Modal Papramters

Estimation of modal parameters
LMS Test.Lab
16A
Copyright Siemens Industry Software NV

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Estimation of modal parameters .................................................................. 5

Section 1.1 A note about units ................................................................................ 7
Chapter 2 Types of analysis .......................................................................................... 9

Section 2.1 Single or multiple degree of freedom method ...................................... 9
Section 2.2 Single degree of freedom methods..................................................... 11
Section 2.3 Multiple degree of freedom methods ................................................. 11
Section 2.4 Local or global estimates ................................................................... 11
Section 2.5 Multiple input analysis....................................................................... 12
Section 2.6 Time vs frequency domain implementation ....................................... 14
Section 2.7 Vibro-acoustic modal analysis ........................................................... 16
Chapter 3 Parameter estimation methods .................................................................. 19

Section 3.1 Selection of a method ........................................................................ 20
Section 3.2 SDOF ................................................................................................. 20
Section 3.3 Complex MIF..................................................................................... 21
Section 3.4 Time domain MDOF ......................................................................... 21
Section 3.5 Frequency domain MDOF ................................................................. 21
Section 3.6 Peak picking....................................................................................... 21
Section 3.7 Mode picking ..................................................................................... 23
Section 3.8 Circle fitting ....................................................................................... 23
Section 3.9 Complex mode indicator function...................................................... 25
Section 3.10 Cross checking and tracking .............................................................. 29
Section 3.11 Least squares complex exponential.................................................... 32
Section 3.11.1 Model for continuous data ................................................................. 32
Section 3.11.2 Model for sampled data ..................................................................... 33
Section 3.11.3 Practical implementation of the method ............................................ 34
Section 3.11.4 Determining the optimum number of modes ..................................... 35
Section 3.11.5 Example ............................................................................................. 37
Section 3.12 Multiple input least squares complex exponential ............................. 38
Section 3.12.1 Model for sampled data ..................................................................... 39
Section 3.12.2 Practical implementation of the method ............................................ 40
Section 3.12.3 Example ............................................................................................. 43
Section 3.13 Least squares frequency domain ........................................................ 43
Section 3.14 Multiple input least squares frequency domain ................................. 44
Section 3.15 Frequency domain direct parameter identification............................. 45
Section 3.16 Data reduction .................................................................................... 46
Section 3.17 Residual correction terms .................................................................. 46
Section 3.18 Determining the optimum number of modes ..................................... 47
Section 3.19 Pseudo-DOFs for small measurement sets ......................................... 47
Section 3.20 Mode shape estimation ...................................................................... 48
Section 3.21 Normal modes .................................................................................... 48
Chapter 4 Maximum likelihood method ...................................................................... 49

Section 4.1 Theoretical aspects ............................................................................. 49
Section 4.1.1 The Least-Squares Solver .................................................................. 50
Section 4.1.2 The Maximum-Likelihood Solver ..................................................... 51
Section 4.1.3 The ML equations .............................................................................. 51
Section 4.1.4 Deriving confidence interval .............................................................. 52
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Chapter 5 Calculation of static compensation modes............................................... 53
Section 5.1 Frequency of the static compensation modes ..................................... 53
Section 5.2 The Singular Value decomposition (SVD) ........................................ 54
4 LMS Test.Lab Estimation of modal parameters

Chapter 1 Estimation of modal parameters
In This Chapter
A note about units...............................................................7
A modal analysis provides a set of modal parameters that characterize the
dynamic behavior of a structure. These modal parameters form the modal
model and Figure 2-1 illustrates the process of arriving at the modal parameters.
Figure 2-1 Derivation of modal parameters
If a structure exists on which measurements can be made, then it can be

assumed that a parametric model can be defined that describes that data. The
starting point is usually a set of measured data - most commonly frequency
response functions (FRFs), or the time domain equivalent, impulse responses
(IRs). For IRs the relation between modal parameters and the measurements is
expressed in Equation 2-1.
The corresponding relation for FRFs is given in Equation 2-2.
where:
hij (t) = IR between the response (or output) degree of freedom i and the
reference (or input) DOF j
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hij (jω) = FRF between the response DOF i and reference DOF j
N = number of modes of vibration that contribute to the structure's

dynamic response within the frequency range under consideration
r ijk = residue value for mode k
λk = pole value for mode k.
* designates complex conjugate.
The pole value can be expressed as shown in Equations 2-3 and 2-4.
where:
ωdk = the damped natural frequency of mode k
δk = the damping factor of mode k
or
where:
ωnk = the undamped natural frequency of mode k
ζk = damping ratio of mode
Equation 2-5 shows that the residue can be proven to be the product of three
terms
where:
vik = the mode shape coefficient at response DOF i of mode k vjk = the
mode shape coefficient at reference DOF j of mode k
ak = a complex scaling constant, whose value is determined by the scaling

of the mode shapes
Note: Note that the mode shape coefficients can be either real (normal mode
shapes) or complex.

If the mode shapes are real, the scaling constant can be expressed as,
where:
mk = the modal mass of mode k
The poles, natural frequencies (damped and undamped), damping factors or

ratios, mode shapes, and residues are commonly referred to as modal
parameters (parameters of the modes of the structure).
The fundamental problem of parameter estimation consists of adjusting

(estimating) the parameters in the model, so that the data predicted by the model
approximate (or curve-fit) the measured data as closely as possible. Modal
parameters can be estimated using a number of techniques. These techniques are
discussed in the following sections.
Section 1.1 A note about units
The frequency and damping values have a dimension of 1/time, and are
therefore stored in Hz. The residues, as appearing in Equation 2-1 of 2-2, have
the same dimension as the measurement data. As an aside, it is important to note
that residues have a dimension. Residues are composed of a product of mode
shape coefficients and a scaling constant, (Equation 2-5). The mode shape
coefficients by themselves do not have any dimension, nor absolute (or scaled)
magnitude. Dimension, and therefore units will be viewed as attributes of the
scaling constant.
Finally, for multiple input analysis, the residues are written in factored form as
the product of mode shapes with modal participation factors. Again, the
product of the factors has a dimension and absolute magnitude. Formally, the
mode shape coefficients will again be considered as without dimension and
therefore units will be viewed as attributes of the residues.
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Chapter 2 Types of analysis
In This Chapter
Single or multiple degree of freedom method ....................9
Single degree of freedom methods .....................................11
Multiple degree of freedom methods .................................11
Local or global estimates ....................................................11
Multiple input analysis .......................................................12
Time vs frequency domain implementation .......................14
Vibro-acoustic modal analysis ...........................................16
The section discusses some general principles to be considered when
performing a modal analysis. These topics include -
 Using single or multiple degree of freedom methods in section 15.2.1
 Making local or global estimates in section 15.2.2
 Using multiple input analysis in section 15.2.3
 Using time or frequency domain analysis in section 15.2.4
 Special conditions which apply when performing vibro-acoustic analysis in
section 15.2.5
The specific parameters estimation techniques are described in section 15.3
Section 2.1 Single or multiple degree of freedom method
If, in a given frequency band, only one mode is assumed to be important, then
the parameters of this mode can be determined separately. This assumption is
sometimes called the single degree of freedom (sDOF) assumption.
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Figure 2-2 The single degree of freedom assumption
Under this assumption, the FRF equation 2-2 can be simplified to equation 2-7.
This is assuming the data to have the dimension of displacement over force.
It is possible to compensate for the modes in the neighborhood of this band, by

