
SV SV SH
V2 > V 1
Fig. 2.25 Wave conversion at an interface for three types of incident waves (P, SV, and SH waves). The symbol (h)
denotes angle of incidence
2.5 Propagation of Seismic Waves 45
2.5.7 Energy Partitioning incident waves (P, SV, SH) and impedances
and Zoeppritz elements (velocity and density) for each of these
Equations wave-types. A typical set of Zoeppritz curves for
the case of an obliquely incident P-wave is
The mathematical expressions describing the shown in Fig. 2.26.
energy partitioning of an obliquely incident wave Referring to Fig. 2.26, it can be seen that, for
among the created converted waves, were normal incidence (angle of incidence = 0), no
derived first by Knot (1899) and later on by S-wave is generated and thus all the energy is
Zoeppritz (1907), but not published until (1919). shared by the reflected and transmitted (re-
Using an approach (based on displacement fracted) P-wave. At a small angle of incidence,
computations), Zoeppritz has derived the equa- the converted S-waves are of small energy level.
tions (commonly known as Zoeppritz equations) As this angle increases the generated S-waves
which express the relative energy partitioning as grow stronger at the expense of reflected and
function of angle of incidence and acoustic refracted P-waves. At the critical angle of the
impedances of the media separated by the incident P-wave, the transmitted P-wave energy
involved interface. falls to zero, and at the same time, both of
In the geophysical literature, these equations reflected P-wave and reflected S-wave grow
are presented in the form of curves for certain large. Build–up of energy of reflected P-wave, as
two-layer models with defined density and elas- the critical angle is approached, is referred to as
ticity properties (see for example, Grant and (wide-angle reflection). This phenomenon (in-
West 1965, p. 54, Telford et al. 1990, p. 157, crease of reflection coefficient near the critical
Sheriff 2002, p. 401). A complete coverage of angle) is sometimes made use of in seismic
various types of incident waves, with different reflection exploration (Sheriff 1973, p. 241).
types of media, is found in (Ewing et al. 1957). Further, as the angle of incidence approaches
Because of the numerous possible grazing incidence (angle of incidence = 90),
parameter-values required to define the behavior energy of the reflected P-wave increases and, at
of energy-distribution as function of incidence grazing incidence (where there is no vertical
angle, many curves are required for the various component for the incident P-wave), the S-waves
cases. These cases represent selected types of disappear and no transmission process occurs
1.0
relative
energy transmitted P-wave
reflected P-wave
reflected SV-wave
transmitted SV-wave
Fig. 2.26 Typical Zoeppritz curves of energy partition- P-wave at an interface separating two media of specified
ing as function of angle of incidence. The curves are for properties (sketched, based on Dobrin and Savit 1988,
the converted waves created by an oblique incident p. 43)
46 2 Seismic Waves
and consequently all the incident energy is con- case of reflections from a given horizontal
fined to the reflected P-wave. reflector. There are, however, situations where
the angle of incidence does not vary with the
offset. Thus, in a multi-reflector case, the angle
2.5.8 Amplitude Variation of incidence (which is equal to angle of
with Angle of Incidence reflection for the same wave-type), varies with
reflector depth for a fixed offset. Also, in certain
For non-normal incidence, an incident P-wave cases, it is possible to get different offsets for a
leads to wave conversion in which both reflected fixed value of reflection angle. These two cases
and transmitted P- and S-waves are sobtained. which occur in multi-reflector situation are
The obliquely-incident wave energy is dis- shown in Fig. 2.27.
tributed among all the converted waves in such a As expressed by Zoeppritz equations, the
way depending on the properties of the involved reflection coefficient shows variation with
media on both sides of the interface. According increasing angle of incidence (or with increasing
to Zoeppritz equations, the reflection coefficient offset). Depending on the distribution of the
is function of rock properties (density and elastic acoustic impedance on both sides of the inter-
properties) in addition to the angle of incidence. face, the reflection coefficient can vary from
For a given reflector, the amplitude variation large-negative to large-positive values. This
with angle of incidence (AVA) of a reflected behavior (variation of reflection coefficient with
seismic wave is found to be dependent on Pois- angle of incidence) can therefore be used as an
son’s ratio as well as on impedance contrast indicator to predict lithological changes or type
across the reflection interface. In this way, the of fluid deposits.
