Professional Documents
Culture Documents
7,
No. 3, 2017 1
Pratik Gite
Institute of Engineering and Sciences,
IPS Academy,
Rajendra Nagar Indore, 452012, India
E-mail: pratikgite135@gmail.com
Dimitris Kanellopoulos*
ESD Lab, Department of Mathematics,
University of Patras,
University Campus, GR 26500, Rio, Patras, Greece
E-mail: d_kan2006@yahoo.gr
*Corresponding author
Dharmendra Choukse
Institute of Engineering and Sciences,
IPS Academy,
Rajendra Nagar Indore, 452012, India
E-mail: dharmendrachoukse@gmail.com
1 Introduction
A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a group of autonomous nodes that form a
dynamic, multi-hop radio network in a decentralized way (Loo et al., 2012). MANET
nodes can be a variety of mobile devices such as mobile phones, laptops or handheld
devices, which present various computational and bandwidth capabilities. Nodes
themselves implement the network management in a cooperative fashion. They operate
An extended AODV routing protocol for secure MANETs based on node trust values
on a multi-hop basis, while they are detecting routes and forwarding data packets. Since
the channel is broadcast in nature, multiple nodes contend for the channel simultaneously.
The wireless channel is also error-prone, and this situation becomes even worst as high
security threats such as sophisticated attacks on ad hoc routing protocol occur in the
network. Misbehaving nodes (both selfish and malicious ones) try often to exploit the
channel resources for their own purposes. This results to insecure ad hoc routing that
decreases the overall network performance (Kanellopoulos, 2017).
All participating nodes must establish a network with an acceptable level of trust
relationships among themselves. As a result, a trust management system is required.
Trust management in MANETs is more challenging than in centralized environments. In
MANETs, it can be applied at many decision making situations, including: isolating
misbehaving nodes for effective routing, intrusion detection, access control, and other
purposes (Cho et al., 2011). Trust management includes trust establishment, trust update,
and trust revocation (Theodorakopoulos & Baras, 2006). Trust establishment involves the
collection of appropriate trust evidence, trust generation, trust distribution, trust
discovery, and evaluation of trust evidence. However, the dynamic nature and
characteristics of MANET (e.g., inefficient routing, handling node mobility, power
conservation, limited processing capabilities of network devices, and high-error rates)
result in uncertainty and incompleteness of the trust evidence, which is continuously
changing over time (Eschenauer et al., 2002).
The Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) is a well-established reactive
routing protocol that is used for MANETs and other wireless ad hoc networks (Perkins &
Royer, 1999; Jhaveri & Patel, 2015). The term “reactive” implies that routing does not
depend on periodic exchange of routing information or route calculation. When a route is
required, the node must start a route discovery process. However, AODV does not
provide secure routine services.
This paper presents a collaborative secure routing protocol for MANETs that is based
on AODV. The new protocol is called TRUST_AODV and extends the conventional
AODV routing protocol by incorporating a trust algorithm that detects misbehaving
nodes, both selfish nodes as well as malicious nodes. The key contributions of this work
can be summarized as follows:
TRUST_AODV scheme secures the MANET against potential packet drop attacks
(i.e., blackhole attack) and denial-of-service (DoS) attacks.
TRUST_AODV improves the MANET performance under heavy network load
conditions.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses trust management
design issues for MANETs. Section 3 describes some of the most important security
routing protocols for MANETs. Section 4 presents the new TRUST_AODV routing
scheme, while Section 5 presents its performance evaluation under two types of attacks
(blackhole and DoS). Finally, Section 6 concludes the paper and gives directions for
future work.
2 Trust Management in MANETs
Currently, two categories of trust management frameworks can be used to guarantee that
network nodes are performing a normal behavior:
According to Cho et al. (2011) the fundamental properties of trust in MANETs are the
following ones:
Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack: A malicious node that performs a DoS attack may
block the normal use or management of node’s communication facilities. For example, it
may cause excessive resource consumption in the target node (Campbell, 2005). There
are many techniques to deploy a DoS attack in MANETs. A well-known technique is
‘packet flooding’, in which node resources are over-consumed and thus, the target node
becomes not serviceable. And this may lead to a failure in the delivery of assuring
services to the end-user. A DoS attack on the Physical and Medium Access Control
(MAC) Layers could apply jamming signals, which interrupt the ongoing
communications on the wireless channel. In the Network Layer, a DoS attack could take
part in the routine scheme and abuse the routing protocol in order to disturb the services
provided by the Network Layer.
based on the node’s trust factor and security level. In a typical scheme, routing
information for every request is usually encrypted leading to large overheads. Nekkanti
and Lee (2004) proposed the use of different levels of encryption based on the trust factor
of a node, thus reducing overhead. Their approach adjusts the security level based on the
recognized hostility level and hence can conserve resources. However, their approach
does not treat evaluation of trust itself.
