Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters
from his / her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is
specifically intended for Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive
study material.
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It
is highly useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing
for GATE as it comes handy while traveling long distances.
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the
respective Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters
to make best use of it.
2
Power Semi-Conductor Devices
Classification of switches
2. Semi-controlled switch
Only one switching state can be controlled by an external control signal. E.g. SCR
If both switching states can be controlled by switchable control signal. E.g. BJT, MOSFET.
Other Classification
1. Unipolar switch
The switch can block only one polarity of voltage when it is in OFF state.
2. Bipolar switch
This switch can block both polarity of voltage when it is in blocking state.
3. Unidirectional switch
This switch can carry current in only one direction when it is in conduction state.
4. Bidirectional switch
This switch can carry current in both the directions when it is in conduction state.
3
Ideal characteristics of power semiconductor switches
Device Characteristic
Diode
BJT
MOSFET
IGBT
SCR
GTO
TRIAC
4
Power loss in a switch
Latching Current
This is the minimum value of anode current above which SCR turns ON. This is related to
minimum gate pulse width requirement for SCR.
Holding current
5
di
Slope of characteristics =
dt
If ta trr
Area under the curve = QR
1
QR IRM trr
2
IRM di dt trr
1 di 2
QR
2 dt
trr
Device & Circuit Turn-off time
Device turn off time, tq trr tgr
trr = reverse recovery time
t gr = gate recovery time
Circuit turn-off time t c is the time period for which communication circuit applies reverse
voltage across SCR after anode current becomes zero.
For successful communication, tc tq
dV
2) Triggering
dt
dv dv
Ic C j , if is high, charging current increase and SCR conducts when Ic Ilatching .
dt dt
3) Light Triggering
If light is incident on J2 , charge carriers are generated and J2 starts conducting.
4) Thermal Triggering
When temperature is increased then charge carriers are generated & SCR conducts.
5) Gate Triggering
By applying gate pulse in SCR, VBO is lowered and SCR can easily conduct.
6
Static V-I characteristics of SCR
Communication of thyristor
Types of Commutations:
2. Forced Commutation
1) Class A commutation
1 R2
Ringing frequency, r 2
LC 4L
Thyristor conducts for a period of =
r
7
2) Class-B commutation or current commutation
a) ITM peak Io
C
b) ITA peak Vs
L
IP
Other Implementation
I
tCM 2 sin1 o LC
Ip
V 2V
I T1 peak S S
R1 R 2
V 2V
I T2 peak S S
R 2 R1
tC1 R1 ln2
tC2 R 2 ln2
8
Class-D commutation or voltage commutation
C
ITM peak Io VS L
ITA peak Io
TON min for TM LC
CVs
tCM
Io
2CVs
Conduction time of TA 2tCM
Io
VS
VO avg TON 2tCM , T = Switching internal
T
Unit of 0 C / w
9
Phase Controlled converter
Form factor
V
FF or
Vo
Vor : rms value of output voltage.
Vo : Average value of output voltage.
Ripple Factor
RF = FF2 1
Distortion factor
V
DF 01
Vor
V01 : rms value of fundamental components of Vo
Vor : rms value of output voltage.
1
THD 1
DF2
If a free-wheeling diode is connected across the load (RL) that behaves as R-load as output
voltage goes to zero after t when FD conducts.
10
Single phase half wave controlled rectifier
i) R – load
Vm
VO avg
2
1 cos
Vm
IO avg
2R
1 cos
Vm2 sin2
Vor
4 2
Vor
2
R Vor
Input power factor =
VS IS VS
Vm
VS
2
α = firing angle
ii) R – L load
Vm
Voavg
2
cos cos
Vm
Io avg
2R
cos cos
Vm
Vor 12 sin2 sin2
2
11
1 1
full converter Semi converter
VO 2Vm Vm
cos
1 cos
IS1 2 2 2 2
Io I cos
O 2
IS Io
IO
DF 2 2 2 2
cos
2
12
Three phase half wave controlled rectifier
3Vml
Vo cos
2
1
1 3 3 2
13
3 3
Full converter Semi converter
Vo 3Vml 3Vml
cos
2
1 cos
Vor 1 3 3 Expression varies for 600 & 600
Vml cos 2
2 4 For 600 , it becomes 3-pulse converter.
IS1
6
IO
6
O
I cos
2
IS 2
IO IO
3
DF 3 6
cos
2
Due to source inductance, there is an overlap b/w incoming and outgoing thyristor, given by
overlap angle .
2Vm L
VO cos S IO
Vm
VO cos cos
14
For 6 – pulse converter
3Vm 3LS
VO cos I
O
3Vm
VO cos cos
2
Chopper
Buck Converter
When CH is ON o t DT
TON
D = duty cycle =
T
Where T = switching period = 1
f
f = switching frequency
15
Average output voltage = DVS
rms output voltage = DVS
Average source current = DIO
Average current of FD = 1 D IO
When CH is ON 0 t DT
VL VS VO 1 D VS
During this period, since voltage is positive current increase from minimum value to maximum
value.
