Basic Structural Loads and Stresses

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Basic Structural Loads And Stresses
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Engineering Encyclopedia Civil
Content Page
BASIC LOADS.................................................................................................................... 1
Types of Loading ...................................................................................................... 1
Axial Loading................................................................................................ 1
Lateral Loading ............................................................................................. 3
Torsional Loading ......................................................................................... 5
Thermal Loading ........................................................................................... 7
Unrestrained Uniform Thermal Expansion ......................................... 7
Unrestrained Nonuniform Thermal Expansion ................................... 8
Restrained Uniform Thermal Expansion............................................. 8
Restrained Nonuniform Thermal Expansion....................................... 9
BASIC STRESSES .............................................................................................................10
Types of Stresses......................................................................................................10
Normal Stress ...............................................................................................10
Normal Stress - Axial........................................................................11
Normal Stress - Bending ...................................................................12
Bearing Stress...............................................................................................14
Shearing Stress .............................................................................................15
Shearing Stress - Direct Lateral Loading ...........................................15
Shearing Stress - Torsion ..................................................................17
Shearing Stress - Bending .................................................................18
Thermal Stress..............................................................................................24
Uniform Thermal Stress ....................................................................25
Nonuniform Thermal Stress ..............................................................27
COMBINED STRESSES ....................................................................................................33
Basic Stress Formulas ..............................................................................................33
Combined Stresses - Superposition...........................................................................34
Combined Stresses - Mohr's Circle...........................................................................39
Principal Stresses: ....................................................................................................42
STRUCTURAL SAFETY CONCEPTS...............................................................................50
Ultimate Load (Pu) ..................................................................................................50

Allowable Load (Pa) ................................................................................................50

Factor of Safety (F.S.)..............................................................................................50
Structural Safety Considerations ..............................................................................51
Design Methods for Safety.......................................................................................51
Structural Safety Standards ......................................................................................52
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................54
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................73

Table of Figures Page
Figure 1 .................................................................................................................... 1
Figure 2 .................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 3 .................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 4 .................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 5 .................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 6 .................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 7 .................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 8 .................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 9 .................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 10................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 11................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 12................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 13................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 14..................................................................................................................10
Figure 15..................................................................................................................11
Figure 16..................................................................................................................11
Figure 17..................................................................................................................13
Figure 18..................................................................................................................14
Figure 19..................................................................................................................14
Figure 20..................................................................................................................15
Figure 21..................................................................................................................15
Figure 22..................................................................................................................16
Figure 23..................................................................................................................17
Figure 24..................................................................................................................17
Figure 25..................................................................................................................18
Figure 26..................................................................................................................18
Figure 27..................................................................................................................19
Figure 28..................................................................................................................21
Figure 29..................................................................................................................23
Figure 30..................................................................................................................24

Figure 31..................................................................................................................25
Figure 32..................................................................................................................25
Figure 33 (A,B,C) ....................................................................................................26
Figure 34..................................................................................................................27
Figure 35..................................................................................................................28
Figure 36..................................................................................................................30
Figure 37..................................................................................................................31
Figure 38..................................................................................................................34
Figure 39..................................................................................................................35
Figure 40..................................................................................................................35
Figure 41..................................................................................................................36
Figure 42..................................................................................................................37
Figure 43..................................................................................................................37
Figure 44..................................................................................................................38
Figure 45..................................................................................................................38
Figure 46..................................................................................................................39
Figure 47..................................................................................................................41
Figure 48..................................................................................................................43
Figure 49..................................................................................................................44
Figure 50..................................................................................................................44
Figure 51..................................................................................................................45
Figure 52..................................................................................................................46
Figure 53..................................................................................................................47
Figure 54..................................................................................................................48
Figure 55..................................................................................................................49
Figure 62..................................................................................................................57
Figure 64..................................................................................................................58
Figure 65..................................................................................................................59
Figure 66 (A,B,C,) ...................................................................................................60
FIgure 67 .................................................................................................................61
FIgure 68 .................................................................................................................62

Figure 69..................................................................................................................62
Figure 70..................................................................................................................63
Figure 71..................................................................................................................64
Figure 72..................................................................................................................65
Figure 73..................................................................................................................66
Figure 74..................................................................................................................66
Figure 75..................................................................................................................67
Figure 76..................................................................................................................68
Figure 77..................................................................................................................69
Figure 78..................................................................................................................71
Figure 79..................................................................................................................72

BASIC LOADS
Loads are the weights or other external effects to which a structure is subjected in performing its
function. You need to have a clear understanding of the basic loads a structure has to support to
do structural analysis and design.
Types of Loading
As an engineer, you must consider all loadings that may act on a given structure. These can
include:
• Axial Loading.
• Lateral Loading.
• Torsional Loading.
• Thermal Loading.
Axial Loading
Axial loads are loads that are directed along a member’s longitudinal axis. Tension and
compression loading are two types of axial loads.They are illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Examples of structures with axially loaded members are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2

Lateral Loading
Lateral loads, also known as transverse loads, are loads directed perpendicular to a member’s
longitudinal axis. Two types of lateral loads may be present, concentrated loads or distributed
loads, as illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3
In many cases, lateral loads are more complex than those shown in Figure 3. They may be a
combination of concentrated loads and distributed loads, such as those illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4
Concentrated loads (P) have units of force. Distributed loads (w) have units of force/length.