introducing so called upper and lower residual terms into the equation.
where:
urij = upper residual term (residual stiffness) used to approximate modes at

frequencies above wmax.
lrij = lower residual term (residual mass) used to approximate modes at

frequencies below wmin
Upper and lower residuals are illustrated in Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3 Upper and lower residuals
Equation 2-7 can be further simplified by neglecting the complex conjugate

term, and so becomes

Section 2.2 Single degree of freedom methods
The single DOF assumption forms the basis for parameter estimation techniques
such as Peak picking, Mode picking and Circle fitting.
Section 2.3 Multiple degree of freedom methods
The sDOF assumption is valid only if the modes of the system are well
decoupled. In general this may not be the case. It then becomes necessary to
approximate the data with a model that includes terms for several modes. The
parameters of several modes are then estimated simultaneously with so- called
multiple degree of freedom methods.
Section 2.4 Local or global estimates
If you recall the time domain relationship between modal parameters and
measurement functions,
you will see that the pole values lk are independent of both the response and the
reference DOFs. In other words the pole value lk is a characteristic of the
system and should be found in any function that is measured on the structure.
When applying parameter estimation techniques, one of two strategies can be
employed; making local or global estimates.
Local estimates
Each data record hij is analyzed individually, and a potentially different

estimate of the pole value lk is found each time.
Analyzing data in this manner produces as many estimates of each pole as there
are data records. It is then left to the user to decide which estimate is the best
or to somehow calculate the best average of all the estimates. Peak picking and
Circle fitting are techniques that calculate local estimates of pole values.
Global estimates
All the data records are analyzed simultaneously in order to estimate the
structure's characteristics. With this approach, a unique estimate of the pole
values lk is obtained. Such estimates are therefore called global estimates.
The Least Squares Complex Exponential, Complex Mode Indicator Function

and Direct Parameter Identification methods allow you to obtain global
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estimates of structure characteristics.
Section 2.5 Multiple input analysis
Assume that data is available between Ni input DOFs and No output DOFs. The
expression for each of the individual data records ( equation 2-10) can then be
rewritten in matrix form for all the data records.
where:
[H] = (No,Ni) matrix with hij as elements
[Rk] = (No,Ni) matrix with rijk as elements
Equation 2-5 can be used to express the residue matrix in factored form,
where:
{V}k = No vector (column) with mode shape coefficients at the output DOFs
[Vr]k = Ni vector (row) with mode shape coefficients at the input DOFs
If DOFs i and j are both output and input DOFs then the above equation implies
Maxwell Betti reciprocity,
This assumption is not essential however since the residue matrix can be
expressed in a more general form,
where bLck is a vector (row) with Ni coefficients that express the participation
of the mode k in response data relative to different input DOFs.

These coefficients are called modal participation factors therefore. Note that if
reciprocity is assumed then the modal participation factors are proportional to
the mode shape coefficient at the input DOFs. Using the factored form of the
residue matrix, equation 2-11 can be written as,
If just the data between any output DOF and all input DOFs are considered then
where:
[H] i = Ni vector of data between output DOF i and all input DOFs.
It is essential in the model of equation 2-16 that both the poles and the modal
participation factors are independent of the output DOF. In other words in this
formulation the characteristics become -
A multiple input modal parameter estimation technique is one that analyses data
relative to several inputs simultaneously to estimate the characteristics
expressed by equation 2-17 (i.e. both the pole values and the modal
participation factors). The basis for these techniques is a model expressed by
equation 2-16.
The identification of modal participation factors is essential for decoupling

highly coupled or even repeated roots. To illustrate this consider a structure that
has two modes with pole values l1 and l2 very close to each other. Neglecting
the other modes and the complex conjugate terms, the response data relative to
the input DOF j can be expressed as
or since
The latter equation shows that in the response data relative to an input DOF j, a
combination of the coupled modes is observed and not the individual modes.
The combination coefficients for the modes are the modal participation factors
l1j and l2j.
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The response data relative to another input DOF l, is expressed by an equation

similar to equation 2-19.
The only difference between these last two equations is the modal participation
factors l1l and l2l. If they are linearly independent of the modal participation
factors for input i, then the modes will appear in a different combination in the
response data relative to input l. As a multiple input parameter estimation
technique analyses data relative to several inputs simultaneously, and the modal
participation factors are identified, then it is possible to detect highly coupled or
repeated modes.
Section 2.6 Time vs frequency domain implementation
Using digital signal processing methods, only samples of a continuous function

are available. For modal parameter estimation the sampled data consist most
frequently of FRF measurements. Normally these are taken at equally spaced
frequency lines. Testing techniques such as stepped sine excitation allow you to
measure data at unequally spaced frequency lines.
For modal parameter estimation applications with the data measured in the
frequency domain, introducing the sampled nature of the data transforms the
equation for the model to
where:
hij,n= samples of data in measured range.
wn = sampled value of frequency in measured range.
A frequency domain parameter estimation method uses data directly in the

frequency domain to estimate modal parameters. It is therefore irrelevant
whether the frequency lines are equally spaced or not. They are based directly
on the model expressed by equation 2-21.
If the data are sampled at equally spaced frequency lines, then the FRF can be
transformed back to the time domain to obtain a corresponding Impulse
Response (IR). A Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm is used for this
transformation but the restriction on the number of frequency lines being equal
to a power of 2 (e.g. 32, 64, 128...) is no longer valid. After transformation, a
series of equally spaced samples of corresponding impulse response functions is
obtained. A time domain parameter estimation technique allows you to analyze
such equally spaced time samples to estimate modal parameters.

In practice, a variety of conditions mean that the frequency band over which
data is analyzed is smaller than the full measurement band. This is illustrated
in Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4 Analysis frequency band vs. measurement band
The analysis frequency band includes only three modes whereas the
measurement band includes five. If the data is transformed from frequency to
time domain, then the time increment between samples will be determined by
the analysis frequency band and not the measurement band. If the frequency
band of analysis is bounded by wmax and wmin then t is determined from
By substituting sampled time for continuous time
or
where:
Time domain parameter estimation methods are based on the model defined by
equation 2-24. They analyze hij,n to estimate zk. lk is then calculated from
equation 2-25. Note however that this calculation is not unique since
This implies that no poles outside the frequency band 2p /Dt can be identified.
In other words, with a time domain parameter estimation method, all estimated
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poles are to be found in the frequency band of analysis (w min, w max). This
may cause problems in estimating modal parameters if the data in the frequency
band of analysis is strongly influenced by modes outside this band (residual
effects). Since with frequency domain methods lk is estimated directly, no such
limitation arises. A frequency domain technique may therefore sometimes be
preferred over a time domain technique for analyzing data over a narrow
frequency band, where residual effects are important.
Section 2.7 Vibro-acoustic modal analysis
Coupling between the structural dynamic behavior of a system and its interior
acoustical characteristics can have an important impact in many applications.
Based on combined vibrational and acoustical measurements with respect to
acoustical or structural excitation, a mixed vibro- acoustical analysis can be
performed.
The finite element equation of motion is used to derive the equations