As it was mentioned before, most solutions for secure routing prevent malicious
activities and include cryptography and authentication operations. These operations are
very complex and consume large amounts of energy (battery life) in the context of
availability of node resources. Therefore, a light-weight security solution to the problem
is required in order to increase the MANET throughput. To this direction, Marchang and
Datta (2012) presented a light-weight trust-based routing protocol, in which the trust
values of neighbor node, as well as the trust value of routing paths, are also maintained.
This approach only considers a single parameter (i.e., packet forwarding). Packet
forwarding is important to evaluate the nodes’ capability and steadfastness in relaying
packets to make cognizant routing decisions. Finally, Mahmaud et al. (2015) proposed
two trust-based and energy-aware routing protocols, called the ‘Shortest Reliable Route’
(SRR) and the ‘Best Available Route’ (BAR). Their goal is to establish stable and reliable
resources to diminish the likelihood of breaking due to the lack of energy, malicious node
behavior, and limited ability of hardware resources, etc. SRR protocol computes shortest
route that satisfies the source node’s requirements together with energy, trust, and route
length. For BAR protocol, the objective node receives multiple routes and selects the
most trustworthy one.
TRUST_AODV scheme obtains these features by computing trust values for each node.
In particular, it observes the following performance metrics for each node:
Packet drop ratio (P): The amount of packets that are dropped by a MANET node.
Buffer length (B): The amount of queue in a node that is filled up during the
communication. The node buffer space is the number of packets in a node’s
transmission buffer. It plays a major part in determining the amount of delay, a
packet travelling through that node, will suffer.
Energy consumption (E): The rate of energy that is consumed in a given time interval
in a node.
Trust computation: Using these node’s properties, the trust value is computed for each
node. Then, the mean values of P, B, E metrics (for the whole network) are computed as
follows:
1
𝐸𝑛 = ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝐸𝑖 (1)
𝑁
1
𝑃𝑛 = ∑𝑁 𝑃 (2)
𝑁 𝑖=1 𝑖
1 𝑁
𝐵𝑛 = ∑𝑖=1 𝐵𝑖 (3)
𝑁
By using the mean values (En, Pn , Bn), the weighted trust (W) is computed:
W = w1 * En + w2 * Pn + w3 * Bn (4)
where the coefficients w1, w2, w3 take values in the range [0, 1] and satisfy the condition:
w1 + w2 + w3 = 1 (5)
The computed weight (W) is the Positive trust threshold for all nodes, while the
Negative trust threshold is:
Tnegative = 1 – W (6)
routes that reflect the current network topology. The most common approach to model
attacker capabilities used throughout the MANET community is to assume the attacker
node has the same capabilities as any node within the network. However, forcing an
attacker to use nodes without any additional capability unrealistically limits the attacker.
Recent efforts can more formally model the attacker. For example, Hu et al. (2005)
presented a formalized attacker model (called active-n-m), where n is the number of
compromised insiders that hold keying material, and m is the total number of attacker
nodes in the network. All attacker nodes in the active-n-m approach have the same
capabilities as non-malicious nodes, plus the nodes have the ability to distribute
compromised keys to other m-1 attackers. Acs et al (2006) utilized the active-n-m
approach with an additional configuration limitation. They combined all neighboring
attackers that can share information from captured messages during network operation
into a single node location, effectively changing the network topology. Overall, their
approach is inappropriate, since malicious nodes cannot assume the attackers will
cooperate as a single entity to provide a path during route discovery.
In the secure routing community, the attacker model does not traditionally follow
formalized attacker models, such as the Dolev-Yao model. The Dolev-Yao model is the
traditional approach to formally model attackers against authentication protocols (Dolev
&Yao, 1983). Andel and Yasinsac (2008) proposed a threat model that allows the
security analyst to identify capabilities required to break a routing protocol. Their model
offers to the security analyst nine different scenarios that must be analyzed in order to
provide a complete analysis picture. Within their attacker classification, an outsider node
can capture any messages transmitted within its reception range, can reply messages it
has captured, and can create messages from information it has recovered from original
knowledge or captures messages.