To resist the applied lateral loads, internal shearing forces (V) and bending moments (M) are
developed in the structural member. See Figure 5.
Figure 5
Figure 6 shows examples of structures supporting lateral loads.
RETAINING WALL

CANTILEVER BEAM
Figure 6
Torsional Loading
A torsional load is a load that produces a moment about the longitudinal axis of a member. This
twisting moment is often called a torque (T). See Figure 7.
Figure 7
Figure 8 shows shearing forces Fi perpendicular to the radius ρ of the shaft that are present to
resist the applied torque T.
Figure 8

Figure 9 shows structures subjected to torsional loads.
ECCENTRIC LOAD
ON A BEAM
FLOOR SLAB
FIXED TO SUPPORTING BEAM
Figure 9

Thermal Loading
Changes in temperature have critical effects on structural members. A temperature change causes
a material to increase or decrease in size depending on whether the change is a rise or a fall in
temperature.
Thermal effects in a structural member can be classified as follows:
• Uniform or nonuniform across the section.
• Free or restrained at the supports.
Examples of these effects are discussed below.
Unrestrained Uniform Thermal Expansion
A member free to elongate and exposed to a uniform rise in temperature (+∆T) will elongate by
δ T . The length of δ T depends on the thermal coefficient of expansion of the material and the
temperature change. See Figure 10.
FREE UNIFORM TEMPERATURE CHANGE
Figure 10

Unrestrained Nonuniform Thermal Expansion
A member free to elongate experiences a nonuniform temperature if it is subjected to a

differential rise in temperature (+∆T) on top of the member and no temperature change on the
bottom. It will elongate on top and remain the same length on the bottom. This effect causes the
member to bow, as shown in Figure 11.
FREE NONUNIFORM TEMPERATURE CHANGE
Figure 11
Restrained Uniform Thermal Expansion
Loads due to thermal expansion or contraction occur when the member is constrained from
movement and reaction forces are induced.
RESTRAINED UNIFORM TEMPERATURE CHANGE
Figure 12

Thermal Force,
PT = AEα(∆T)
where: A = Cross-sectional area of the member.

E = Elastic modulus of the material.
Restrained Nonuniform Thermal Expansion
If a member is restrained then there can be no end rotation of the type shown in the unrestrained
case in Figure 11. The restraints cause a moment reaction, MT, as well as an axial reaction, PT.
See Figure 13.
RESTRAINED NONUNIFORM TEMPERATURE CHANGE
Figure 13

BASIC STRESSES
Stress is the internal reaction of an element or part of a structural member to an external force or
load. It is expressed by the symbol σ. Stress causes a member to strain or deform. You need to
know the state of stresses in various components of a structure in order to evaluate the behavior
of existing structures subjected to various loading conditions. You need the same information to
design new structures that will perform safely and economically and will remain serviceable
under the design loads.
Types of Stresses
The types of stresses produced by the applied loads include:
• Normal Stress.
• Bearing Stress.
• Shearing Stress.
• Thermal Stress.
Normal Stress
Normal or direct stress is produced when a structural member is loaded axially or in bending.
The normal stress is directed normal to the plane of the section.
Normal stress can be either tensile or compressive depending on whether it elongates or

compresses an element of the material. The sign convention for normal stress is positive (+) for
tensile stress and negative (-) for compressive stress, as shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14

Normal Stress - Axial
Normal stress due to an axial load is illustrated in Figure 15 below.
Figure 15
Example 1: Normal (Axial) Stress

Two solid circular structural members are welded together at B as shown in Figure 16.
Determine the normal stress at the midpoint of each rod.
Figure 16

Free body diagram:
π(1.5 in.)2
A AB = = 1.77 in.2
4
π(2.5 in.)2
A BC = = 4.91 in.2
4
Stresses:
PAB 12 k
σ AB = = = 6.78 ksi (+) Tension
AAB 1.77 in.2
σ BC = PBC = 38 k(-)2 = 7.74 ksi (−) Compression

ABC 4.91 in.
Normal Stress - Bending
Normal stress caused by transverse loading is called bending stress, since the stress is caused by
the bending of the member. This stress varies linearly through the section, whereas the normal
stress due to axial loading is uniform. Bending stress is calculated by the formula:
My
σ=
I

Figure 17
where: M = Bending moment at some point along the member.

y = Distance from the neutral axis to the desired stress point.
I = Moment of inertia of the section.

Bearing Stress
Structural members that are connected by bolts, pins, or rivets are subject to bearing stress. A
column base plate exerts bearing stress upon the support pedestal. The column footing produces
bearing stress on the underlying soil. Bearing stress is defined as:
Figure 18
where Pb is the bearing load and Ab is the area of the bearing surface or surface of contact.
BEARING AREA FOR BOLT OR RIVET
Figure 19

In the example shown in Figure 19 the area of bearing surface would be

Ab = td
Pb
σb =
so that the bearing stress is: td
Shearing Stress
Shearing stress results from direct lateral loading, torsional loading, and accompanying bending
due to transverse loading.
Shearing Stress - Direct Lateral Loading

Shearing stress due to a direct lateral load (Figure 21) is calculated by:
V
τ=
AV
Figure 20
and is directed in the plane of the section. AV is the sheared area parallel to the direction of
loading and V is the shearing force.
Figure 21

Example 2: Normal Stress and Direct Shearing Stress

A force P of magnitude 50 k is applied to the system shown in Figure 22. Determine the normal
stress and shearing stress in the base.
Figure 22
Normal Stress: Shearing Stress:
A = area perpendicular to load P A V = area parallel to load P
πd 2 = πdt = 0.79 in.2

= = 0.79 in.2
4
P 50 k P 50 k
σ= = = 63.3 ksi τ= = = 63.3 ksi
A 0.79 in.2 A V 0.79 in.2
(compression)

Shearing Stress - Torsion

Torsional loading causes a shearing stress parallel to the face of the cross section. Torsional
shearing stress is defined as:
For a circular shaft:
Figure 23
where: T = Torque at some point along the shaft.