describing the vibro-acoustical behavior:
with
MS, CS, KS the structural mass, damping and stiffness matrices
{f} the externally applied forces
{lp} the acoustical pressure loading vectors
In the fluidum the indirect acoustical formulation states:
with
Mf, Cf, Kf matrices describing the pressure-volume acceleration
ω2{lf} the acoustical pressure loading vectors
Combining these equations with
and rewriting the formulations results in the description of the vibro-acoustical

coupled system:
This represents a second order model formulation of the vibro-acoustical

behavior which is clearly non- symmetrical.
The above equation also reflects the vibro-acoustical reciprocity principle which
can be expressed as:
Most of the multiple input - multiple output modal parameter algorithms do not
require symmetry. So the non-symmetry of the basic set of equations and hence
the modal description does not pose a problem in obtaining valid modal
frequencies, damping factors and mode shapes.
Structural excitation can be substituted for acoustical excitation. The modal

models derived from both are compatible but differ in a scaling factor per mode
due to the special non-symmetry of the set of equations.
To go from the structural formulation to the acoustical formulation a scaling

factor which is the squared eigenvalue of the corresponding mode is required.
This is fully explained in the paper 'Vibro-acoustical Modal Analysis :

Reciprocity, Model Symmetry and Model Validity' by K. Wyckaert and F.
Augusztinovicz.
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Chapter 3 Parameter estimation methods
In This Chapter
Selection of a method .........................................................20
SDOF ..................................................................................20
Complex MIF .....................................................................21
Time domain MDOF ..........................................................21
Frequency domain MDOF..................................................21
Peak picking .......................................................................21
Mode picking......................................................................23
Circle fitting .......................................................................23
Complex mode indicator function ......................................25
Cross checking and tracking...............................................29
Least squares complex exponential ....................................32
Multiple input least squares complex exponential .............38
Least squares frequency domain ........................................43
Multiple input least squares frequency domain ..................44
Frequency domain direct parameter identification .............45
Data reduction ....................................................................46
Residual correction terms ...................................................46
Determining the optimum number of modes......................47
Pseudo-DOFs for small measurement sets .........................47
Mode shape estimation .......................................................48
Normal modes ....................................................................48
A summary of different methods and their applications is given in Table 2.1.
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Method Application DOF Domain Estimates Inputs

Peak picking frequency, single freq local single
damping
Mode picking mode shapes single freq local single
Circle fitting frequency single freq local single
damping mode
shapes
Complex Mode frequency multi freq global single or
Indicator damping mode multiple
shapes
Function
Least Squares frequency multi time global single or
Complex damping multiple
Exponential modal
participation
factors
Least Squares mode shapes multi freq global single or
multiple
Frequency Domain
Frequency domain frequency multi freq global single or
Direct damping multiple
Parameter modal
identification participation
factors
Table 2.1 Parameter estimation methods and application
Section 3.1 Selection of a method
A guide on which parameter estimation techniques method to adopt is outlined

below. Details on all the methods are given in the following sections.
Section 3.2 SDOF
Single degree of freedom curve fitters are rough and ready and will give you a
quick impression of the most dominant modes (frequency damping and mode
shapes) influencing a structure under test. As such they are useful in checking
the measurement setup and can help assess:
 whether all the transducers are working and correctly calibrated;
 whether the accelerometers are correctly labelled with their node and

direction;
 whether all the nodes are instrumented.
For this purpose it is recommended to identify real modes since these are the
easiest to interpret when displayed. The circle fitter gives the most accurate
estimates of the SDOF techniques, but may create large errors on nodal points
of the mode shapes.
Section 3.3 Complex MIF
This method can be used in the same way as the SDOF techniques to give you
an idea of the most dominant modes and check the test setup. It has the
advantage that multiple input FRFs can be used and the mode shape estimates
are of a higher quality. Furthermore, it can extract a modal model that includes
the most dominant modes in a particular frequency band.
Section 3.4 Time domain MDOF
This is the most general purpose parameter estimation technique that is

probably the standard tool used in modal analysis. It provides a complete and
accurate modal model from MIMO FRFs. Its major weakness seems to be when
analyzing heavily damped systems where the damping is greater than 5% such
as in the case of a fully equipped car.
Section 3.5 Frequency domain MDOF
The Frequency Domain Direct Parameter technique provides similar results to

the Time domain technique described above, in terms of accuracy but is
generally slower. It is weak when dealing with lightly damped systems
(damping less than 0.3%) but fortunately performs better on heavily damped
ones, thus complementing the other MDOF technique. Since it operates in the
frequency domain it is able to analyze FRFs with an unequally spaced
frequency axis.
Section 3.6 Peak picking
Peak picking is a single DOF method to make local estimates of frequency and
damping. The method is based on the observation that the system response goes
through an extremum in the neighborhood of the natural frequencies.
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For example, on a frequency response function (FRF) the real part will be zero
around the natural frequency (minimum coincident part), the imaginary part will
be maximal (peak quadrature) and the amplitude will also be maximal (peak
amplitude). The frequency value where this extremum is observed is called the
resonant frequency wr and is a good estimate of the natural frequency of the
mode wnk for lightly damped systems.
A corresponding estimate of the damping can be found with the 3dB rule. The
frequency values w1 and w2,on both sides of the peak of the FRF at which the
amplitude is half the peak amplitude (3dB down) are introduced in the formula
in equation 3.1 to yield the critical damping ratio. The method is also
illustrated in Figure 2-5 below. w1 and w2 are also called half power points.
Figure 2-5 Half power (3 dB) method for damping estimates
Since the curve fitter locates the resonance frequency on a spectral line,
significant errors can be introduced if the FRF has a low frequency resolution
and the peaks of modes fall between two spectral lines. This can be
compensated for by extrapolating the slopes on either side of the picked line to
determine the amplitude of the FRF more precisely. It may be necessary to deal
with the situation when one of the half power points is not found. This may
arise when the frequency of one mode is close to that of another mode, or it is
near to the ends of the measured frequency range.
Note: Peak picking is a single DOF method: it is therefore only suitable for
data with well separated modes.
As this method yields local estimates, it requires only one data record to obtain
frequency and damping values for all modes. However, if several data records
are available, it may be that different records identify different modes.

Section 3.7 Mode picking
If you assume that the modes are uncoupled and lightly damped, the modal
amplitude can be computed from the peak quadrature or peak amplitude of the
FRF. With this assumption, the data in the neighborhood of the resonant
frequency can be approximated by
(see also equation 2-7)
The amplitude is maximum at the resonant frequency. However for lightly

damped modes, the resonant frequency, natural frequency and damped natural
frequency are all approximately the same. Therefore, the amplitude at resonance
or the modal amplitude is found at wn which is equal to wdk.
By substituting ωdk for ωn in equation 2-34 the modal amplitude is given by
Note: Note that from the modal amplitude a residue or mode shape estimate is
obtained by multiplying by the modal damping.
To use the Mode picking method you must have an estimate of ωdk. This
estimate can be obtained with the Peak picking method (see section 15.3.1) or
other techniques.
The Mode Picking method is obviously quite sensitive to frequency shifts in the
data. If for example the resonant frequency of a mode in a data record is shifted
a few spectral lines with respect to the frequency that is used as resonant
frequency for that mode, then the modal amplitude would be erroneously
picked. To accommodate situations where frequency shifts occur, you need to
specify an allowed frequency shift around the resonant frequencies ωdk that are
used to calculate the modal amplitudes. Rather than picking the modal
amplitude at the resonant frequencies the method now scans a band around each
modal frequency for each data record. The maximum amplitude in this band is
used to determine the modal amplitude and thus the mode shape coefficient.
Mode picking allows you to make a very quick determination of a modal model.
The accuracy of this model however depends on how well the assumptions of
the methods were applicable to the data.
Section 3.8 Circle fitting
The Circle fitting method is based on estimating a circle in the complex plane
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through data points in a band around a selected mode. The method was
originally developed by Kennedy and Pancu for lightly damped systems under
the single DOF assumption. In the band around a mode, the data can be
approximately described by
Making an abstraction of the indices i, j and k, introducing complex notation for