In our framework, we propose a threat model (Fig. 1) that assumes the following:
Valid routes that fail due to node movement are not malicious.
Analysis using this threat model views the MANET as a snapshot in time.
Any node can harm the network by disrupting routing information. An attacker
node has the same capabilities as any node within the network. Malicious nodes
can join and leave the network.
Blackhole and DoS attacks may occur in MANET, and thus malicious nodes are
classified as nodes that perform blackhole or DoS attacks.
The threat model itself can evaluate malicious node behaviour by calculating
different threshold trust constraints. A node may have a positive or a negative
trust value, while threshold trust values are calculated based on three different
network parameters.
In our threat model, firstly, we select the number of nodes which are dispersed
randomly in MANET environment using a simulation tool. These nodes are moving in a
predefined simulation area. After that, a source node initiates the route discovery process
by sending a RREQ message to all nodes. For establishing a route to the destination, it
waits until all replies are received. Using the RREQ and REEP procedure, once a route is
established, the communication will start.
In order to prevent a malicious attacker, the TRUST_AODV based scheme is applied
by computing trust value of all nodes. In this scheme, the trust values of all nodes are
calculated. As we mentioned earlier a node trust value may be positive or negative. We
calculate the threshold trust values for negative and positive trust, based on three
parameters: packet drop ratio, node buffer length, and energy consumption. In particular,
two checks are achieved: (1) the first one for negative trust value and (2) the second one
for positive trust value. Based to their results, we can categorize a node as malicious or
legitimate.
Table 1 shows a qualitative comparison of TRUST AODV with three basic related
routing protocols.
Table 1: Qualitative comparison of TRUST_AODV
The proposed trust algorithm detects misbehaving nodes by using the positive and
negative trust thresholds. Table 2 shows the pseudocode of the detection algorithm.
5. Performance Evaluation
5.1 Simulation setup
We implemented the AODV and TRUST_AODV routing models by using NS-2 network
simulator (Kim, 2011). The aodv-uu software (Nordstrom, 2016) used in our simulation
experiments is the most updated software we have encountered. In particular,
TRUST_AODV model was implemented by extending the AODV model and by
incorporating the proposed detection algorithm (Table 2). We prepared the following
simulation setup (see Table 3) in order to evaluate the performance of TRUST_AODV
An extended AODV routing protocol for secure MANETs based on node trust values
versus AODV by taking into account the simulations of blackhole and DoS attacks.
Consequently, we carried out two simulation scenarios and evaluated the performance of
TRUST_AODV versus AODV.
By using TRUST_AODV, we created and configured a small size MANET that contains
20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 nodes. In order to generate the blackhole attack, we used a
constant bit rate (CBR) service that generates UDP packets. UDP is a connectionless
protocol that can easily implement a blackhole attack. The packet size for CBR was 1000
bytes, while the simulation was carried out for 30.0 ms. We defined the locations of
nodes manually in TCL script. Also, we used the Omni antenna model: a wireless
transmitting or receiving antenna that radiates or interrupt radio-frequency (RF)
electromagnetic fields equally well in all horizontal directions in a flat, two-dimensional
(2D) geometric plane. The parameter of topography area indicates the area where the
nodes can be moved in all directions. Finally, we used the “Two Ray ground”
propagation model to predict the received signal power for each packet. The random
mobility model was used to simulate the mobility of nodes.
Blackhole attack: In this simulation scenario, the network is configured with the
TRUST_AODV routing scheme and the network performance is observed. Figure 2
shows a screenshot concerning the simulation of the network, when it is under a
blackhole attack. Legitimate nodes are depicted with the green colour, while attacker
nodes are depicted using the red colour.
DoS attack: Figure 3 shows a screenshot concerning the simulation of a network
under DoS attack. Legitimate nodes are depicted using the blue color, while malicious
nodes are depicted using the red.
After the simulation of the blackhole attack, we assured that there is no attacker found,
when TRUST_AODV routing is used. Similarly, after the simulation of the DoS attack,
we observed that the flooding of the data packets is zero, when TRUST_AODV is used.
Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR): PDR provides information about the performance of
any routing protocol by defining the successfully delivered packets to the destination
node. PDR can be estimated as follows:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝐷𝑅 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑠
The simulations results are presented in the form of ‘lines’. The X-axis of the following
graphs represents the number of nodes that participate in the network. In this
implementation, we compared TRUST_AODV with AODV under blackhole and
flooding (DoS) attack (Panwar et al, 2017).