ρ = The radius to the desired stress point in the shaft.
J = The polar moment of inertia of the cross section.
For a rectangular section:
Figure 24
where: T = Torque.
α = Coefficient for a rectangular shaft (from table).
b = Long side of the section.
c = Short side of the section.

TABLE OF COEFFICIENTS FOR RECTANGULAR SECTIONS
Figure 25
Shearing Stress - Bending

Shearing stress caused by transverse loads is called longitudinal shearing stress and is calculated
by:
VQ
τ=
It
Figure 26
where: V = Shear force at some point along the member.

Q = First moment of area about the neutral axis.
I = Moment of inertia.
t = Thickness of the member at the point of interest.

Example 3: Normal Bending and Shearing Stress in a Beam

Determine the bending stress and the longitudinal shearing stress at point A of the beam shown
below.
Shear diagram:
Moment diagram:
Figure 27

My
σ =
Bending Stress: I
where: M = 67.5 k-ft (from moment diagram).

y = 3 in. (given).
bd 3 (6 in.)(12in.) 3
I= = = 864 in.4
12 12
(67.5 kft)(12 in. ft)(3 in.)
σ = = 2.81 ksi
Bending stress, 864 in.4
VQ
τ =
Longitudinal Shear Stress: It
where: V = 15 k (from shear diagram).

Q = A y = (18 in.2)(4.5 in.) = 81 in.3
I = 864 in.4
t = b = 6 in.
(22.5 k)(81 in.3 )

τ = 4 = 2.34 ksi
Shear stress, (864 in. )(6 in.)

Example 4: Normal, Shearing, and Bearing Stresses in Pinned Anchor Block
Two 1.5-k forces, directed horizontally to the right, are applied to pin B as shown. A
0.6-in. diameter pin is used at each connection. Determine the normal stresses in each member,
the shear stress in pin B, and the bearing stress at pin A.
Analysis:
Figure 28
Equilibrium of joints: (from statics)
Joint B:
∑ Fx = 0: 3 k − ( 12) FBA − (1 2 )FBC = 0
∑ Fy = 0: ( 3 2 )FBA − (1 2)F BC = 0
∴ FBA = 2.2 k(+) F BC = 2.69 k(−)

Joint A:
∑ Fx = 0: Rxa = ( 1 2) FBA = ( 0.5)( 2.2) = 1.1 k
∑ Fy = 0: R ya = ( 3
2 )FBA = (0.866)(2.2) = 1.9 k
Joint C:
2.69 k
∑ Fx = 0: Rxc = (1 2 )FCB = ( 0.707)( 2.69) = 1.9 k
∑ Fy = 0: R yc = (1 2 )FCB = ( 0.707)( 2.69) = 1.9 k

Check equilibrium of system:
∑ MA = 0: 3 k(1 ft) − Ryc (1 ft + 1

3
ft) = 0
R yc =1.9 k OK
∑ Fx = 0: 3 k − 1.1 k − 1.9 k = 0 OK
∑ Fy = 0: 1.9 -1.9 = 0 OK
Stress Solutions:
Normal Stress:
FAB 2.2 k
σAB = = = 2.44 ksi (+)
AAB 1.8 in. 0.5 in.
FBC 2.69 k
σBC = = = 2.99 ksi (-)
ABC 1.8 in. 0.5 in.

Shear Stress: (in pin B) in x direction.
Figure 29
Pin B is in double shear:
F 1.1 k
τB = = = 1.95 ksi
2A 2 π (0.6 in .) 2 
 4 
Bearing Stress: (at pin A) of member AB.
P 2.2 k
σ BA = = = 7.3 ksi
td (0.5 in.)(0.6 in.)

Thermal Stress
Recall that under thermal loading, temperature change (∆ T) causes the following effects:
Figure 30
In general, to calculate the movement due to a change in temperature use:
δ T = α( ∆T)L
where: α = Coefficient of thermal expansion.
∆T = Change in temperature.
L = Original length of the member.
The first two examples (unrestrained) produce movement but no stresses, whereas the second
two examples (restrained) produce stresses. These thermal stresses are due to thermal expansion
or contraction.

Uniform Thermal Stress
A member experiencing a uniform rise in temperature as in Figure 31 below, induces an axial

force PT and normal stress σ.
σ = α( ∆ T) E
RESTRAINED UNIFORM TEMPERATURE CHANGE
Figure 31
Example 5: Restrained Uniform Temperature Change
Determine the normal stress in member AB due to an increase in temperature ∆T.
Figure 32

Since this problem is indeterminate, the following three-step procedure is used.
1. Remove the fixed boundary from one of the ends, say B (Figure 33 a).
2. Allow the member to elongate and determine δ T (Figure 33 b).
3. Determine the axial load required to produce a deflection δP equal to that of

δ T (Figure 33 c).
From Step 2: δT = α∆TL
PL
δP = δT =
From Step 3: AE (equation for axial deflection)
Figure 33 (A,B,C)
Solving for P:
P = α∆TAE
P
σ= = α ( ∆T)E
A

Nonuniform Thermal Stress
A member fixed at both ends and subjected to a differential (nonuniform) rise in temperature will
induce axial reaction force PT along with reaction bending moments MT as noted in Figure 34.
RESTRAINED NONUNIFORM TEMPERATURE CHANGE
Figure 34
For a member undergoing a differential temperature change that produces both axial and bending
stresses, the procedure for calculating this stress is as follows:
Axial Stress:
σ a = α (∆Tavg )E
∆Ttop + ∆Tbot
∆Tavg = .
where: 2
E = Elastic modulus.
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion.