the residue, and approximating the complex conjugate term by a complex
constant, equation 2-36 transforms to
It can be demonstrated that the modal parameters in this expression can be

derived from the coefficients of a circle that is fitted to the data in the complex
plane, as shown in Figure 2-6.
Figure 2-6 Relation between circle fitting parameters and modal

parameters
The natural frequency wd is determined by the maximum angular spacing

method where the natural frequency is assumed to occur at the point of
maximum rate of change of angle between data points in the complex plane.
Having determined the natural frequency and assuming a lightly damped

system, the damping is given by equation 2-38.

The complex residue U + jV is determined from the diameter of the circle d,

and the phase g as illustrated in Figure 2-6.
Circle fitting is a basic sDOF parameter estimation method. It can be used to

obtain frequency, damping and mode shape estimates. The method is fast, but
should really be used interactively to obtain the best possible results.
Section 3.9 Complex mode indicator function
The Complex Mode Indicator Function method allows you to identify a modal
model for a mechanical system where multiple reference FRFs were measured.
The method provides a quick and easy way of determining the number of modes
in a system and of detecting the presence of repeated roots. This information
can then be used as a basis for more sophisticated multiple input techniques
such as LSCE or FDPI. However in cases where modes are well excited and
obvious it can yield sufficiently accurate estimates of modal parameters.
The FRF matrix of a system with No (output) and Ni (input) degrees of freedom
can be expressed as follows
Or in matrix form as
where:
[ H (w) ]=the FRF matrix of size Ni by No
[ F ] = the mode shape matrix of size No by 2N Q r = the scaling factor for

the rth mode
l r = the system pole value for the rth mode
[L]T= the transposed modal participation factor matrix of size Ni by 2N
Taking the singular value decomposition of the FRF matrix at each spectral line
results in
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where:
[ U ]= the left singular matrix corresponding to the matrix of mode shape

vectors
[ S ]= the diagonal singular value matrix
[ V ]= the right singular matrix corresponding to the matrix of modal

participation vectors
In comparing equations 2-42 and 2-43, the mode shape and modal participation
vectors in equation 2-
42 are, through the singular value decomposition, scaled to be unitary vectors

and the mass matrix in equation 2-43 is assumed to be an identity matrix, so that
the orthogonality of modal vectors is still satisfied.
For any one mode, the natural frequency is the one where the maximum
singular value occurs.
The Complex Mode Indicator Function is defined as the eigenvalues solved

from the normal matrix, which is formed from the FRF matrix ( [ H ] H [ H ]) at
each spectral line.
where
mk(w)= the kth eigenvalue of the normal FRF matrix at frequency w sk(w)=the
kth singular value of the FRF matrix at frequency w
Ni= the number of inputs
In practice the [ H ]H [ H ] matrix is calculated at each spectral line and the

eigenvalues are obtained. The CMIF is a plot of these values on a log scale as a
function of frequency. The same number of CMIFs as there are references can
be obtained. Distinct peaks indicate modes and their corresponding frequency,
the damped natural frequency of the mode. This is illustrated in Figure 2-7.

Peaks in the CMIF function can be searched for automatically whilst taking into
account criteria that are used to eliminate spurious peaks due to noise or
measurement errors.
Figure 2-7 Example of a CMIF showing selected frequencies
When the frequencies have been selected, equations 2-43 and 2-44 can be used
to yield the complex conjugate of the modal participation factors [ V ], and the
as yet unscaled mode shape vectors [ U ]. The unscaled mode shape vectors and
the modal participation factors are used to generate an enhanced FRF for each
mode (r), defined by
Since the mode shape vectors and modal participation factors are normalized
to unitary vectors by the singular value decomposition, the enhanced FRF is
actually the decoupled single mode response function
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A single degree of freedom method (such as the circle fitter technique) can now
be applied to improve the accuracy of the natural frequency estimate and then to
extract damping values and the scaling factor for the mode shape.
Figure 2-8 Example of a CMIF and the corresponding enhanced FRF
One CMIF can be calculated for each reference DOF. They can be sorted in
terms of the magnitude of the eigenvalues. They can all be plotted as a function
of frequency as shown in the example in Figure 2-9.

Figure 2-9 Example of first and second order CMIFs
Section 3.10 Cross checking and tracking
At any one frequency these functions will indicate how many significant
independent phenomena are taking place as well as their relative importance.
At a resonance, at least one CMIF will peak implying that at least one mode is
active. At a different frequency however it may be that a different mode has
increased its influence and is the major contributor to the response. Between
resonances, a cross over point can occur where the contribution of two modes
are equal. This can result in a higher order CMIF exhibiting peaks if they are
sorted as shown in Figure 2-9 and in the effect of one CMIF exhibiting a dip at
the same time as a lower order function is exhibiting a peak.
A check on peaks in the second order CMIF functions can be made to determine
whether or not they are due to the cross over effect or a genuine pole of second
order. This is done by calculating the MAC matrix using data on either side of
the frequency of interest.
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Where a and b represent the frequencies and 1 and 2 the CMIF functions. CMIF
1 contains the larger values and CMIF 2 the smaller ones

Peak picking can be facilitated by using tracked CMIFs. This alters the display
of the CMIFs for when the mode shapes represented by the two CMIFs are
switched, the CMIFs are also switched. This is determined by the cross over
check described above.
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An example of the tracked versions of the CMIFs illustrated in Figure 2-9 is

shown below.
Figure 2-10 Example of first and second order tracked CMIFs
Section 3.11 Least squares complex exponential
The Least Squares Complex Exponential method allows you to estimate values
of modal frequency and damping for several modes simultaneously. Since all
the data is analyzed simultaneously, global estimates are obtained.
To understand how the method works, recall the expression for an impulse
response (IR) given below
It can be seen from this expression that the pole values l k are not a function of a
particular response (output) or reference (input) DOF. In other words the pole
values are global (rather than local) characteristics of the structure. They are the
same for any measured FRF on the structure. It should therefore be possible to
use all the available data measured on the system to identify global estimates
simultaneously.
This method can be used with single and multiple inputs.
Section 3.11.1 Model for continuous data
A particular problem when trying to work with equation 2-48 to achieve the
above objective is that it contains residues rijk which do depend on the response

and reference DOFs. It is therefore essential to define another parametric model

for the data hij, in which the coefficients are independent of response and
reference DOFs and can be used to identify estimates for l k.. It can be proved
that such a model takes the form of a linear differential equation of order 2N
with constant real coefficients
Indeed, equation 2-48 expresses the data as a linear superposition of a set of 2N