1) Effect of blackhole attack on E2E Delay: Figure 4 shows the comparative E2E Delay
for AODV and TRUST_AODV routing schemes. The Y-axis of the graph shows the E2E
Delay (milliseconds). Under blackhole attack, TRUST_AODV scheme produces less
E2E Delay compared to the conventional AODV. Consequently, TRUST_AODV is a
secure routing scheme (more robust that AODV) that produces less E2E Delay.
2) Effect of blackhole attack on PDR: Figure 5 shows the comparison of PDR for both
routing schemes. The Y-axis of the graph shows the amount of packets successfully
delivered in terms of the percentage. The red line depicts the PDR when AODV is used,
while the blue line depicts the PDR when TRUST_AODV is used. According to the
incurred consequences, TRUST_AODV delivers more packets compared to AODV, even
when the network contains the attacker node. Therefore, TRUST_AODV is able to
escape the blackhole attack effect and improves the MANET performance.
3) Effect of blackhole attack on Throughput: Figure 6 shows the comparison of
throughput for both routing schemes. The Y-axis of the graph shows the network
throughput (in Kbps). The blue line depicts the throughput of TRUST_AODV and the red
line depicts the throughput of AODV. As we observe, TRUST_AODV improves the
throughput during the blackhole attack. Therefore, TRUST_AODV is avoiding
effectively the blackhole attack and it outperforms against to AODV scheme.
Figure 4: Comparison of E2E Delay (TRUST_AODV vs. AODV) under blackhole attack
In DoS attack scenario, three evaluation metrics were used: energy consumption, packet
deliver ratio and routing overhead.
Energy consumption: The amount of energy consumed during the network events is
termed as the energy consumption (or the energy drop) of the network. In
networking, for each individual event an important amount of energy is consumed.
The opposite term is remaining energy (energy efficiency).
Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR): PDR defines the successfully delivered packets to the
destination node.
Routing overhead: It is the amount of additional packets injected in the network for
communication. We selected to evaluate the routing overhead because PDR and data
transmission rate are reducing when routing overhead is getting extremely high
values.
3) Effect of DoS attack on Routing overhead: The routing overhead increases the
amount of bandwidth consumption. Figure 9 shows the network performance in terms of
the routing overhead. The Y-axis of the graph informs us about the regular routing
transparency of the network. The red line depicts the routing overhead through the
AODV, while the blue line depicts the routing overhead through the TRUST_AODV.
According to the simulation results for AODV (red line), the routing overhead is
increasing significantly in MANET as the number of nodes is increasing. Consequently,
the AODV scheme leads to an increasing routing overhead in the network. On the
contrary, when the network is configured through the TRUST_AODV scheme, the
routing overhead becomes almost constant (blue line). We conclude that the
TRUST_AODV is able to recover the network from the DoS attack.
Figure 7: Comparison of energy efficiency (TRUST_AODV vs. AODV) under DoS attack
Figure 8: Comparison of PDR (TRUST_AODV vs. AODV) under DoS attack
Figure 9: Comparison of routing overhead (TRUST_AODV vs. AODV) under DoS attack.
A MANET is a dynamic network in which each node has limited power and bandwidth
resources due to its mobile nature and shared channel. Consequently, a cost analysis is
required. Hereafter, we present the computation and communication overhead analysis of
our proposed scheme.
The computation cost depends on the various computational tasks performed in each
node of the network. For example, a malicious user (node) may perform a task that
captures meaningful information in order to harm the basic functioning of the MANET.
Obviously, the computation cost is closely related with the PDR that occurs in a network
session. PDR represents the performance of secure routing in MANET because routing
latency is directly proportional to the computation cost (computational time in ms). In
each communication session, PDR is different from those PDR values observed in the
previous communication sessions. As a result, we must calculate the average PDR. For
both routing protocols, we calculated the Average PDR in percentage amount, as well as
the saving in computation cost. In particular, we found:
Average PDR in TRUST_AODV = 91.2 %
Average PDR in AODV = 13.2 %
Average PDR in AODV 13.2 %
Saving in computation cost = = = 14.47%
Average PDR in TRUST_AODV 91.2 %
6. Conclusion
Due to packet drop attacks on ad hoc routing protocol, the performance of a MANET
may be decreased. Detecting misbehaviour nodes can be obtained by using a trust
management model for MANETs. Such model must be incorporated in the routing
protocol and can increase the network performance. In this paper, we proposed a new
secure routing protocol (TRUST_AODV) that extends the AODV routing protocol by
incorporating a trust algorithm that detects misbehaving nodes. TRUST_AODV is a
secure routing protocol for MANETs that does not impose heavy computation
requirements and unrealistic communication (i.e., it is light-weight). In this paper, we
investigated the performance of TRUST_AODV under the assumption of supporting
defence under blackhole and DoS attacks. The simulation results demonstrated that
TRUST_AODV outperforms AODV. TRUST_AODV secures the MANET against
potential packet drop attacks and DoS attacks. In addition, it improves the network
performance under heavy network load conditions. In future work, we will examine how
TRUST_AODV performs under other types of attacks such as wormhole.