Bending Stress:
Ey
σb =
ρ
2tL + t(δ top + δ bot )

where: ρ = radius of curvature = ∆δ .
δtop = α(∆Ttop)L.
δbot = α(∆Tbot)L.
∆δ = δtop - δbot.
y = Distance from the neutral axis.
Example 6: Nonuniform Thermal Stress in Restrained Bar

Determine the maximum normal stress in member AB in Figure 35 below due to a differential
increase in temperature.
E = 200 GP a
∆ Ttop = 40°C
I = 28583.3 mm4
∆ Tbot = 20°C
t = 35 mm
width, b = 1 mm α = 26x10-6/°C
Figure 35
1. Remove the fixed boundary from one of the ends, say B.
2. Allow the member to elongate and determine δ T .
3. Determine the moment and axial load required to bring end B back to initial position.

δ top = (26x10 −6 /°C)(40°C)(800 mm)

= 0.832 mm
δ bot = (26x10−6 /°C)(20°C)(800 mm)

= 0.416 mm
δ top + δbot
δ avg = = 0.624 mm
2
2(35 mm)(800 mm) + (35 mm)(1.248 mm)

ρ=
0.416 mm
ρ = 134720.4 mm = 134.72 m
Moment:
EI 200x109N/m2 2.8583x10-8m4
M= = = 42.43 N - m
ρ 134.72 m
Axial:
δ AE 6.24x10-4m 7x10-5m2 200x109N/m2

P = avg =
L 0.8 m
P = 10.92 kN
Normal Stress:
Axial:
P 10920 N
σa = = = 156 N/mm2 (-)
A 70 mm2
Bending:
42,430 N • mm 35 mm
σb = Mt = = 52 N/mm2 (-)
I 28583.3 mm4
σmax = σa + σb = 208 N/mm2 (-)

Example 7: Thermal Stress in Gapped Rods

At room temperature (20°C), a 0.5-mm gap exists between the ends of the rods shown in Figure
36. At a later time when the temperature reaches 140°C, determine the normal stress in the
aluminum.
Figure 36
This problem is statically indeterminate, therefore, the following three-step procedure is used.
1. Determine the temperature ∆T1 at which the aluminum rod and the stainless steel rod
meet.
δTA + δTS = 0.5 mm

δTA = α aLa∆T1
δTS = α sLs∆T1
αaLa + αsLs ∆T1 = 0.5 mm
∴∆T1 = 43.86°C
δTA = 23x10-6/°C 300 mm 43.86°C = 0.303 mm
δTS = 18x10-6/°C 250 mm 43.86°C = 0.197 mm
This tells us the temperature at which stresses begin to appear in the system.
T1 = 20°C + 43.86°C = 63.86°C

Beginning from the temperature at which the two materials are in contact.
∆T2 = 140°C − 63.86°C = 76.14°C
No Gap
Figure 37
2. Calculate the total deflection of the two rods disregarding the right boundary. First
determine the initial length of each rod before applying the temperature change.
LA = LAO + δTA
LA = 300 mm + 0.303 mm = 300.303 mm
LS = LSO + δTS
LS = 250 mm + 0.197 mm = 250.197 mm
δTotal = δTA + δTS

δTA = 23x10-6/°C 300.303 mm 76.14 °C = 0.526 mm
δTS = 18x10-6/°C 250.197 mm 76.14 °C = 0.343 mm
δTotal = 0.526 mm + 0.343 mm = 0.869 mm
3. Determine an equivalent load P T that would produce the total elongation, δ T OTAL:
 L LS 
δ TOTAL = 0.869 mm = δ PA + δ PS = P A + 
 A a E a A SE S 
 
 300.303 mm 250.197 mm 
0.869 mm = P +
kN kN 
 (2000 mm 2 )(70 ) (800 mm 2 )(190 )
 mm 2
mm 2 

Solve for PT:
PT = 229.224 kN(-)
Normal Stress in Aluminum:
229.224 kN
σA = = 114.61 MPa(−)
0.002 m 2

COMBINED STRESSES
The previous sections discussed basic load types and the types of stresses they produce. Each of
the examples presented included only one type of load. In analyzing stress, axial force, bending
moment, torque and shear, often occur at the same time at a section through a member. In order
to determine the stresses at a section caused by multiple loads, the principles of superposition
and stress combination (Mohr’s Circle) are used.
These principles are discussed below after a review of the formulas for the basic stresses
identified in the previous section.
Basic Stress Formulas
The fundamental formulas for calculating basic stresses are as follows:
• Normal Stress:
P
σ=
- due to an axial force, P: A
My
σ=
- due to beam bending moment, M: I
- due to restrained uniform temperature change, DT: σ = α(∆T)E
• Shearing Stress:
V
τ =
- due to direct shear force, V: AV
- due to torque, T:
Tρ
τ=
+ circular shaft J
T
τ max = 2
+ rectangular shaft αbc
VQ
τ=
- due to shearing force, V, in a beam: It

Combined Stresses - Superposition
Superposition is used to combine stresses when stresses of the same type occur at a section.
For example, in Figure 38, the normal compressive stresses (a) can be combined with the normal
tensile stresses (b) to give the resulting stresses (c)
(a) (b) (c)
Compressive Stresses Tensile Stresses Combined Stresses
Figure 38
An equation that is used to sum normal stresses due to axial loads and transverse loads applied
simultaneously is:
P My
σ= ±
A I
This allows one to calculate the stress distribution for cases where shear is not present.
Figure 39 shows another example of combining stresses by superposition. The beam is subjected
to both lateral and longitudinal loads. Figure 40 shows the resulting normal and shearing stresses
and the combined stresses. The normal stress due to bending is combined with the normal axial
stress by superposition. However, the shear stress due to bending cannot be combined with the
normal stresses.