damped complex exponentials occurring in complex conjugate pairs. Such
complex exponentials can be viewed as the characteristic solutions of a linear
differential equation with constant real coefficients
The impulse response, being a linear superposition of characteristic solutions, is

by itself also a characteristic solution. Therefore equation 2-49 is valid if the
coefficients are such that
Turning the reasoning around therefore, one could first try to estimate the
coefficients in equation 2-49 using all available data. Estimates of the complex
exponential coefficients lk can then be found by solving equation 2-51.
Section 3.11.2 Model for sampled data
Measured data is however sampled, not continuous. So rather than working

from equation 2-48 it is necessary to work with
Instead of damped complex exponentials, the characteristics are now power

series with base numbers zk.
Following a similar reasoning to that explained above for continuous data it can
be proved that the sampled data is the solution of a linear finite difference
equation with constant real coefficients of order 2N (instead of a differential
equation as for continuous data).
16A 33
The characteristics zk and therefore the poles lk can be found by solving,
Section 3.11.3 Practical implementation of the method
The Least Squares Complex Exponential is a method that estimates the

coefficients in equation 2-53 using data measured on the system.
In principle any data record hij,n can be used. Applying the method to just a
single data record at a time will result in local estimates of the poles.
To estimate the coefficients in equation 2-53 in a least squares sense the

equations for all possible time points and all possible response and reference
DOFs are to be solved simultaneously as indicated in equation 2-55. This
equation system will be greatly overdetermined. To find the least squares
solution the normal equations technique can be applied so that the final solution
is calculated from a compact equation with a square coefficient matrix, equation
2-56. The coefficient matrix in this equation is called a covariance matrix.
where:
Nt = last available time sample
N0 = number of response DOFs
Ni = number of input DOFs
We can write this in a simpler manner
The coefficients in the covariance matrix are defined as

Building this covariance matrix is the first stage in applying the Least Squares
Complex Exponential method. This phase is usually the most time consuming
since all the available data is used to build the inner products expressed by
equation 2-57.
Note: Note that after solving equation 2-56 all that is required to calculate the
estimates of modal frequency and damping is to substitute the estimated
coefficients in equation 2-54 and to solve for zk.
Section 3.11.4 Determining the optimum number of modes
The solution of equation 2-56 results in least squares estimates of the

coefficients in the model expressed by equation 2-53. It is also possible
therefore to calculate the corresponding least squares error. This error is of
importance in determining the minimum number of modes in the data.
In the preceding discussion it has been assumed that N modes are present in the
data. However, the number of modes contained in the data is in fact
unknown. It is preferable that this should be determined by the method itself.
Using the Least Squares Complex Exponential method, this can be achieved by
observing the evolution of the least squares error on the solutions of equation
2-56 as a function of the number of assumed modes.
To do this, an equation like equation 2-56 is initially created, assuming a

number of modes N that is sufficiently large. A subset of such an equation is
then taken to solve for the coefficients of a model that describes just one mode
The corresponding least squares error is represented by e1.
When 2 modes are assumed in the data then the sub set to be solved is
With corresponding least squares error e2, and so on. Now if a model is
assumed with a number of modes equal to the number of modes that is present
in the data then the corresponding least squares error should be significantly
smaller than the error for models with fewer modes.
A diagram that plots the least squares error for increasing number of modes is
called the least squares error chart. Figure 2-11 shows a typical diagram if data
is analyzed for a system with 4 modes (and 4 modes are observable from the
16A 35
data!).
Noise on the data may cause the error diagram to show a significant drop at a
certain number of modes, followed by a continued decrease of the error as the
number of modes is increased. The problem now is to determine how many
extra modes, or so called computational modes, are to be considered to
compensate for the noise on the data so that the best estimates of modal
frequency and damping can be obtained. This problem is also illustrated in
Figure 2-11.
Figure 2-11 Least squares error diagram, system with 4 modes
To determine the optimal number of modes you could try to compare frequency
and damping estimates that are calculated from models with various number of
modes. Physical intuition would lead you to expect that estimates of frequency
and damping corresponding to true structural modes, should recur (in
approximately the same place) as the number of modes is increased.
Computational modes will not reappear with identical frequency and damping.
A diagram that shows the evolution of frequency and damping as the number of
modes is increased is called a Stabilization diagram. The optimal number of
modes that can be calculated for use can then be seen, as those modes for which
the frequency and damping values of the physical modes do not change
significantly. In other words, those which have stabilized.

Figure 2-12 A stabilization diagram
Section 3.11.5 Example
Let two data records be measured on a system, both shown in Figure 2-13.
Figure 2-13 Example least squares complex exponential
Let four data samples be measured of which the values are listed in the Table
below.
Consider a model for 1 mode (N=1). Equations 2-55 and 2-56 become
respectively
16A 37
The solution is therefore a1=0, a2=1. Now equation 2-54 is used to calculate zk
and so lk,
The frequency and damping values follow from
The solution indicates a mode with a period 4Dt and zero damping. This is
compatible with the trend of the cursor as shown in Figure 2-13.
Section 3.12 Multiple input least squares complex

exponential
The Least Squares Complex Exponential method, described above, uses all data
measured on a structure to estimate global estimates of modal frequency and
damping. In principle, data relative to several reference DOFs can be used.
However the model used by the previous method does not take specific
advantage of this.
The multiple input Least Squares Complex Exponential, (or polyreference), is

an extension of the Least Squares Complex Exponential that does allow
consistent simultaneous analysis of data relative to several reference DOFs. The
method computes global estimates of frequency and damping and also of modal
participation factors. Modal participation factors are terms which express the
participation of modes in the system response as a function of the reference (or
input) DOF (see section 15.2.3). The simultaneous estimation of frequency,
damping and modal participation factors means that highly coupled, even
repeated modes can be identified.
The basis for the Multiple Input Least Squares Complex Exponential method is
the model of the data introduced in section 15.2.3 equation 2-16.
where:
[H]i = Ni vector (row) of IRs between output DOF i and all input DOFs
[L]k = vector of modal participation factor for mode k. If Ni reference DOFs

are assumed then bLck is of dimension Ni

vik = is the mode shape coefficient at response DOF i for mode k
Note: Note that in this model, frequency, damping and modal participation
factors are independent of the particular response DOF. It should therefore
be possible to estimate these coefficients using all the available data
simultaneously.
Section 3.12.1 Model for sampled data
The model expressed by equation 2-58 is not directly suitable for global
estimation of frequency, damping and modal participation factors as it still
contains the mode shape coefficients that are dependant on the response DOF.
Therefore a more suitable model must be derived.
Introducing firstly the sampled nature of the data, equation 2-58 is rewritten as,
It can be proved that if the data can be described by equation 2-59, it can also be
described by the following model
if the following conditions are fulfilled
(The proof of this follows from basic calculus along the same lines as for Least
Squares Complex Exponential in section 15.3.5).
Equation 2-60 represents, in matrix notation, a coupled set of Ni finite

