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Outline of lecture
Introduction
Power and energy
EE328 POWER ELECTRONICS
– Instantaneous power
– Energy
– Average power
Inductors and capacitors
Energy recovery
Effective values: RMS
Apparent power and power factor
Power computations for sinusoidal AC circuits
Power computations for non-sinusoidal periodic
waveforms
– Fourier series
– Non-linear source and linear load
– Linear source and non-linear load
1
Introduction
Power computations are essential in analyzing and designing power
electronics circuits.
The power calculation methods differ according to the current and
voltage waveforms
– DC
– sinusoidal voltages and currents
– non-sinusoidal voltages and/or currents
Various definitions of power
– Instantaneous power
– Average power
– Active power
– Reactive power
– Apparent power
– Complex power
– and so on.
AC & DC quantities
If the value of any electrical quantity (voltage, current etc.) doesn’t
change with respect to time, it is a DC quantity.
2
Instantaneous power
The power is defined as the product of current and voltage
Sign conventions
Passive sign convention (Used frequently for passive components)
At any instant of time;
– if p(t)>0, it indicates the device is absorbing power
– if p(t)<0, it indicates the device is supplying power
3
Exercise 1
Calculate the power
of all components
in the circuit.
Energy
Energy, or work, is the integral of instantaneous power.
Observing the passive sign convention, the energy absorbed by a
component over the time interval from t1 to t2 is
where v(t) is in volts, i(t) is in amperes, power has units of watts and
energy has units of joule.
4
Average Power
Periodic voltage and
current functions produce
a periodic instantaneous
power function.
Average power is the time average of p(t) over one or more periods.
Exercise 2
Voltage and current, consistent with the passive sign convention, for
a device are shown below.
5
Solution (1)
a) Instantaneous voltage¤t
Instantaneous power
Solution (2)
b) The energy absorbed by the device can be found by integration of
instantanous power p(t) over the period.
or alternatively;
6
DC voltage source
The average power absorbed by a dc voltage source is
Exercise 3
Assume that the voltage and current waveforms of a DC voltage
source is;
7
Resistor
It doesn’t cause a phase difference between voltage and current.
A dissipative device in electric circuits which obeys Ohm’s law,
8
Inductors and capacitors
Inductors and capacitors have some particular characteristics that
are important in power electronics applications.
9
P, V and I for an inductor
10
Inductor packages
11
P, V and I for a capacitor
12
Capacitor types
Capacitor packages
13
Exercise 4 - Power and Voltage for an Inductor
The current in a 5-mH inductor is the periodic triangular wave as
shown below.
Solution (1)
The current-voltage relationship
of an inductor is
14
Solution (2)
The instantaneous power in the
inductor is
Energy recovery
Inductors and capacitors must be energized and de-energized in
several applications of power electronics.
For a periodic operations, the net energy in inductors and capacitors
must be zero in steady-state condition, otherwise the current or
voltage ramps up, and can easily destroy the sensitive devices.
For example, a fuel injector solenoid in an automobile is energized
for a certain time interval by a transistor switch.
During this time interval, energy is stored
in the solenoid’s inductance.
The circuit must be designed to remove
the stored energy in the inductor while
preventing damage to
the transistor
when it is turned off.
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Solenoid switching
The solenoid can be modelled as an inductor. The resistance
associated with the inductor is assumed to be negligible
Transistor switch and diode are assumed to be ideal.
The diode-resistor path provides a means of opening the switch and
removing the stored energy in the inductor when the transistor turns
off.
Without the
diode-resistor path,
the transistor could
be destroyed
when it is turned off
16
Circuit operation: t1<t<T
This is a simple RL circuit, so that the inductor current can be
calculated as follows
Time constant
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Average resistor power (Method 1)
The average power absorbed by the resistor could be determined by
integrating an expression for instantaneous resistor power, but an
examination of the circuit reveals an easier way.
The average power absorbed
by the inductor is zero
The power absorbed by
the ideal transistor and
diode are both zero.
Therefore, all power
supplied by the source
must be absorbed
by the resistor
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Efficiency considerations
All the energy stored in the inductor is dissipated in the resistor, and
converted to heat.
Therefore, the energy efficiency is very low for resistive energy
recovery circuits.
The circuit efficiency can be improved if stored energy in the
inductance can be transferred back to the source rather than
dissipating in resistor.
The circuit below can be
used for this purpose
Two transistor switches
are turned on
and off
simultaneously.
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Circuit operation: t1<t<2t1
Inductor voltage is vL(t)= –Vcc ,then the current can be found as,
Exercise 5
In the following circuits Vcc=90 V, L=200 mH, R=20, t1=10 ms,
and T=100 ms. Determine,
a) the peak current and peak energy storage in the inductor
(Ans. 4.5A, 2.025J)
b) the average power absorbed by the resistor,
(Ans. 20.25W)
c) the peak and average
power supplied by the source.
(Ans. 405W, 20.25W)
d) Compare the results with
what would happen if
the inductor were energized
using lossless two
transistor circuit.
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Effective value: RMS
The effective value of a periodic voltage waveform is based on the
average power delivered to a resistor.