Figure 39
My VQ
σ1 = τ= σ2 = P2
I It A σ1 + σ2 , τ = σ
Normal Shear Normal Total

Stress Stress Stress Stress
Figure 40

Example 8: Combined Bending and Axial Stresses

Determine the maximum and minimum stresses in the structural member shown below.
Figure 41
The extreme stresses occur at points A and B and are calculated by the formula:
P Mc
σ= ±
A I
100,000 lb (30,000x12 lb − in.)(6 in.)

σ= ±
144 in.2 1728 in.4
= 694 ± 1250 psi

Elements: (at base) points A and B.
For A:
Figure 42
For A: σA = -694 psi + 1250 psi
= 556 psi (+) (tension)
For B:
Figure 43
σB = -694 psi - 1250 psi
= 1944 psi (-) (compression)

STRESS DISTRIBUTION ACROSS SECTION
Figure 44
Example 9: Normal Stresses Due to Eccentric Load

Two forces 5 in. apart, as shown in Figure 45 are applied to a rigid plate welded to a steel pipe of
8-in. outer diameter and 7-in. inner diameter. Determine the value of P for which the maximum
compressive stress in the pipe is 15 ksi.
Figure 45
Determine:
πd o 2 πd i 2 π 2
A= − = (d o − d i 2 ) = 11.78 in.2
4 4 4
πd o 4
πd 4
π
I= − i = (d 4 − d i 4 ) = 83.2 in. 4
64 64 64 o

So:
P Mc
σ ALL = + where M = P(5 in.)
A I
12 k P P(5 in.)(4 in.)

15 ksi = 2 + 2 + 4
11.78 in. 11.78 in. 83.2 in.
Solving for P:
P = 43 k
Combined Stresses - Mohr's Circle
When a member is subjected to multiple loadings resulting in combined normal stress and shear
stress, the designer often needs to determine the magnitude and orientation of critical stresses.
Mohr's Circle is a graphical method that determines maximum and minimum stresses. These
stresses are also called the principal stresses. The Mohr's Circle method also provides the
orientation of the principal stresses. Principal stresses occur where shear stress is zero (0) and
maximum shear stress acts in a direction 45° from the planes of principal stress.
Figure 46

When no shear stresses are present, principal stresses may be obtained by the principle of
superposition, discussed earlier. When shear stress is present, use the Mohr Circle procedure.
The steps to construct Mohr's Circle are shown here and in Figure 47:
1. Make a sketch of the element for which the normal and the shearing stresses are known and
indicate on this element the proper sense of these stresses. In an actual problem, the faces
of this element must have a precise relationship to the axes of a member being analyzed.
2. Set up a rectangular coordinate system of axes where the horizontal axis is the normal
stress axis and the vertical axis is the shearing stress axis. Directions of positive axes are as
usual, upward and to the right.
3. Locate the center of the circle, which is on the horizontal axis at a distance of (σx+σy)/2 from
the origin. Tensile stresses are positive, compressive stresses are negative.
4. From the right face of the element prepared in Step 1, read the values for σx and τxy and plot
the controlling point A on the circle. The coordinate distances to this point are measured from
the origin. The sign of σx is positive if tensile, negative if compressive; that of τxy is positive
if downward on the right face of the element, negative if upward.
5. Connect the center of the circle found in Step 3 with the point plotted in Step 4 and
determine this distance, which is the radius of the circle.
6. Draw the circle using the radius found in Step 5. If only magnitudes and signs of stresses
are of interest, this step completes the solution of the problem. The coordinates of points on
the circle provide the required information.

Figure 47
Mean Stress
(Center of Mohr's Circle)
σx + σy
σc =
2
Radius of Mohr's Circle:

0.5
 σ x − σ y  2 
σ r =   + τ 2 
  2  xy

The maximum normal or principal stresses always occur where the shear stress is zero.
Maximum shear occurs 45° from principal axis.

Principal Stresses:
Maximum Normal Stress:
σ1 = σ C + σ r
0 .5
σx + σ y  σ x − σ y  2 
2
= +   + τ xy 
2  2  
Minimum Normal Stress:
σ1 = σC - σr
2 0.5
σx + σy σx-σy 2
= - + τxy
2 2
Maximum Shear Stress:
τ max = σ r
0.5
 σ σ  2 
=  x − y  + τ xy 2 
 2  
For the case where one of the normal stresses, say σy, is zero, the principal stress formulas
simplify to:
σ
σ1 ,σ 2 = x ± τmax
2
0.5
  σx  2 
τ max =    + τ xy2 
 2  

Example 10: Combined Normal and Shear Stresses in a Laterally and Axially Loaded Column
Determine the principal stress in the member shown in the figure below at points A and B based
on the normal and average shear stresses. Use Mohr’s Circle.
Figure 48
Calculate stress at A and B:
From Example 8, the normal stresses at A and B are:
At A: σ = 556 psi (tension), σy = 0

At B: σ = 1944 psi (compression), σy = 0
The average shear stress at section AB is:
V 5000 lb
τ avg = = = 34.7 psi
A 144 in.2

Develop element:
556 1944
For A For B
Figure 49
Construct Mohr’s Circle for A:
Figure 50
σx + σ y 556 + 0
Mean Stress = = = 278 psi
2 2

0.5
 σ  2 
Radius Stress =   x  + τ xy2 
 2  
1/ 2
  556  2 
=   + ( 34.7)2  = 280 psi
 2  
σ max = 278psi + 280psi = 558 psi

σ min = 278psi − 280psi = −2 psi
For B:
Mean Stress = 972 psi
Figure 51
1/2
Radius Stress = 9722 + 34.7 2 = 973 psi
σmax = -972 + 973 = 1.0 psi (+)

σmin = -972 - 973 = -1945 psi (-)