difference equations with constant coefficients. The coefficients A1 . . . Ap are
therefore matrices of dimension (Ni Ni).
The condition expressed by equation 2-61 states that the terms [ Lk] and zkn
are characteristic solutions of this system of finite difference equations. As
equation 2-59 is a superposition of 2N of such terms, it is essential that the
number of characteristic solutions of this system of equations pNi at least equals
2N as expressed by equation 2-62.
Note: Note finally, that if data for each reference DOF is treated individually,
i.e. Ni = 1, then equation 2-60 and 2-61 simplify to equations 2-53 and 2-54.
Thus the least squares complex exponential method is a special case of the
16A 39
multiple input least squares complex exponential method.
Section 3.12.2 Practical implementation of the method
To estimate the coefficients in equation 2-60 in a least squares sense the

equations for all possible time points and all possible response DOFs are to be
solved simultaneously, as indicated by equation 2-63. A least squares solution is
found, for example using the normal equations method, from equation 2-64. The
coefficient matrix in this equation is again in the form of a covariance matrix,
where:
Nt = the last available time sample
N0 = the number of response DOFs
The order (p) of the finite difference equation is related to the number of modes
in the data by equation 2-62. It is preferable that this be determined by the
method itself. As the coefficients of the finite difference equation are solved for
in a least squares sense, this can be done by observing the least squares error as
a function of the assumed order. As an order is reached such that the model
can describe as many modes as are present in the data, the error should drop
considerably.
Due to the condition expressed by equation 2-62 there is no linear relation

between the number of modes that can be described by the model and the order
of the model. The relation between the number of modes, the order of the model
and the number of reference DOFs is listed in Table 2.2. It can be seen that a
model of order 8 can describe 11 or 12 modes if data for 3 inputs are analyzed
simultaneously. In the error diagrams therefore the same least squares error is

shown for 11 and 12 modes.
As for the Least Squares Complex Exponential method, a stabilization diagram

can again be created to determine the optimal number of modes. As well as
comparing frequency and damping values calculated from models of
consecutive order it is now also possible to compare the stabilization of modal
participation factors. In section 15.2.3, the modal participation factors were
shown to be proportional to the mode shape coefficients at the reference DOFs.
They also represent a physical characteristic of the structure like the frequency
and damping. Therefore, the values corresponding to structural modes should
also stabilize as the order of the model is increased. This additional criterion
adds much to the readability of the stabilization diagram and to the ability to
distinguish computational modes from physical modes
Additionally, the modal participation factors can be used by themselves to

identify physical modes. If they are normalized with respect to the largest, the
values should all be approximately real, in phase or in anti-phase, for structural
modes.
16A 41
N Ni=1 Ni=2 Ni=3 Ni=4 Ni=5 Ni=6

1 2 1 1 1 1 1
2 4 2 2 1 1 1
3 6 3 2 2 2 1
4 8 4 3 2 2 2
5 10 5 4 3 2 2
6 12 6 4 3 3 2
7 14 7 5 4 3 3
8 16 8 6 4 4 3
9 18 9 6 5 4 3
10 20 10 7 5 4 4
11 22 11 8 6 5 4
12 24 12 8 6 5 4
13 26 13 9 7 6 5
14 28 14 10 7 6 5
15 30 15 10 8 6 5
16 32 16 11 8 7 6
17 34 17 12 9 7 6
18 36 18 12 9 8 6
19 38 19 13 10 8 7
20 40 20 14 10 8 7
21 42 21 14 11 9 7
22 44 22 15 11 9 8
23 46 23 16 12 10 8
24 48 24 16 12 10 8
25 51 25 17 13 10 9
26 52 26 18 13 11 9
27 54 27 18 14 11 9
28 56 28 19 14 12 10
29 58 29 20 15 12 10
30 60 30 20 15 12 10
31 62 31 21 16 13 11
32 64 32 22 16 13 11
Table 2.2 Relation between modal order (tabulated), number of modes

(N) and number of reference DOFs (Ni)

Section 3.12.3 Example
To clarify the method, consider again the example discussed on page 34. Let the
example system satisfy reciprocity so that h12 is also equal to h21. The vector
[h12 h21] then represents the data between response DOF 1 and reference DOFs
1 and 2.
Considering a model for 1 mode (so p= 1, as Ni= 2) equations 2-55 and 2-56
become respectively
The resulting matrix polynomial is therefore
and the solutions of this eigenvalue problem are
Notice that the solution for the frequency and damping is the same as found
with the Least Squares Complex Exponential (see page 35). In addition you
also find an estimate of the modal participation factors. For this example they
indicate that there should be a phase difference of 90_ in the system response
between excitation from reference DOFs 1 and 2 as h11 is a cosine, and h12 a
sine. This estimate seems to be correct.
Section 3.13 Least squares frequency domain
The Least Squares Frequency Domain method is a multiple DOF technique to

estimate residues, or mode shape coefficients. The method requires that
frequency and damping values have already been estimated. It can be used
with single or multiple inputs.
16A 43
Consider the model expressed by equation 2-66
If estimates of the modal frequency and damping are available, then the residues
appear linearly as unknowns in this model.
To estimate the residues, equation 2-66 is transformed back to the frequency

domain. Assuming sampled data therefore
where:
urij = an upper residual term used to approximate modes at frequencies above

wmax
lrij = an lower residual term used to approximate modes at frequencies below

wmin
These are illustrated in Figure 2-3. Note that the residues as well as lower and
upper residuals are local characteristics; in other words, they depend on the
particular response and reference DOF.
The Least Squares Frequency Domain method is based on the model expressed
by equation 2-67. Least squares estimates of residues, lower and upper residuals
are calculated by analyzing all data values in a selected frequency range.
Section 3.14 Multiple input least squares frequency domain
The multiple input Least Squares Frequency Domain method is a multiple DOF
technique to estimate mode shapes. The method analyses data relative to several
reference DOFs simultaneously to estimate mode shape coefficients that are
independent of reference DOFs.
Consider the model expressed by equation 2-58,
If estimates of frequency, damping and modal participation factors are

available, then the mode shape coefficients appear linearly as the only
unknowns in this model. Furthermore, they are only dependent on the response
DOF (and not on the reference DOF) so that data relative to several reference
DOFs can be analyzed simultaneously.

To estimate the residues, equation 2-68 is transformed to the frequency domain.

Adding residual terms and assuming sampled data results in
where:
[UR] i = upper residuals between response DOF i and all reference

DOFs, vector of dimension Ni
[LR] i = lower residuals between response DOF i and all reference DOFs, vector
of dimension Ni
The multiple input LSFD method is based on equation 2-69.
Section 3.15 Frequency domain direct parameter

identification
The Frequency domain Direct Parameter Identification (FDPI) technique allows