For a periodic voltage across a resistor, effective voltage is defined
as the voltage that is as effective as the dc voltage in supplying
average power.
Both voltages Veff and Vdc produce same average power on the
load.
However, Veff is a quantity which corresponds to the effective value
of the ac source v(t)
RMS: Root-Mean-Square
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Effective value: RMS
Similarly, the RMS current is developed from P=I2rmsR
as,
Exercise 6
Determine the rms value of the periodic pulse waveform that has a
duty ratio of D as shown below.
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Exercise 7
Determine the RMS Value of a sinusoidal voltage of v(t)=Vm sin(wt)
Exercise 8
Determine the RMS Value of a half-wave rectified sinewave of
The square of the function has one-half the area of full wave,
23
Exercise 9
Neutral Conductor Current in a Three-Phase System
An office complex is supplied from a three-phase four-wire voltage
source
The load is highly nonlinear as a result of the rectifiers in the power
supplies of the equipment,
Exercise 9 (cont.)
The currents in each of
the three phases has
very distorted waveform.
The neutral current is the
sum of the phase
currents.
Due to the non-linear
loads, a certain current
flows through the neutral
conductor
If the rms current in
each phase conductor
is known to be 20 A,
determine the rms
current in the neutral
conductor
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Exercise 9 (cont.)
Noting by inspection that the area of the square of the current
function in the neutral in, is 3 times that of each of the phases ia
The term containing the product v1v2 is zero if the functions v1 and v2
are orthogonal.
v1 and v2 are orthogonal if they are sinusoids of different
frequencies, then
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RMS of the sum of two periodic voltage (cont.)
Noting that
Note that the equation above can be applied to previous exercise to obtain the
rms value of the neutral current.
EE328 Power Electronics, Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2016 51
Exercise 10
Determine the effective (rms) value of
26
Solution of
The rms value of a single sinusoid is Vm/2
The rms value of a dc voltage equals to its dc value.
The sinusoids have different frequencies, then they are orthogonal
All the terms are orthogonal, therefore the the rms value is,
Solution of
The sinusoids have same frequencies, then they are not orthogonal
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Exercise 11
Find the RMS Value of Triangular Waveforms at below
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Solution for offset triangular waveform
It is assumed that the waveform
has two parts;
– A dc offset
– A triangular waveform
DC signal and triangular waveform
are orthogonal
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Power computations for sinusoidal ac circuits
Average power is
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Power triangle
Power factor of a load is defined as the ratio of average power
to apparent power
The power factor is also equal to the cosine of the power angle
pf=cos
Power of Ayran
Reactive
power
Apparent power
power
Active
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Power computations for nonsinusoidal periodic waveforms
Or alternatively
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Alternative expression to Fourier series
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series
33
Some examples for Fourier series
Square wave
Ramp signal
The average of
voltage and current
products of different
frequencies is zero.
Note that total average power is the sum of the powers at the
frequencies in the Fourier series.
EE328 Power Electronics, Dr. Mutlu Boztepe, Ege University, 2016 68
34
Non-sinusoidal Source and Linear Load
If a non-sinusoidal periodic voltage is applied to a linear load the
power absorbed by the load can be determined by using
superposition.
A non-sinusoidal periodic voltage is equivalent to the series
combination of the Fourier series voltages, as illustrated below.
The current in the load can be determined using superposition.
Exercise 12
A non-sinusoidal voltage source has a fourier series of
35
Solution
The dc term is
Solution (cont.)
The power at each frequency in the Fourier series can be
determined as follows,
36
Sinusoidal Source and Nonlinear Load
If a sinusoidal voltage source is applied to a nonlinear load, the
current waveform will not be sinusoidal but can be represented as a
Fourier series.
Voltage source is linear,
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Sinusoidal Source and Nonlinear Load
The power factor of the load
The ratio of the rms value of the fundamental frequency to the total
rms value is the distortion factor (DF)
Power Distortion
factor Displacement factor
factor
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Sinusoidal Source and Nonlinear Load
Total harmonic distortion (THD) is another term used to quantify the
non-sinusoidal property of a waveform.
THD is the ratio of the rms value of all the non-fundamental
frequency terms to the rms value of the fundamental frequency term
where
39
Sinusoidal Source and Nonlinear Load
Other terms that are sometimes used for non-sinusoidal current (or
voltages) are form factor and crest factor.
Exercise 13
A sinusoidal voltage source of v(t)=100 cos(377t) V is applied to a
nonlinear load, resulting in a non-sinusoidal current which is
expressed in Fourier series form as
Determine,
a) The power absorbed by the load
b) The power factor of the load
c) The distortion factor of the
load current
d) The total harmonic distortion
of the load current
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Numerical calculation
100
50
Voltage [V]
-50
-100
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 2000
time [s]
30 1500
20
Power [W]
1000
Current [A]
10
500
0
0
-10
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
time [s] -500
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
time [s]
Solution
a) The power absorbed by the load is determined by computing the
power absorbed at each frequency in the Fourier series
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Solution
c) The distortion factor is computed as
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