Example 11: Combined Torsional and Normal Stresses in a Bent Bar

The diameter of rod ABC in Figure 52 is 1.25 in. Determine the principal stresses at points H and
H' located on top and side, respectively, of the rod.
Figure 52
Develop element:
πd 2 π(1.25 in.)2
A= = = 1.23 in.2
4 4
πd4 π(1.25 in.) 4
I= = = 0.12 in.4
64 64
πd 4 π(1.25 in.)4
J= = = 0.24 in.4
32 32

Calculate Load at H:
Figure 53
• Vertical Shear, V = 320 lb
• Bending Moment Mz = (320)(5) = 1600 lb-in.
• Torsion, T= Mx = (320)(9) = 2880 lb-in.
Stresses involved:
Normal Stress
M z C 1600 lb − in
Bending σ H = = ( 0.625 in.) = 8333 psi ( −)
I 0.12
σH' = 0
Shear stress at H:
Tρ ( 2880 lb − in.)( 0.625 in.)

Torsion τ = = = 7500 psi
J 0.24 in.4

Note that stress due to shear force is zero at H.
At point H:
-8.33
Construct Mohr’s Circle:
Figure 54
The center of Mohr’s Circle = (-4.165, 0)
1/2
The radius of Mohr's Circle = 4.165 2 + 7.5 2
= 8.58 ksi

Principal stresses at H:
σmax = 12.75 ksi (-)

σmin = 4.42 ksi (+)
τmax = 8.58 ksi
Principal Stresses at H'
Normal Stresses at H'
σx = 0
σy = 0
Shear Stress at H'
Torsion τxy = 7500 psi (−)
VQ
Bending τ xy =
It
(320 lb)(0.615 in.)(0.265 in.)

= = 348 psi (+ )
(0.12 in.4 )(1.25 in.)
Total τxy = −7500 + 348 = 7152 psi ( −)
Figure 55
τmax = 7.15 ksi

σmax = 7.15 ksi (+)
σmin = 7.15 ksi (-)

STRUCTURAL SAFETY CONCEPTS
Previous sections discussed methods of determining loads and stresses in members.

Determination of stresses is not your final objective as an engineer. You will use your knowledge
of stresses in order to:
• Analyze and evaluate the behavior of existing structures subjected to various loading
conditions.
• Design new structures that will perform safely and economically and will remain
serviceable under the design loads.
To perform either of these tasks, knowledge of the material being used is essential. Tests on
specific materials are done in order to determine the particular behaviors based on the type of
load.
Ultimate Load (Pu)
The ultimate load of a material or structural member is the load at which the material fails.
Allowable Load (Pa)
A structural member must be designed so that its ultimate load is considerably larger than the
load the member will be allowed to carry under the normal design conditions. This smaller load
is known as the allowable load or the design load.
Factor of Safety (F.S.)
The ratio of ultimate load to allowable load is defined as the factor of safety.
Pu
Factor of Safety = F.S. =
Pa
or
Pu
Pa =
F.S.

Structural Safety Considerations
The determination of the factor of safety for a situation is likely to be one of your most important
tasks as a designer. To choose an appropriate factor of safety requires engineering judgment
based on several considerations as follows:
• Variations in material properties.
• The number of loadings that may be expected during the life of the structure.
• The type of loadings planned for in the design or that may occur in the future.
• The potential type of failure.
• Uncertainty due to methods of analysis.
• Potential deterioration due to poor maintenance or unpreventable natural causes.
• The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole structure.
• Historical experience with type of material and construction.
Additional factors concern the risk to life and property that a failure would produce. When a
failure would produce no risk to life and only minimal risk to property, the use of a smaller
factor of safety may be justified.
Design Methods for Safety
There are two methods used to incorporate safety into the design of structures:
Method 1 specifies the safety factors in two parts:
• Partial load factors (normally > 1) - applied to the design loads to obtain the factored
loads.
• Strength factors (normally < 1) - applied to the nominal strength or resistance of the
member or structure to produce a characteristic value for comparison with that
required to support the factored loads.
For steel, this approach is called LRFD, Load and Resistance Factor Design. For reinforced
concrete, it is called USD, Ultimate Strength Design.

Method 2 applies a single safety factor (F.S.) to the ultimate load (Pu) to obtain an allowable load
(Pa).
Pu
Pa =
F.S.
For steel, this approach is called ASD, the Allowable Stress Design. For concrete, it is called
WSM, the Working Stress Method.
Structural Safety Standards
For Civil Engineering structures factors of safety are usually specified by design specifications,
design standards or building codes which have been prepared by committees of engineers
experienced in a particular area of design and construction. Some examples of documents that
provide factors of safety for materials used in Saudi Aramco are as follows:
• Buildings: SAES-M-100 - The Saudi Aramco Building Code
• Steel: American Institute of Steel Construction, Specifications for the Design and
Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings
• Concrete: American Concrete Institute, Building Code Requirement for Reinforced

Concrete
• Timber: National Forest Products Association, National Design Specifications for

Stress-Grade Lumber and Its Fastenings
The safety factor for a structure should be a combination of economics and statistics. The factor
of safety is intended to limit the probability of failure below a certain reasonable level.