References
Abusalah, L., Khokhar, A. and Guizani, M.(2008) ‘A survey of secure mobile ad hoc routing
protocols’, IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp.78-93.
Acs, G., Buttyan, L. and Vajda, I. (2006) ‘Provably secure on-demand source routing in mobile ad
hoc networks’, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, Vol. 5, No. 11, pp.1533-1546.
Andel, T. and Yasinsac, A. (2008) ‘Adaptive threat modeling for secure ad hoc routing protocols’,
Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science, Vol. 197, No. 2, pp. 3-14.
Bhalaji, N. and Shanmugam, A. (2009) ‘Reliable routing against selective packet drop attack in
DSR based MANET’, Journal of Software, Vol. 4, No. 6, pp.536-543.
Campbell, P. L. (2005) ‘The denial-of-service dance’, IEEE Security and Privacy, Vol. 3, No. 6,
pp.34-40.
Cerri, D. and Ghioni, A. (2008) ‘Securing AODV: The A-SAODV secure routing prototype’, IEEE
Communications Magazine, Vol. 46, No. 2, pp.120-125.
Cho, J.-H., Swami, A. and Chen, I.-R. (2011) ‘A survey on trust management for mobile ad hoc
networks’, IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp.562-583.
Djahel, S., Abdesselam, F.N. and Zhang, Z. (2011) ‘Mitigating packet dropping problem in mobile
ad-hoc networks: Proposals and challenges’, IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, Vol.
13, No. 4, pp.658 – 672.
Dolev, D., and A. Yao, (1983) ‘On the security of public key protocols’, IEEE Transactions on
Information Theory, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp.198-208.
Eschenauer, L., Gligor, V. D., & Baras, J. (2002, April). On trust establishment in mobile ad-hoc
networks. In International Workshop on Security Protocols (pp. 47-66). Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg.
Hernandez, E. and Serrat, M. D. (2012), ‘Improving selfish node detection in MANETs using a
collaborative watchdog’, IEEE Communications Letters, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp.642-645.
Hu, Y. and Perrig, A. (2004) ‘A survey of secure wireless ad hoc routing’ IEEE Security and
Privacy, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp.28-39.
Hu, Y.C., Perrig, A. and Johnson D.B. (2005) ‘Ariadne: A secure on-demand routing protocol for
ad hoc networks’, Wireless Networks, Vol. 11, Nos.1-2, pp.21-38.
Jhaveri, R. H. and Patel, N. M. (2015) ‘Mobile ad-hoc networking with AODV: A review’,
International Journal of Next-Generation Computing, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp.165–191.
Kanellopoulos, D. N. (2017) ‘QoS touting for multimedia communication over wireless mobile ad
hoc networks: A survey’, International Journal of Multimedia Data Engineering and
Management, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp.42-71.
Kannhavong, B., Nakayama, H., Nemoto, Y., Kato, N. and Jamalipour, A. (2007) ‘A survey of
routing attacks in mobile ad hoc networks’, IEEE Wireless Communications, Vol. 14, No. 5,
pp.85-91.
Kardof, C. and Wagner, D. (2003) ‘Secure routing in wireless sensor networks: Attacks and
countermeasures’, Proc. 1st IEEE Int’l Workshop on Sensor Network Protocols and
Applications, Anchorage, AK, USA, 11 May 2003, (pp. 113-117).
Kim, J. (2011) AODV implementation on TinyOS-2.x Available at:
http://www2.engr.arizona.edu/~junseok/AODV.html
Li, R., Li, J., Liu, P. and Chen, H. (2007) ‘An objective trust management framework for mobile ad
hoc networks’, 2007 IEEE 65th Vehicular Technology Conference - VTC2007 Spring, Dublin,
(pp. 56-60).
Li, X., Lyu, M. R. and Liu, J. (2004) ‘A trust model based routing protocol for secure ad hoc
networks’, Proc. 2004 IEEE Aerospace Conf., Bug Sky, Montana, 6-13 Mar. 2004, vol. 2, (pp.