i Imax Imin
t DT 0 DT
i
L
DT
1 D V
S
D 1 D VS
i
fL
This formula gives approximate value of output ripple current for maximum ripple, D = 0.5
VS
imax
4fL
IL
Imax IO
2
I
Imin IO L
2
Lc
1 D R
2f
16
Critical Capacitance (CC)
1
CC
8fR
when CH is ON 0 t DT , VL VS
VS
VO
1 D
Since D < 1, VO VS
when CH is ON 0 t DT , IC IO
when CH is OFF DT t T , IC IL IO
IO
IL
1 D
17
Ripple in output voltage
when CH is ON , IC IO
VC
C. I O
DT
IO DT
VO VC
C
-ve sign indicates voltage decrease
IO DT
VO
C
D 1 D R
LC
2f
D
CC
2fR
18
Buck-Boost Converter
IC IL IO
VS DT VO 1 D T 0
DVS
VO
1 D
IO DT IL IO 1 D T 0
I O
IL
1 D
VO DVS
IL
R 1 D R 1 D
2
IL
L VS
DT
DVS
IL
fL
19
Ripple in output voltage
CVO
I O
DT
DIO
VO
fC
IL
IL
2
R 1 D
2
LC
2f
VO
VO
2
I O 1 D T
CC
2VS
D 1 D
VO VS
r 1 D
2
R
R = load resistance
20
Inverters
Inverters circuits will convert DC power to AC power at required voltage & required frequency.
Classification
When S1 is ON, VO 0, IO 0
When S2 is ON, VO 0, IO 0
When D1 is ON, VO 0, IO 0
When D 2 is ON, VO 0, IO 0
Vdc
The output voltage is a square wave of amplitude
2
The fourier series of output voltage is given by
2Vdc
VO sin nt
n1,3,5 n
rms value of fundamental components is given by
2V 1 2
Vor1 dc V
2 dc
Vdc
rms value of output voltage Vor
2
Vor1 2 2
Distortion Factor(DF) =
Vor
1
% Total Harmonic Distortion THD 1 = 48.43%
DF2
21
If load power factor is lagging, then it requires forced commutation.
If load power factor is leading, then natural commutation occurs.
When S1 , S2 conduct VO 0, IO 0
When D1 , D 2 conduct, VO 0, IO 0
When S3 , S 4 conduct, VO 0, IO 0
When D3 ,D 4 conduct, VO 0, IO 0
1
% Total Harmonic Distortion THD 1 = 48.43%
DF2
22
1800conduction mode
In this mode, each switch will conduct for a period of 1800 and phase displacement between
any two poles is 1200
Phase voltage
2
V
ph rms V
3 dc
2Vdc
VRN sin nt
n6k 1 n
2Vdc
VR1
VR1 3
Distortion factor, DF
Vph,rms
1
THD 1 100 31%
DF2
Line voltage
2
VL L rms V
3 dc
4Vdc
3 sinn t 6
VRY sin n
n6k 1 n
6
VRY 1 = rms value of fundamental component of V RY = VRY
1
Distortion factor = 3
In each phase, each switch conducts for 1800 out of 3600
Io, rms 2Vdc Vdc
Ir.rms , Where R = load resistance
2 3R 2 3R
23
Voltage Total RMS Fundamental RMS
Phase 2 2
Vdc Vdc
3
Line 2 6 V
Vdc dc
3
This conversion from total rms to fundamental rms can be performed by multiplication of
3 DF .
This conversion from phase to line voltage can be performed by multiplication of 3.
1200conduction mode
For each thyristor, conduction angle is 1200 & last 60 0 for commutation.
Phase Voltage
Vdc
V
ph rms
6
2Vdc
sin nt n 6
VRN
n6k 1 n
sin n
3
6
VR1 V
dc
Distortion factor, DF 3
THD = 31%
Line Voltage
Vdc
VL RMS
2
3Vdc
VRY n
sin n t
3
n6k 1
3
VRY 1 Vdc
2
24
Distortion factor, = 3 ; THD 31%
In each, phase each switch conducts for 1200 out of 3600
Io, rms Vdc
I T , rms
3 2R
R = load resistance
Voltage Total RMS Fundamental RMS
Phase Vdc 6
Vdc
6
Line Vdc 3
Vdc
2 2
In this case, width of positive & negative cycle is not but rather equal to 2d.
25
2) Multiple PWM techniques
2d
Here a single pulse of ‘2d’ width is divided into ‘n’ pulses each of width .
n
fc
n
2fr
fc = carrier signal frequency
fr = reference signal frequency
AC - AC Converters
AC voltage regulator
These transfer AC power from 1 circuit to another by controlling output voltage & fixed
frequency.
Vm
VO avg
2
cos 1
Vm
IO avg
2R
cos 1
1
V 1 2
VOrms m 2 sin2
2 2
1
Vor 1 1 2
pf 2 sin2
Vsr 2 2
26
Single phase fully controlled ACVR
Vo avg 0
1
V 1 2
Vo rms m sin2
2 2
If R – L load is used, then in steady state I O lags VO by an angle
wL
tan1
R
If r , then above formulas remain valid & output voltage is controllable by controlling α.
If r , output voltage is not controllable & Vor Vsr
If in fully controlled ACVR, thyristors conduct for m cycle & are OFF for n cycle then
1
m 2
VO rms Vsr
mn
1
V m 2
For R – load, pf or
Vsr m n
27
Vm m
I T1 avg
R m n
1
V m 2
I T1 rms m
2R m n
28