Example 12: Factor of Safety

Referring to Example 4, determine if member AB is structurally adequate. A minimum factor of
safety of 2.0 is required for tension. The yield stress of the material for AB is 5.5 ksi and the
ultimate tensile stress is 7.5 ksi. What is the factor of safety against tensile yielding and against
tensile rupture?
To determine whether or not the member is adequate, calculate the allowable stress
for the member and compare it with the stress due to the applied loads.
The stress due to the applied load is
P
σ=
A
where, from Example 4: P = 2.2 k tension
A = 1.8 x 0.5 = 0.9 in.2
2.2 k
∴σ = 2 = 2.44 ksi
0.9 in.
The allowable stress in tension σa is:
σy 5.5
σa = = = 2.752 ksi
F.S. 2.0
Since the stress due to the applied loads is less than the allowable stress, the
member is structurally adequate:
Pu σu
Factor of Safety = =
Pa σa
σy 5.5
F.S. for yielding = = = 2.25
σa 2.44
σ ult 7.5
F.S. for rupture = = = 3.07
σa 2.44

SUMMARY
This module reviewed the basics of structural loads and the resulting stresses. Specifically, you
have covered the following topics:
Basic Load Types:

• Axial Loading.
• Lateral Loading.
• Torsional Loading.
• Thermal Loading.
Basic Stresses:
• Normal Stress
P
σ= ( A = area normal to load)
A
• Shearing Stress
V
τ= ( A = area parallel to load )
A
• Bearing Stress
P
σb = b (A b = area of surface of contact)
Ab
The basic stresses produced by basic load types are:
• Axial Loading
P
Normal Stress σ =
A
• Lateral Loading
My
Normal Stress σ =
I
VQ
Shearing Stress τ =
It

• Torsional Loading
Shearing Stress
Tρ
τ= ( circular member )
J
T
τ= (rectangular member )
αbc2
• Thermal Loading (Ends Fixed)
- Uniform Change in Temperature

Normal Axial Stress σ = α(∆T)E
- Nonuniform change in temperature

 ∆T + ∆Tb 
Normal Axial Stress σ = α  t Ε
 2 
Ey
Normal Bending Stress σ =
ρ
Combining Stresses
Stresses of the same type at the same point on a member may be combined using the
principle of superposition.
• Principal stresses may be obtained:
1. Directly using the method of superposition when shear is not present

.
2. Through the use of Mohr's Circle when shear is present.
Maximum shear (τmax) always occurs 45° from the principal planes.
Structural Safety Concepts

• The ultimate load Pu is the load at which the material fails.
• The allowable load Pa is the load the member will be allowed to carry under
the normal design conditions.

• The factor of safety (F.S.) is the ratio of the ultimate load to the allowable load.
Pu
F. S. =
Pa
Now that you have studied this module, you can identify the various types of structural loadings
and stresses. You can combine basic stresses to produce the resultant principal stresses for
various type of loads. Finally, you can explain some of the structural safety concepts involved in
structural analysis an d design, including ultimate and allowable loads and how load and safety
factors are applied.
Basic Stress Formulas

The fundamental formulas for calculating basic stresses are as follows:
• Normal Stress:
P
σ=
- due to an axial force A
My
σ=
- due to bending of straight members I
- due to restrained uniform temperature change σ = α(∆T)E
• Shearing Stress:
V
τ =
- due to direct shear force AV
- due to torsion
Tρ
τ=
+ circular shaft J
T
τ max =
+ rectangular section αbc2
VQ
τ=
- due to shearing force in a beam It

Calculating Normal (Axial) Stress

Two solid circular structural members are welded together at B as shown in Figure 62.
Determine the normal stress at the midpoint of each rod.
Figure 62
Free body diagram:
π(1.5 in.)2
A AB = = 1.77 in.2
4
π(2.5 in.)2
A BC = = 4.91 in.2
4
Stresses:
Using applicable formulas from Work Aid 1,
P 12 k
σAB = AB = = 6.78 ksi (+) Tension
AAB 1.77 in. 2
P
σBC = BC = 38 k(-) = 7.74 ksi (-) Compression
ABC 4.91 in. 2

Calculating Normal Stress and Direct Shearing Stress

A force P of magnitude 50 k is applied to the system shown in Figure 63. Determine the normal
stress and shearing stress in the base.
Figure 64
Normal Stress: Shearing Stress:
A = area perpendicular to load P A V = area parallel to load P
πd 2 = πdt = 0.79 in.2

= = 0.79 in.2
4
P 50 k P 50 k
σ= = = 63.3 ksi τ= = = 63.3 ksi
A 0.79 in.2 A V 0.79 in.2
(compression)

Restrained Uniform Temperature Change
Determine the normal stress in member AB due to an increase in temperature ∆T.
Figure 65
1. Remove the fixed boundary from one of the ends, say B (Figure 66a).
2. Allow the member to elongate and determine δ T (Figure 66b).
3. Determine the axial load required to produce a deflection δP equal to that of

δ T (Figure 66c).
From Step 2: δT = α∆TL
PL
δP = δT =
From Step 3: AE (equation for axial deflection)

Figure 66 (A,B,C,)
Solving for P:
P = α∆TAE
P
σ= = α ( ∆T)E
A

(Pg 1 of 3)
Combined Bending and Axial Stresses

Determine the maximum and minimum stresses in the structural member shown below.
FIgure 67
The extreme stresses occur at points A and B and are calculated by the formula:
P Mc
σ= ±
A I
100,000 lb (30,000x12 lb − in.)(6 in.)

σ= ±
144 in.2 1728 in.4
= 694 ± 1250 psi

(Pg 2 of 3)
Elements: (at base) points A and B.
For A:
FIgure 68
For A: σA = -694 psi + 1250 psi
= 556 psi (+) (tension)
For B:
Figure 69
σA = -694 psi - 1250 psi
= 1944 psi (-) (compression)

(Pg 3 of 3)
STRESS DISTRIBUTION ACROSS SECTION
Figure 70

Normal Stresses Due to Eccentric Load

Two forces 5 in. apart, as shown in Figure 71 are applied to a rigid plate welded to a steel pipe of
8-in. outer diameter and 7-in. inner diameter. Determine the value of P for which the maximum
compressive stress in the pipe is 15 ksi.
Applicable Formulas:
šd2
A=
4
σ=P
A
σ = Mc
I
Figure 71
Determine:
πd o 2 πd i 2 π 2
A= − = (d o − d i 2 ) = 11.78 in.2
4 4 4
πd o4 πd i4 π
I= − = (d o4 − d i 4 ) = 83.2 in. 4
64 64 64
So:
P Mc
σ ALL = + where M = P(5 in.)
A I
12 k P P(5 in.)(4 in.)