1286-1295).
Loo, J., Lloret J. and Ortiz, J. H. (2012) Mobile ad hoc networks: Current status and future trends,
CRC Press.
Mahmaud, M., Lin X. and Shen, X. (2015) ‘Secure and reliable routing protocols for heterogeneous
multi-hop wireless networks’, IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems, Vol. 26,
No. 4, pp.1140-1153.
Marchang, N. and Datta, R. (2012) ‘Light-weight trust-based routing protocol for mobile ad-hoc
networks’, IET Information Security, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp.77-83.
Nekkanti, R. K. and Lee, C. (2004) ‘Trust-based adaptive on demand ad hoc routing protocol’,
Proc. 42th Annual ACM Southeast Regional Conf., Huntsville, Alabama, 2004, (pp. 88-93).
Nordstrom, E. (2016) ‘Implementation of code AODV-UU’. Available at:
http://core.it.uu.se/core/index.php/AODV-UU.
Panwar, A., Srinivasa R. and G. Sriram G. (2017) ‘Combined approach for detection and
prevention of flooding and black’, International Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences
(IJEAS), Vol. 4, No. 4, pp.83-89.
Perkins, C.E. and Royer, E. M.(1999) ‘Ad-hoc on-demand distance vector routing’, Proceedings
2nd IEEE Workshop Mobile Computing System and Applications, New Orleans, Los Angeles,
(pp.90-100).
Pirzada, A., Datta, A. and McDonald, C. (2004) ‘Trust-based routing for ad-hoc wireless
networks’, Proceedings 2004 12th IEEE International Conference on Networks (ICON 2004)
vol.1. (pp.326-330).
Pisinou, N., Ghosh, T. and Makki, K. (2004) ‘Collaborative trust-based routing in multi-hop ad hoc
networks’, Proc. 3rd Int’l IFIP-TC06 Networking Conf., LNCS, Athens, Greece, 9-14 May
2004, Vol. 3042, (pp.1446-1451).
Sun, Y. L., Yu, W., Han, Z. and Liu, K. J. R. (2006) ‘Information theoretic framework of trust
modeling and evaluation for ad hoc networks’, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in
Communications, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp.305-317.
Theodorakopoulos, G. and Baras, J. S. (2006) ‘On trust models and trust evaluation metrics for ad
hoc networks’, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp.318-
328.
An extended AODV routing protocol for secure MANETs based on node trust values
Zapata, M. G., & Asokan, N. (2002, September). ‘Securing ad hoc routing protocols’, In
Proceedings of the 1st ACM workshop on Wireless security (pp. 1-10). ACM.
FIGURES
Figure 1: Threat model used
Figure 2: Simulation of blackhole attack (see online version for colours)
Figure 4: Comparison of E2E Delay (TRUST_AODV vs. AODV) under blackhole attack (see
online version for colours)
Figure 5: Comparison of PDR (TRUST_AODV vs. AODV) under blackhole attack (see online
version for colours)
Figure 6: Comparison of Throughput (TRUST_AODV vs. AODV) under blackhole attack (see
online version for colours)
Figure 7: Comparison of energy efficiency (TRUST_AODV vs. AODV) under DoS attack (see
online version for colours)
80
70 Remaining Energy in
60 TRUST_AODV
50
Remaining Energy in
40 AODV
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150
No of Nodes
An extended AODV routing protocol for secure MANETs based on node trust values
Figure 8: Comparison of PDR (TRUST_AODV vs. AODV) under DoS attack (see online version
for colours)
Figure 9: Comparison of routing overhead (TRUST_AODV vs. AODV) under DoS attack (see
online version for colours)
TABLES
Table 1: Qualitative comparison of TRUST_AODV
01: INPUT:
02: NN (nodes of the network)
03: OUTPUT:
04: MS (detected nodes which are malicious)
05: Procedure TRUST_AODV:
06: A source node SENDS RREQ to destination D
07: WAIT for reverse path creation.
08: FOR EACH HOP in ROUTE, DO {
09: COMPUTE: Node positive trust(W) and Node negative trust(1-W)
10: IF (Node’s Tnegative > threshold Tnegative)
11: THEN Node=Malicious
12: ENDIF
13: IF (Node’s W > threshold W)
14: THEN Node=Legitimate
15: GOTO NEXT HOP
16: ENDIF
17: ENDFOR
18:}