you to estimate the natural frequencies, damping values and mode shapes of
several modes simultaneously. If data relative to several references are
available, a multiple input analysis will also extract values for the modal
participation factors. In this case, the FDPI technique offers the same
capabilities as the LSCE time domain method.
Theoretical background
The basis of the FDPI method is the second order differential equation for
mechanical structures
When transformed into the frequency domain, this equation can be reformulated
in terms of measured FRFs
where:
ω= frequency variable
A1 = M-1 C, mass modified damping matrix
( No by No) A0 = M-1 K, mass modified stiffness matrix
( No by No) H(w) = matrix of FRF's (No by Ni )
16A 45
B0, B1 are the force distribution matrices (No by Ni )
Note: Note that for the single input case, the H(w) matrix becomes a column
vector of frequency dependent FRF's.
Equation 2-71 is valid for every discrete frequency value w. When these
equations are assembled for all available FRFs, including multiple input -
multiple output test cases, the unknown matrix coefficients A0, A1, B0, and B1
can be estimated from the measurement data H(w). Equation 2-71 thus means
that the measurement data H(w) can be described by a second order linear
model with constant matrix coefficients. From the identified matrices, the
system's poles and mode shapes can be estimated via an eigenvalue and
eigenvector decomposition of the system matrix.
This will yield the diagonal matrix [L] of poles and a matrix Y of eigenvectors.
It will become clear from the following section, that the matrix Y thus obtained
is not equal to the matrix of mode shapes, although it is related to it.
In a final step, the modal participation factors are estimated from another least
squares problem, using the obtained [L] and Y matrices.
Section 3.16 Data reduction
Prior to estimating the system matrix, all available data are condensed via a
projection on their principal components. For all response stations, a maximum
of Nm principal components are first calculated and then analyzed. The
obtained matrix Y represents the modal matrix for this set of fictitious
response stations.
The data reduction procedure offers the following advantages:

 the calculation time is drastically decreased for the estimation of model
parameters. This is especially important for the calculation of least squares
error charts and stabilization diagrams.
 the number of contributing modes is more easily determined from the
singular value analysis.
Section 3.17 Residual correction terms
The FDPI technique operates directly on frequency domain data. It is therefore

capable of taking into account the effects of modes outside the frequency band
of analysis. This feature significantly improves the analysis results when modes

below or above the selected band influence the data set. In the case where both
upper and lower residual terms are included in the model, equation 2-71
becomes
The presence of these residual terms will influence the estimates for frequency,
damping and mode shapes (as well as the modal participation factors for
multiple input analysis).
Section 3.18 Determining the optimum number of modes
As with the Least Squares Complex Exponential (LSCE) method, a least

squares error chart can be built to determine the optimal number of modes in the
selected frequency band. Because of the principal component projection, this
chart may look somewhat different. For small models, only the first (most
important) principal data are used, and the global error will decrease drastically.
As more and more principal components are included by estimating more
modes, their information becomes less important, which may distort the least
squares error chart.
A more reliable tool for estimating the optimal number of nodes for the FDPI
technique is the singular values diagram. As an alternative to the error diagram,
and to some extent to the stabilization diagram too, the rank of the calculated
covariance matrix can be determined. The rank of the matrix is also a good
indication of the optimal number of modes to be used in the analysis. The rank
of the matrix can be determined using a singular value decomposition. A
diagram showing the normalized singular values in ascending order is called a
singular values diagram: the rank of the matrix is determined at the point where
the singular values become significantly smaller compared to the previous
values.
When building a stabilization diagram, (see LSCE method page 33), the same
data are described by models of increasing order. An updating procedure is
implemented to save calculation time.
Section 3.19 Pseudo-DOFs for small measurement sets
Due to the type of identification algorithm, the FDPI technique can only
estimate as many modes in the model as there are measurement Degrees of
Freedom. This means that normally
16A 47
However, using a similar approach as for the time domain LSCE method, it is
possible to create so- called "pseudo-" Degrees of Freedom from the
measurements that are available, thus generating enough "new" measurements
to allow a full identification on as few as one measurement.
Section 3.20 Mode shape estimation
Using the reduced mode shapes Y for the principal responses, and the
transformation matrix between the principal and physical responses, the FDPI
algorithm allows you to identify the complete mode shapes of the system by
expanding the reduced Y matrix.
This mode shape expansion offers several advantages :-

 it is very fast (no least squares solution required as for the LSFD method)
 it identifies a mode shape vector as a global direction in the modal space,
rather than estimating its elements one by one via mutually independent
least squares problems.
If the mode shape expansion method is not employed then the LSFD technique
is used to estimate mode shapes.
Section 3.21 Normal modes
From the meaning of the matrices [A0] and [A1] and the eigenvalue problem
(2-72), it is possible to estimate damped (generally complex) mode shapes Y, or
undamped real normal modes.
Normal modes can be identified via the FDPI technique by solving an

eigenvalue problem for the reduced mass and stiffness matrices only
This eigenvalue problem is very much related to the one that is solved by FEM
software packages that ignore the damping contribution in a system. This is an
entirely different approach to the one that is used to estimate real modes via the
LSFD technique. The latter technique estimates the real-valued mode shape
coefficients that curve-fit the data set in a best least squares sense (proportional
damping assumed), while the FDPI method uses an FEM-like approach.
Damping values are computed by applying a circle-fitter to enhanced FRFs for

each mode. The enhanced FRFs are calculated by projecting the principal FRFs
on the reduced mode shapes.

Chapter 4 Maximum likelihood method
In This Chapter
Theoretical aspects .............................................................49
A multi-variable frequency-domain maximum likelihood (ML) estimator is
proposed to identify the modal parameters together with their confidence
intervals. The solver is robust to errors in the non- parametric noise model and
can handle measurements with a large dynamical range.
Although the LSCE-LSFD approach has proven to be useful in solving many

vibration problems, the method has some drawbacks:
 the polyreference LSCE estimator does not always work well when the
number of references (inputs) is larger than 3 for example
 the frequencies should be uniformly distributed
 the method is not able to handle noisy measurements properly, which can
result in unclear stabilization plots and
 the method does not deliver confidence intervals on the estimated modal
parameters.
Section 4.1 Theoretical aspects
A scalar matrix-fraction description – better known as a common-denominator

model – will be used. The Frequency Response Function (FRF) between output
o and input i is modeled as
for i = 1, . . . . . , Ni and o = 1, . . . . . , No
with
the numerator polynomial between output o and input i
and
the common-denominator polynomial.
16A 49
The polynomial basis functions Ωj (ωf) are given by
model (with Ts the sampling period). The

complex-valued coefficients Aj and Boij are the parameters to be estimated. The
approach used to optimize the computation speed and memory requirements
will first be explained for the Least Squares Solver and then these results will be
extrapolated to the ML estimator.
Section 4.1.1 The Least-Squares Solver
Replacing the model Hoi ωf in equation 2-75 by the measured FRF Hoi ωf
gives, after multiplication with the denominator polynomial,
for i = 1, . . . . . , Ni 0 = 1, . . . . . , No and f= 1, . . . . . , Nf
Note: Note that equation 2-76 can be multiplied with a weighting function
Woi(wf). The quality of the estimate can often be improved by using an
adequate weighting function.
As the elements in equation 2-76 are linear in the parameters, they can be
reformulated as

The (complex) Jacobian matrix J of this least-squares problem
has Nf No Ni rows and (n+1)(No Ni +1) columns (with Nf >> n, where n is the
order of the polynomials). Because every element in equation 2-76 has been
weighted with Woi(ωf), the Xk's in equation 2-77 can all be different.
Section 4.1.2 The Maximum-Likelihood Solver
Using referenced measurements (e.g., FRF data) makes it easier to get global
estimates from measurements that were obtained by roving the sensors over the
structure under test (which is a common practice in experimental modal
analysis). Because of this, the FRFs will be used here as primary data instead
of the input/output spectra (i.e. non-referenced data). However, one should take
care that the FRFs are not contaminated by systematic errors.
Section 4.1.3 The ML equations
Assuming the different FRFs to be uncorrelated, the (negative) log-likelihood

function reduces to
16A 51
The ML estimate of
is given by
minimizing equation 278. This can be done by means of a Gauss-Newton
optimization algorithm, which takes advantage of the quadratic form of the cost
function (2-78). The Gauss-Newton iterations are given by:
Section 4.1.4 Deriving confidence interval
The covariance matrix of the ML estimate θML is usually close to the

corresponding Cramér-Rav Lower Bound (CRLB) : cov{θML}≥CRLB
A good approximation of this Cramér-Rav Lower Bound is given by
with Jm the Jacobian matrix evaluated in the last iteration step of the
Gauss-Newton algorithm. As one is mainly interested in the uncertainty on the
resonance frequencies and damping ratios, only the covariance matrix of the
denominator coefficients is in fact required.
Hence, it is not necessary to invert the full matrix to obtain the uncertainty on
the poles (or on the resonance frequencies and the damping ratios).