15 ksi = 2 + 2 +
11.78 in. 11.78 in. 83.2 in.4
Solving for P:
P = 43 k

(Pg 1 of 3)
Combined Normal and Shear Stresses in a Laterally and Axially

Loaded Column
Determine the principal stress in the member shown in the figure below at points A and B based
on the normal and average shear stresses. Use Mohr’s Circle.
Figure 72
Calculate stress at A and B:
From Example 8, the normal stresses at A and B are:
At A: σ = 556 psi (tension), σy = 0

At B: σ = 1944 psi (compression), σy = 0
The average shear stress at section AB is:
V 5000 lb
τ avg = = = 34.7 psi
A 144 in.2

(Pg 2 of 3)
Develop element:
556 1944
For A For B
Figure 73
Construct Mohr’s Circle for A:
Figure 74
σx + σ y 556 + 0
Mean Stress = = = 278 psi
2 2

(Pg 3 of 3)
0.5
 σ  2 
Radius Stress =   x  + τ xy2 
 2  
1/ 2
  556  2 
=   + ( 34.7)2  = 280 psi
 2  
σ max = 278psi + 280psi = 558 psi

σ min = 278psi − 280psi = −2 psi
For B:
Mean Stress = 972 psi
Figure 75
1/2
Radius Stress = 9722 + 34.7 2 = 973 psi
σmax = -972 + 973 = 1.0 psi (+)

σmin = -972 - 973 = -1945 psi (-)

(Pg 1 of 5)
Combined Torsional and Normal Stresses in a Bent Bar

The diameter of rod ABC in Figure 76 is 1.25 in. Determine the principal stresses at points H and
H' located on top and side, respectively, of the rod.
Applicable Formulas:
2
πd
A=
4
P
σ=
A
P
τ=
Ay
VQ
τxy =
It
Figure 76
Develop element:
πd 2 π(1.25 in.)2
A= = = 1.23 in.2
4 4
4
πd π(1.25 in.) 4
I= = = 0.12 in.4
64 64
4
πd π(1.25 in.)4
J= = = 0.24 in.4
32 32

(Pg 2 of 5)
Calculate Load at H:
Figure 77
• Vertical Shear, V = 320 lb
• Bending Moment Mz = (320)(5) = 1600 lb-in.
• Torsion, T= Mx = (320)(9) = 2880 lb-in.
Stresses involved:
Normal Stress
M z C 1600 lb − in
Bending σ H = = ( 0.625 in.) = 8333 psi ( −)
I 0.12
σh' = 0

(Pg 3 of 5)
Shear stress at H:
Tρ ( 2880 lb − in.)( 0.625 in.)

Torsion τ = = = 7500 psi
J 0.24 in.4
Note that stress due to shear force is zero at H.
At point H:
-8.33

(Pg 4 of 5)
Construct Mohr’s Circle:
Figure 78
The center of Mohr’s Circle = (-4.165, 0)
1/2
The radius of Mohr's Circle = 4.165 2 + 7.5 2
= 8.58 ksi
Principal stresses at H:
σmax = 12.75 ksi (-)

σmin = 4.42 ksi (+)
τmax = 8.58 ksi
Principal Stresses at H'
Normal Stresses at H'
σx = 0
σy = 0

(Pg 5 of 5)
Shear Stress at H'
Torsion τxy = 7500 psi (−)
VQ
Bending τ xy =
It
(320 lb)(0.615 in.)(0.265 in.)

= = 348 psi (+ )
(0.12 in.4 )(1.25 in.)
Total τxy = −7500 + 348 = 7152 psi ( −)
Figure 79
τmax = 7.15 ksi

σmax = 7.15 ksi (+)
σmin = 7.15 ksi (-)

GLOSSARY
Allowable Load The load smaller than the ultimate load that a structural member will
be allowed to carry under normal design conditions.
Axial Loads Loads that are directed along a member’s longitudinal axis.
ASD Allowable Stress Design. Applies a single safety factor to the ultimate
load to obtain allowable load for steel.
Bearing Stress Stress between structural members that bear or rest on each other such
as in connections by bolts, pins, or rivets.
Factor Of Safety The ratio of ultimate load to allowable load.
Lateral Loads Loads that are perpendicular to a member’s longitudinal axis. Also
known as transverse loads.
Load Weights or other external effects to which a structure is subjected in

performing its function.
LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design. Safety approach that incorporates
partial load factors and strength factors for structural steel.
Mohr’s Circle A graphical method that determines maximum and minimum stresses.
Normal Stress Stress produced when a structural member is loaded axially or in

bending. Also known as direct stress.
SAES-M-100 The Saudi Aramco Building Code.
Shearing Stress Stress resulting from direct lateral loading, torsional loading, and
accompanying bending due to transverse loading.
Thermal Loads Loads subjected to temperature change causing material to increase or

decrease in size.
Thermal Stress Stress due to thermal expansion or contraction.
Ultimate Load Load at which the material fails by rupture.
USD Ultimate Strength Design. Safety approach that incorporates partial

load factors and strength factors design method for safety for
reinforced concrete.
WSM Working Stress Method. Design approach that applies a single safety
factor to the ultimate load to obtain allowable load for concrete.

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