parameter (AVA) possesses the same informa-
tion contained in a combined P- and S-waves
data. 2.6 Effect of the Medium on Wave
It is important to note that Zoeppritz equa- Energy
tions give direct relation of amplitude variation
with angle of incidence (AVA) and not ampli- Due to the earth filtering effect and other causes,
tude variation with offset (AVO). However, the wavelet generated by the source energy, is
offset is proportional to angle of incidence, in changed from its initial high-energy, impulsive
(a) surface
(b) surface
i1
i1
reflector-1 reflector-1
i2 i2
reflector-2 reflector-2
i3 i3
reflector-3 reflector-3
i1 > i2 > i3 i1 = i2 = i3
Fig. 2.27 Variation of reflection angle with reflector with increase of reflector depth for fixed offset, and
depth for a fixed offset and variation of receiver offset for b angle of incidence is constant for varying offset
a fixed reflection angle. a Angle of incidence (i) decreases
2.6 Effect of the Medium on Wave Energy 47
Table 2.4 Factors 1. In the source zone 2. In the path zone 3. In the detector zone
contributing to energy
changes of a travelling Energy-Source parameters Reflection coefficient Detector response
seismic signal Source coupling Geometrical spreading Detector coupling
Near-source geology Inelastic attenuation Near-detector geology
Source-generated noise Wave conversion Surface noises
Noises and interferences Noises and interferences Noises and interferences
reflector
medium. It is dimensionless quantity and inde- parameter is defined to be the natural logarithm
pendent of frequency. The quality factor is inver- of the ratio of two neighboring amplitudes of a
sely proportional to the attenuation factor (a). The gradually fading wave-train. This is customarily
term 1/Q is called the specific dissipation. measured by the ratio of two amplitudes sepa-
rated by one wavelength (Fig. 2.30).
By definition, the logarithmic decrement (d) is
2.6.3 Seismic Wave Energy given by:
Measurement
and the DB Unit d ¼ lnða1 =a2 Þ ¼ ln ear =eaðr þ kÞ ¼ ln eak
function of the frequency component of the travelling wave, is moving. The wave-train or the
travelling wave. Dependence of velocity on fre- energy package (expressed by the envelope of
quency means that each frequency component of the wave train) is travelling with different
a seismic signal moves with its own velocity. velocity called (group velocity, U) as shown in
Thus a wave, composed of several Fig. 2.32.
frequency-components will experience The group velocity (U) is mathematically
component-separation, and hence, related to the phase velocity (V) and wavelength
change-of-form that occurs during travel. Dis- (k) of the frequency component, by:
tortion of the wave-form due to dependence of
the velocity on individual frequency-components U ¼ V kðdV=dkÞ
is called (wave-dispersion).
The dispersion phenomenon leads to changing where, V, k, and dV/dk are average values for
of the shape of the wave train with travelled the range of frequencies making up the principal
distance. Each frequency component (that is, part of the pulse (Telford et al. 1990, p. 154).
each wave-phase) moves with its own individual When the phase velocity (V) increases with
velocity (the phase velocity, V). This is the increase of the component period, it is termed as
velocity with which a given point, marked on the (normal dispersion), and in this case the group
2.6 Effect of the Medium on Wave Energy 51
time
0
velocity is less than the phase velocity (U < V). Dispersion phenomenon occurs in a disper-
For the opposite case (inverse dispersion), it is sive medium, as when surface waves are travel-
when phase velocity decreases with period we ling through a semi-infinite medium which is
get (U > V). In the absence of dispersion, the overlain by a low velocity surface layer. Dis-
two velocities are equal (U = V) and no distor- persion of seismic body waves (P- and S-waves)
tion to the wav-form occurs. are too small to be detected in practice.
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