Chapter 5 Calculation of static compensation modes
In This Chapter
Frequency of the static compensation modes .....................53
The Singular Value decomposition (SVD).........................54
Modal synthesis can be used to couple substructures together in low frequency
ranges. For this, modal models for each of the substructures are required as
separate disconnected items. However the results of this coupling may be less
than optimal due to truncation errors. Truncation errors arise because only a
limited number of modes are taken into account.
To improve the results, both static and dynamic compensation terms can be
used.
Truncation errors can be approximated by a quadratic function using a taylor

expansion. It has been shown that there is a good correspondence between the
real truncation error and the quadratic estimation.
Static compensation terms can be derived from direct (driving point) FRFs.
These static compensation terms are calculated using the upper residual terms
which were obtained while fitting the FRF matrix of the coupling points
(driving points and cross terms). The upper residual terms are converted by
means of a singular value compensation into regular mode shapes and
participation factors. These mode shapes and participation factors can be used
afterwards for modal substructuring, in addition to the regular modes of the two
substructures.
Section 5.1 Frequency of the static compensation modes
The frequency of the static compensation modes (w0) must be significantly

higher than the frequency band of the modes, which are taken into account
during the substructuring calculations. The upper limit of the frequency band
used in modal substructuring is defined by the frequency of the upper residual
(wupper residual)
16A 53
Section 5.2 The Singular Value decomposition (SVD)
In order to calculate the static compensation terms, a singular value

decomposition has to be applied on the upper residual term matrix. This is
obtained by putting all upper residual terms together in one big matrix.
The mode shape values of the static compensation mode (Y) are related to the
left singular vector, the singular value, and the frequency value (ω0)
The participation factor values (L) can be derived from the mode shape values
(ψ)

P
Index
Parameter estimation methods • 21
Peak picking • 23
A Practical implementation of the method • 39,
A note about units • 8 48
Pseudo-DOFs for small measurement sets • 56
C
R
Calculation of static compensation modes • 65
Circle fitting • 26 Residual correction terms • 55
Complex MIF • 22 S
Complex mode indicator function • 27
Cross checking and tracking • 33 SDOF • 22
Selection of a method • 22
D Single degree of freedom methods • 11
Data reduction • 54 Single or multiple degree of freedom method •
Deriving confidence interval • 63 9
Determining the optimum number of modes • T
41, 55
The Least-Squares Solver • 60
E The Maximum-Likelihood Solver • 62
Estimation of modal parameters • 5 The ML equations • 62
Example • 44, 50 The Singular Value decomposition (SVD) • 66
Theoretical aspects • 59
F Time domain MDOF • 22
Frequency domain direct parameter Time vs frequency domain implementation •
identification • 53 15
Frequency domain MDOF • 23 Types of analysis • 9
Frequency of the static compensation modes • V
66
Vibro-acoustic modal analysis • 17
L
Least squares complex exponential • 37
Least squares frequency domain • 51
Local or global estimates • 12
M
Maximum likelihood method • 59
Mode picking • 25
Mode shape estimation • 56
Model for continuous data • 38
Model for sampled data • 39, 46
Multiple degree of freedom methods • 11
Multiple input analysis • 13
Multiple input least squares complex
exponential • 45
Multiple input least squares frequency domain
• 52
N
Normal modes • 57
16A 55

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Estimation of modal parameters

Copyright Siemens Industry Software NV

Chapter 1 Estimation of modal parameters .................................................................. 5

Chapter 2 Types of analysis .......................................................................................... 9

Chapter 3 Parameter estimation methods .................................................................. 19

Chapter 4 Maximum likelihood method ...................................................................... 49

4 LMS Test.Lab Estimation of modal parameters

Chapter 1 Estimation of modal parameters

Figure 2-1 Derivation of modal parameters

If a structure exists on which measurements can be made, then it can be

The corresponding relation for FRFs is given in Equation 2-2.

N = number of modes of vibration that contribute to the structure's

r ijk = residue value for mode k

λk = pole value for mode k.

* designates complex conjugate.

ωdk = the damped natural frequency of mode k

δk = the damping factor of mode k

ωnk = the undamped natural frequency of mode k

ζk = damping ratio of mode

ak = a complex scaling constant, whose value is determined by the scaling

6 LMS Test.Lab Estimation of modal parameters

mk = the modal mass of mode k

The poles, natural frequencies (damped and undamped), damping factors or

The fundamental problem of parameter estimation consists of adjusting

Section 1.1 A note about units

Chapter 2 Types of analysis

Section 2.1 Single or multiple degree of freedom method

Figure 2-2 The single degree of freedom assumption

It is possible to compensate for the modes in the neighborhood of this band, by

urij = upper residual term (residual stiffness) used to approximate modes at

lrij = lower residual term (residual mass) used to approximate modes at

Upper and lower residuals are illustrated in Figure 2-3.

Figure 2-3 Upper and lower residuals

Equation 2-7 can be further simplified by neglecting the complex conjugate

10 LMS Test.Lab Estimation of modal parameters

Section 2.2 Single degree of freedom methods

Section 2.3 Multiple degree of freedom methods

Section 2.4 Local or global estimates

Each data record hij is analyzed individually, and a potentially different

The Least Squares Complex Exponential, Complex Mode Indicator Function

estimates of structure characteristics.

Section 2.5 Multiple input analysis

[H] = (No,Ni) matrix with hij as elements

[Rk] = (No,Ni) matrix with rijk as elements

12 LMS Test.Lab Estimation of modal parameters

The identification of modal participation factors is essential for decoupling

The response data relative to another input DOF l, is expressed by an equation

Section 2.6 Time vs frequency domain implementation

Using digital signal processing methods, only samples of a continuous function

hij,n= samples of data in measured range.

wn = sampled value of frequency in measured range.

A frequency domain parameter estimation method uses data directly in the

14 LMS Test.Lab Estimation of modal parameters

Figure 2-4 Analysis frequency band vs. measurement band

By substituting sampled time for continuous time

Section 2.7 Vibro-acoustic modal analysis

The finite element equation of motion is used to derive the equations

MS, CS, KS the structural mass, damping and stiffness matrices

{f} the externally applied forces

{lp} the acoustical pressure loading vectors

In the fluidum the indirect acoustical formulation states:

Mf, Cf, Kf matrices describing the pressure-volume acceleration

ω2{lf} the acoustical pressure loading vectors